BG/CH 0493

Environment and Sustainability

Chen Yuan
January 2015

Lecturer (for the first 7 weeks)

A/P Chen Yuan (SCBE, CBE)
1995-2001, B.E. and M.E., Tsinghua University, China
2001-2005, M.S. and PhD, Yale University, U.S.
Office: N1.2 B1-16
Tel: 63168939
Email: chenyuan@ntu.edu.sg
http://www.ntu.edu.sg/home/chenyuan/
Teaching assistant:
Yuan Yang YYuan005@e.ntu.edu.sg
@ N1.2 B1-23
2

Organization of this course

Check Calendar uploaded online: 3 hour lectures
every week
Text Book: G. Tyler Miller and Scott E. Spoolman
Living in the Environment, 18th edition, Cengage
Learning
You are strongly recommended to obtain a textbook
(at least a copy of E-book)
Office hours: Email me or anytime you find me in
office

Book options
1. Miller: Living in the Environment,
18th Edition (Amazon.com price
about US$120-230)

2. The Cengage Technology edition

(about half of printed content) + a full ebook. (at POPULAR NIE)
S$ 59.70 (GST included)

3. CengageBrain Course Smart (CBCS) eBook stand alone S$ 35.20 (GST included)
It can be purchased at POPULAR NIE or online (check out online purchase guide)
http://clasiaonline.com/front/index.php?r=site/detail&id=2878&d=2140
4

How will you be evaluated?

40% (continuous assessment) and 60% (final exam)
50% for the first 7 weeks, 20 points for CA
Weekly homework. Submit online before the deadlines.
Seven homework sets. You must submit 5 homework sets. The homework
submissions will be graded based on Pass/Fail. A passed homework is
counted for 2 points. The total score for homework is up to 5*2=10
points.
The in-class short quizzes will be conducted every week from Week 2.
Each quiz is comprised of 5 short questions (multiple choice/true or
false/short answers). Four of your best performances in quizzes will be
counted for your CA. Each quiz is counted for 2.5 points. The total score for
quizzes is up to 4*2.5=10 points.
The final exam will be an OPEN book exam. Only textbook, class notes,
homework, and quizzes are allowed.
5

Critical thinking skills

Question everything and everybody

Identify and evaluate your personal biases and beliefs
Be open-minded and flexible
Be humble about what you know
Find out how the information related to an issue was obtained
Question the evidence and conclusions presented
Try to uncover differences in basic beliefs and assumptions
Try to identify and assess any motives on the part of those
presenting evidence and drawing conclusion
Expect the tolerate uncertainty
Check the arguments your hear and read for logical fallacies and
debating tricks
Do not believe everything you read on the Internet
Develop principles or rules for evaluating evidence
Become a seeker of wisdom, not a vessel of information
6

Overview of the course (first 7 weeks)

Human and Sustainability: An Overview
Chapter 1 Environmental problems, Their causes, and substantiality
Science, Ecological principles, and sustainability
Chapter 2 Science, matter, energy, and system
Chapter 3 Ecosystems: what are they and how do they work?
Chapter 4 Biodiversity and evolution
Chapter 5 Biodiversity, species interactions, and population control
Chapter 6 The human population and its impact
Chapter 7 Climate and biodiversity
Chapter 8 Aquatic biodiversity
Sustaining Biodiversity
Chapter 9 Sustaining biodiversity: saving species and ecosystem services
Chapter 10 Sustaining terrestrial biodiversity (self-reading, not tested)
Chapter 11 Sustaining aquatic biodiversity (self-reading, not tested)
Sustaining Natural Resources

Chapter 12 Food production and the environment

Chapter 13 Water resources
Chapter 14 Nonrenewable mineral resources
7

Chapter 1: Environmental Problems, Their

Causes, and Sustainability
1-1 What are some principles of sustainability
1-2 How are our ecological footprints affecting
the earth?
1-3 Why do we have environmental problems?
1-4 What is an environmentally sustainable
society?
8

