Endorphins

Endorphins are neurotransmitters which play a key role in the function of

the central nervous system and can either prompt or inhibit the further
signalling of nearby neurons. Endorphins are produces due to response of
certain stimuli such as stress, fear or pain which originate from various
parts of body such as pituitary gland, spinal cord and throughout other
parts of brain and nervous system mainly interact with the receptors in
cells found in the regions in order to block pain and control emotion.
Endorphins will interact with the opioid receptors of the highly emotional
limbic system which control the breathing, sexual satisfaction, hunger and
emotional response. Pleasure and sense of satisfaction is being done by
the endorphin when everything is working normally.
Function
Endorphin helps a lot in continuation of human species. The feeling of
analgesia has proved to be extremely advantageous toward survival by
ensuring that survival comes first before recuperation. Takes for examples
pain, if the person is hurt and the same times being threatened by
danger, the pain will push the person to heal the wound, however the
endorphin will suppress the pain for a while and making the action of flee
from the danger first which driven by the emotion of fear. Like morphine,
they also stimulate the release of growth hormone, prolactin, ACTH and
anti-diuretic hormone and inhibit the release of luteinizing hormone,
follicle stimulating hormone and thyrotropin which being govern by
naloxone. Endorphin also used as stress relief. Beta endorphin and
adrenocortictropin usually release to reduce the stress located in a range
of places in the body such as hypothalamus and other areas of the brain.
Positive and Negative of Effect of Endorphin on Behaviour
According to Kate Hartzell, a family nurse practitioner of Cabrillo College
Health Services, beta-endorphins are released through laughter and
exercise which have a beneficial effect to suppress stress. Endorphins

regulate positive mood which the production is controlled by serotonin.

Doctors believed that depression can be treated by secretion of endorphin
which can be obtained through exercises. The positive feeling that comes
from endorphins may actually help to encourage in keeping one exercise.
Endorphins are not addictive but it has slightly making the exercise to feel
good which encourage person to keep doing physical activity as it is
important facets of good health. The ability of endorphins in reduce the
stress may helping people on food carving disorder especially
carbohydrates. According to The Diet Channel, endorphins that being
released through exercise may satisfy the brains need to create balance
during times of stress. Stresses encourage overeating or cravings for
unhealthy foods, which also release endorphins. Thus, substituting to
exercise or other activities that released endorphin may help to eliminate
cravings for sugary or fatty foods.
Endorphins are highly related with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is a
mental disorder consisting of agitation, disorientation, delusions and
frequent hallucinations. It has been proven by several experimental
observations. The study shows that in the cerebrospinal fluid
schizophrenics contain high level of endorphin. This show that the
endorphins might increase the risk of inflicts schizophrenia. Obsessive
compulsive disorders are related with the abnormal of endorphin release.
Take for example of people washing hands, there is point when people
register that the task is done satisfactorily, however the person may
continue on so if the body do not receive the mental cue of the task
already done when the endorphin release are distorted. Another effect of
endorphins is the heightened states of rage or anxiety. If the endorphins
overdo their task or the hypothalamus misreads the endorphin cue,
causing a person to be flooded with fight-or-flight hormone at the
slightest hint of trouble or worry. The beta-endorphin in the brain causes
the person to feel high. Study shows this feeling can leading person to end
up with addictive cycle when the person continues to engage the activity
to achieve this feeling of well-being and euphoria.

Below are some of the negative behaviours due to the endorphin pleasure
seeker addiction:1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Anorexia
Gambling
Extreme commitment (sports and work)
Computer addiction
Abusive relationship