Core Case Study: A Vision of a More

Sustainable World in 2065
No civilization has survived the ongoing destruction
of its natural support system. Nor will ours.
A transition in human attitudes toward the
environment, and a shift in behavior, can lead to a
much better future for the planet in 2065
Sustainability
The capacity of the earths natural systems and
human cultural systems to survive, flourish, and
adapt into the very long-term future
9

1-1: What Are Some Principles of

Sustainability?
Nature has sustained itself for billions of years by
using solar energy, biodiversity, and nutrient
cycling
Our lives and economies depend on energy from
the sun and on natural resources and natural
services (natural capital) provided by the earth
Shift toward living more sustainably by:
Applying full-cost pricing, searching for win-win
solutions
Committing to preserving the earths life-support
system for future generations
10

Environmental Science Is a Study of

Connections in Nature
Environment: everything around us
Environmental science: interdisciplinary science connecting
information and ideas from:
Natural sciences: ecology, biology, geology, chemistry
Social sciences: geography, politics, economics
Humanities: ethics, philosophy

Ecology: biological science studies how living things interact

with one another and with their environment.
Livings things called organisms. Each organism belongs to a
species. Ecosystem: a set of organism with a defined area
or volume that interact with one another and with their
environment of nonliving matter and energy.
Environmentalist: a social movement dedicated to protect
the earths life-support systems for all forms of life.
11

Three Scientific Principles of Sustainability

Dependence on solar energy
The sun provides warmth, fuels photosynthesis,
indirect for wind and flowing water

Biodiversity
Astounding variety and adaptability of natural systems
and species: keep any population from growing too
large and survive after catastrophic changes

Chemical cycling
From the environment to organisms and then back to
the environment. Earth receives no new supplies.
12

13

Sustainability Has Certain Key Components

Natural capital: keep species alive
Natural resources: useful materials and energy in
nature
Natural services: important nature processes such
as renewal of air, water, and soil

Ecosystem services
Processes provided by healthy ecosystems

14

Solar energy

Natural Capital
Natural Capital = Natural Resources + Ecosystem Services

Air

Renewable
energy (sun,
wind, water
flows)

Air purification
Climate control

UV protection
(ozone layer)

Life
(biodiversity)

Population
control

Water
Water purification

Pest
control

Waste treatment
Nonrenewable
minerals
(iron, sand)

Soil
Soil renewal
Nonrenewable
energy
(fossil fuels)

Land
Food production

Nutrient
recycling

Natural resources
Ecosystem services

15
Fig. 1-3, p. 7

Trade-offs and individuals matter

The search for solutions often involves conflicts.
Dealing with such conflicts often involves making
trade-offs, or compromises- a important component
of sustainability.
The daily actions of each and every individual are
important. History shows that almost all of the
significant changes in human systems have come
from the bottom up, through the collective actions of
individuals. Sustainability begins with actions at
personal and local levels.
16

Other Principles of Sustainability Come

from the Social Sciences
Full-cost pricing
Include harmful health and environmental costs of
goods and services

Win-win solutions
Benefit people and the environment

A responsibility to future generations

17

Principles of
Sustainability

ECONOMICS
Full-cost pricing

18
Fig. 1-5, p. 9

Renewable and nonrenewable resources

Resource: things that we can obtain from the environment to
meet our needs.
Inexhaustible resource: expected to last for 6 billion years
(solar)
Renewable resource: can be replenished by nature processes
within hours to centuries (forests, clean air and fresh water)
Sustainable yield: the highest rate at which we can use a
renewable resource indefinitely without reducing its available
supply
Nonrenewable (exhaustible) resource: exist in a fixed stock in
the earths crust (oil, gas, mineral)
Refuse (dont use), Reduce (use less), Reuse, and Recycle
19