Dopamine
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter released by the brain which produced in
the dopaminergic neurons in ventral tegmental area of the midbrain, the
substatia nigra pars compacta and the arcuate nucleus of the
hypothalamus. Some of its notable functions are in movement, memory,
pleasurable reward, behaviour and cognition, attention, inhibition of
prolactin production, sleep, mood and learning. Dopamine is a
neurotransmitter released by the brain that plays a number of roles in
humans and other animals. Dopamine is produced in the dopaminergic
neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the midbrain, the
substantia nigra pars compacta, and the arcuate nucleus of the
hypothalamus.
Function of Dopamine
Dopamine reduces the influence of the indirect pathway and increases the
actions of the direct pathway within the basal ganglia. The deficiency in
dopamine causing the movement becomes delayed and uncoordinated.
Meanwhile, the excess of dopamine causes the body to make unnecessary
movements. Interestingly, dopamine may help in improved working
memory. This is a delicate balance and as levels or decrease to abnormal,
the memory may interrupt. Dopamine helps in focus and attention. Vision
helps a dopamine response in the brain and which helps on to keep focus
and their attention. Dopamine may responsible in determining what stays

in the short term memory based on an imagined response to certain

information.
Lack of dopamine causes attention deficit disorder. Apart from that,
dopamine is responsible in pain processing in multiple levels of the central
nervous system. This includes the spinal cord, periaqueductal gray (PAG),
thalamus, basal ganglia, insular cortex and cingulate cortex. Low level of
dopamine is observed on the painful symptoms that frequently occur in
Parkinsons disease. Dopamine is one of the neurotransmitters implicated
in the control of nausea and vomiting. Excess and deficiency of dopamine
end up of several disease conditions such as Parkinsons disease and drug
addiction. Dopamine is used to maintain the prolactin secretion as
dopamine is the main neuroendocrine inhibitor. Dopamine is released in
the hypothalamo-hypophysial blood vessels of the median eminence
which supply the pituitary gland influencing lactotrope cells that produce
prolactin. These cells can produce prolactin in the absence of dopamine.
Positive and Negative Effects of Dopamine on Behaviours
Dopamine in the frontal lobes of the brain controls the flow of information
from other areas of the brain. Disorders of dopamine in this region lead to
decline in neurocognitive functions such as memory, attention and
problem solving. Low dopamine causes social anxiety or social phobia
which can be found in negative features of schizophrenia (social
withdrawal, apathy and anhedonia). The increased in dopamine turns one
to become hypersocial as well as hypersexual.
Dopamine is the chemical that mediates pleasure in the brain which
release during pleasurable situations and stimulates one to seek out the
pleasurable activity or occupation. In order to maintain the pleasure, the
drug abuse will use cocaine and amphetamines to inhibit the re-uptake of
dopamine. This will cause the increment of presence of dopamine as
cocaine is transporter blocker to dopamine. Meanwhile, amphetamine
increases the concentration of dopamine in the synaptic gap. It will enter
into the presynaptic neuron forcing dopamine molecules out of their

storage vesicles. The users will experience an increased pleasurable

feelings and addiction. As the result of high dopamine concentration, one
can increase the risk to psychosis and schizophrenia.
Serotonin
Serotonin is created from a biochemical conversion process of
combination tryptophan, a component of proteins with tryptophan
hydroxylase, a chemical reactor forming 5-hydorxyltryptamine (5-HT)
called serotonin. Serotonin mostly referred as neurotransmitter, while
some people consider that chemical as a hormone. Serotonin is produced
from the brain and intestine. Around 80% to 90% of serotonin can be
found in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, while it also can be found in blood
platelets and the central nervous system (CNS). Serotonin is used inside
the brain which produced within it since it cannot cross the blood-brain
barrier.
Function
Serotonin helps to relay message from one area of the brain to another
part of the brain. It is believed that serotonin can influence a variety of
psychological and other body functions due to the widespread distribution
of its cells. Approximately 40 million brain cells are influenced either
directly or indirectly by serotonin. This includes brain cells related to
mood, sexual desire and function, appetite, sleep, memory and learning,
temperature regulation and some social behaviour.
Of the approximately 40 million brain cells, most are influenced either
directly or indirectly by serotonin. This includes brain cells related to
mood, sexual desire and function, appetite, sleep, memory and learning,
temperature regulation, and some social behaviour. Serotonin can also
affect the functioning of cardiovascular system, muscles and various
elements in the endocrine system. Research had discovered the evidence
of serotonin role in regulating milk breast production and the defect within