Countries Differ in their Resource Use and

Environmental Impact
More-developed countries
Industrialized nations with high average income
17% of the worlds population

Less-developed countries
83% of the worlds population
Middle-income, low-income

20

1-2: How Are Our Ecological Footprints

Affecting the Earth?
As our ecological footprints grow, we are
depleting and degrading more of the earths
natural capital
Environmental degradation: wasting,
depleting, and degrading the earths natural
capital
Happening at an accelerating rate

21

Natural Capital Degradation

Degradation of Normally Renewable Natural Resources

Climate
change
Air pollution

Shrinking
forests
Decreased
wildlife
habitats
Species
extinction

Soil
erosion

Water
pollution

Aquifer
depletion

Declining ocean
fisheries

22
Fig. 1-7, p. 11

Pollution Comes from a Number of Sources

Sources of pollution
Point sources
Single, identifiable source

Nonpoint sources
Disbursed and difficult to identify

What are some strategies for pollution

cleanup and prevention?
Pollution cleanup
Pollution prevention
23

The Tragedy of the Commons: Degrading

Commonly Shared Renewable Resources
Types of resources
Open access renewable resources (atmosphere, open
ocean, fishes)
Shared resources (grasslands, forests)

Tragedy of the commons

Common property and open-access renewable
resources are degraded from overuse
What are some solutions?
1.

2.

Use at a rate well below its estimated sustainable yield or

regulating access to the resource
Convert shared renewable resources to private ownership
24

Ecological Footprints: A Model of

Unsustainable Use of Resources
Ecological footprint
Amount of biologically productive land and water
needed to provide a person or area with renewable
resources, and to recycle wastes and pollution

Per capita ecological footprint

Ecological deficit
Footprint is larger than biological capacity for
replenishment

Affluence: consume large amount of resources

far beyond basic needs and live in large homes
filled with possessions

25

Natural Capital Use and Degradation

Singapore: 5.34

26
Fig. 1-11, p. 13

IPAT is Another Environmental Impact

Model
I=PxAxT

I = Environmental impact
P = Population
A = Affluence (resource consumption per person)
T = Technology (beneficial or harmful effects of T)

Less-Developed Countries

Fig. 1-14, p. 17

More-Developed Countries

27

Cultural Changes Can Grow or Shrink Our

Ecological Footprints
Humans were hunters and gatherers 12,000
years ago
Three major cultural events
Agricultural revolution
Industrial-medical revolution
Information-globalization revolution

Current need for a sustainability revolution

28

1-3: Why Do We Have Environmental

Problems?
Major causes of environmental problems
Population growth, unsustainable resource use,
poverty, avoidance of full-cost pricing, and
increasing isolation from nature

Our environmental worldviews play a key role

in determining whether we live unsustainably
or more sustainably

29

Experts Have Identified Several Causes of

Environmental Problems

Population growth
Wasteful and unsustainable resource use
Poverty
Failure to include the harmful environmental costs of
goods and services in market prices
Increasing isolation from nature

30

The Human Population is Growing at a

Rapid Rate
Exponential growth
Population increases at a fixed percentage per unit time
No one knows how many people the earth can support
indefinitely

31

Affluence Has Harmful and Beneficial

Environmental Effects
Harmful environmental impact due to:
High levels of consumption
High levels of pollution
Unnecessary waste of resources

Affluence can provide funding for developing

technologies to reduce:
Pollution
Environmental degradation
Resource waste
32

Poverty Has Harmful Environmental and

Health Effects
Poverty: a condition in which people are unable
to fulfill their basic needs for adequate food,
water, shelter, health care, and education.
900 million (less than $1.25 per day, 2.6 billion
less than $2.25 per day)
Working to survive (collectively degrade forest,
topsoil, grasslands, fisheries and wildlife)
Die prematurely and malnutrition, limited access
to sanitation facilities (>1/3) and clean drinking
water (>1/8), respiratory disease
33

Prices of Goods and Services Do Not

Include the Harmful Environmental Costs
Companies do not pay the environmental cost of
resource use
Goods and services do not include the harmful
environmental costs
Companies receive tax breaks and subsidies
Two possible solutions (controversial):
1. From environmental harmful subsides to beneficial subsides
2. Tax pollution and waste heavily while reducing taxes on
income and wealth
34

We are Increasingly Isolated from Nature

Increasing populations in urban areas
Nature deficit disorder
Not having enough contact with nature
More likely surfer from stress, have health problem,
show unwarranted irritability or aggression, and
less adaptable to changes in life

35

People Have Different Views on

Environmental Problems/Solutions
Environmental ethics: What is right and wrong
with how we treat the environment?
Planetary management worldview
We are separate from and in charge of nature

Stewardship worldview
Manage earth for our benefit with ethical responsibility
to be stewards

Environmental wisdom worldview

We are part of nature and must engage in sustainable
use
36

1-4: What Is an Environmentally

Sustainable Society?
Living sustainably
Live off the earths natural income without depleting
or degrading the natural capital that supplies it

Environmentally sustainable society

Meets current needs in a just and equitable manner
without compromising future generations ability to
meet their needs

Natural income
Renewable resources
37

A More Sustainable Future is Possible

Overall attitude that combines environmental
wisdom with compassion for all life
Social scientists suggest it only takes 5-10% of
the population to bring about major social
change
Significant social change can occur more
quickly than we often think

38

Three Big Ideas for Chapter 1

A more sustainable future will require that we:
Rely more on energy from the sun and other renewable energy
sources
Protect biodiversity through the preservation of natural capital
Avoid disrupting the earths vitally important chemical cycles

A major goal for becoming more sustainable is full-cost

pricingthe inclusion of harmful environmental and health
costs in the market prices of goods and services
We will benefit ourselves and future generations if we
commit ourselves to:
Finding win-win-win solutions to our problems
Leaving the planets life-support system in at least as good a
shape as what we now enjoy
39

Chapter 2: Science, Matter, Energy,

and Systems
2-1 What Do Scientists Do?
2-2 What Is Matter and What Happens When It
Undergoes Change?
2-3 What is Energy and What Happens When It
Undergoes Change?
2-4 What Are Systems and How Do They
Respond to Change?
40

Core Case Study: A Story About a Forest

Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New
Hampshire
Compared the loss of water and nutrients from an
uncut forest (control site) with one that had been
stripped (experimental site)

Stripped site
30-40% more runoff
More dissolved nutrients
More soil erosion

41

2-1 What Do Scientists Do?

Find out what is known

about the problem
(literature search)
Ask a question to be
investigated

Scientists collect data

and develop theories,
models, and laws about
how nature works
Science is an attempt to
discover how nature
works and to use that
knowledge to describe
what is likely to happen
in nature.

Perform an experiment
to answer the question
and collect data
Analyze data
(check for patterns)

Scientific law
Well-accepted
pattern in data

Propose an hypothesis
to explain data
Use hypothesis to make testable
predictions
Perform an experiment
to test predictions
Accept
hypothesis

Revise
hypothesis

Make testable
predictions

Test
predictions
Scientific theory
Well-tested and
widely accepted
hypothesis

42

Scientists Use Observations, Experiments,

and Models to Answer Questions
Steps in the scientific method

Identify a problem
Find out what is known about the problem
Ask a question to investigate
Perform an experiment, collect data, and analyze data to
answer the question
Propose a scientific hypothesis to explain the data
Use the hypothesis to make projections that can be tested
Test the projections with further experiments or
observations
Accept or revise the hypothesis
43

Scientists are Curious and Skeptical, and

They Demand Evidence
Four important features of the scientific
process
Curiosity
Skepticism
Reproducibility
Peer review