the serotonin network may be the cause of sudden infant death syndrome
(SIDS).
One current hypothesis is that serotonin plays a key role at the intersection of aversion and
inhibition. Under normal conditions, the presence of aversive outcomes leads to behavioral
inhibition, which can manifest in a reduced probability of action or in slowed response times.
Modest depletion of brain serotonin in humans abolishes this aversively motivated behavioral
inhibition, suggesting that serotonin is important for promoting behavioral suppression or
withdrawal in the face of aversive predictions.
However, serotonin causes the person to be more selfish which a nature
response against the social consequence is.. One study found that after 2
weeks treatment with citalopram (serotonin reducing agent), participants
were significantly less likely to behave in a self-interested manner in a
modified version of the prisoner's dilemma that allowed participants to act
selfishly, cooperatively, or charitably. Modest depletion of brain serotonin
levels produced the opposite effect on cooperation in the prisoner's
dilemma.
Oxytocin
Oxytocin is a hormone that is produce in the brain, hypothalamus and is
transported to and secreted by the pituitary gland which located at the
base of the brain. It is known chemicallh as nonapeptide and biologically
as neuropeptide. It can acts both hormone as well as brain
neurotransmitter.
Function
Basically, the release of oxytocin by the pituitary gland used to regulate
two female reproductive functions which are childbirth and breast feeding.
The release of the hormone during labour contract the muscles of the
uterus, womb in other words, it increases uterine motility. The release of
oxytocin is triggered by the widening of the cervix and vagina during
labour and in return increased by the subsequent contractions.

The main role of oxytocin is nicely concluded in a research paper by

obstetric and gynecology specialist Navneet Magon and Sanjay Kalra.
Oxytocin is released into the bloodstream to produce its classic effects on
the uterus and breast milk but it is also released into defined regions of
the brain that are involved in emotional, cognitive and social behaviours.
Positive and Negative Effects of Oxytoxin in Behaviour
From the discovery of its amazing variety of behavioural functions, it is
believed that oxytocin has attracted intense attention. Inga Neumann said
that oxytocin has an impact on pro-social behaviours and emotional
responses that contribute to relaxation, trust and psychological stability.
Another review notes proved that oxytocin is not the only one used for the
chemistry of love but it is the important component of a complex
neurochemical system that allows the body to adapt to highly emotive
situations.
Another review urged reminding to look more general for the effects of the
oxytocin instead focusing specific effects of the hormone. Scientific
research has uncovered brain oxytocins specific ability to modulate social
behaviour including effects on motherly care and aggression, bonding
between couples, sexual behaviour, social memory and trust. Brain
oxytocin also reduces stress responses such as anxiety.
More recent research has found that oxytocin can promote negative
emotions, too. New research suggests that oxytocin may also enhance
negative social cues. Taylor has evidence that oxytocin rises not only in
women who are in good, affectionate relationships, but also in women who
have distressed relationships. In the latter case, she believes oxytocin
may be signaling the need to seek other social contact. We dont think
its signaling, stay close to that person, its signaling stay close to
someone because your bonds are threatened. Get social contact from
somewhere, Taylor says.

More evidence of oxytocins downside comes from Mount Sinai School of

Medicine psychologist Jennifer Bartz, PhD. In a study published online in
November in Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, she and her
colleagues examined whether oxytocin might boost trust and cooperation,
as measured with a well-studied economic game, among men and women
with borderline personality disorder, who tend to have volatile
relationships. She found that rather than increasing trust and teamwork, a
dose of oxytocin decreased those feelings compared with a placebo. In
another study, published last December in the Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences (Vol. 107, No. 48), Bartz found that men who had
stable, well-attached relationships remembered their childhood
relationship with their mothers as more caring and close when they
received oxytocin compared with when they didnt. In contrast, men who
were insecure in their current relationships remembered their childhood
relationship with their mothers as less caring and close when they
received oxytocin. Of course, the hormone could simply be helping men
remember their childhoods more accurately, or it may be coloring their
memory search, drawing attention to memories that are more salient to
the men based on their current mindset, negative or positive, says Bartz.
Only more research will tell.