44

Scientific Theories and Laws: The Most

Important and Certain Results of Science
Scientific theory
Well-tested and widely accepted hypothesis
Rarely overturned unless new evidence discredits
them

Scientific law and the law of nature

A well-tested and widely accepted description of
what we find happening repeatedly and in the
same way in nature

45

The Results of Science Can Be Tentative,

Reliable, or Unreliable
Tentative science, frontier science
Not yet considered reliable by the scientific
community

Reliable science
Widely accepted by experts

Unreliable science
Has not been through peer review or has been
discredited
46

Science Has Some Limitations

Scientists cannot prove or disprove anything
absolutely
Scientists are not free of bias about their own
hypotheses and results
Systems in the natural world involve a huge
number of variables and complex interactions

47

2-2 What Is Matter and What Happens

When It Undergoes Change?
Matter: matter has mass and takes up space
Consists of elements and compounds, which are in turn
made up of atoms, ions, or molecules

The law of conservation of matter

Whenever matter undergoes a physical or chemical
change, no atoms are created or destroyed

Elements
Have unique properties
Cannot be broken down chemically into other substances

Compounds
Two or more different elements bonded together in fixed
proportions
48

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Are the

Building Blocks of Matter
Atomic theory
All elements are made of atoms
Subatomic particles
Nucleus of the atom
Protons have positive charge
Neutrons have negative charge
Negatively charged electrons orbit
the nucleus
Atomic number
Number of protons in nucleus
Mass number
Number of protons plus neutrons in
nucleus

Isotopes
Same element; different
number of protons
Ions
Net positive or electric
charge
More or less electrons
Acidity
Measured with pH

49

Chemical Elements Used in The Book

50
Table 2-1, p. 36

Chemical Ions Used in This Book

51
Table 2-2, p. 36

Compounds Used in This Book

52
Table 2-3, p. 38

Organic Compounds Are the

Chemicals of Life
Organic compounds
Contain at least two carbon atoms
Types
Hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons
Simple carbohydrates

Macromolecules: complex organic molecules

Complex carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and
lipids

53

Matter Comes to Life through Cells, Genes,

and Chromosomes
Cells
Fundamental units of life
All organisms have one or more cells

Genes
Sequences of nucleotides within DNA
Instructions for proteins
Create inheritable traits

Chromosomes: composed of many genes

54

A human body contains trillions

of cells, each with an identical set
of genes.

Each human cell (except for red

blood cells) contains a nucleus.
Each cell nucleus has an identical set
of chromosomes, which are found in
pairs.

A specific pair of chromosomes

contains one chromosome from each
parent.
Each chromosome contains a long
DNA molecule in the form of a coiled
double helix.
Genes are segments of DNA on
chromosomes that contain instructions
to make proteinsthe building blocks
of life.

Stepped Art
55
Fig. 2-7, p. 42

Matter Undergoes Physical, Chemical, and

Nuclear Changes
Physical change
No change in chemical composition

Chemical change
Change in chemical composition

We Cannot Create or Destroy Atoms: The Law of

Conservation of Matter
Nuclear change
Radioactive decay
Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fission
56

Uranium-235
Uranium-235

Uranium-235
Energy
Fission
fragment

Neutron

Energy

Energy

Uranium-235

Uranium-235

Uranium-235

n
Uranium-235

Fission
fragment
Energy

Uranium-235

Uranium-235
Uranium-235

Stepped Art

57
Fig. 2-9b, p. 43

2-3 What is Energy and What Happens

When It Undergoes Change?
Whenever energy is converted from one form
to another in a physical or chemical change,
two changes may happen:
No energy is created or destroyed (first law of
thermodynamics)
We end up with lower quality or less-usable
energy than we started with (second law of
thermodynamics)
58

Energy Comes in Many Forms

Kinetic energy
Energy of movement
Heat
Electromagnetic radiation

Potential energy
Stored energy
Can be changed into kinetic energy

Renewable energy:
Gained from resources that are replenished by natural
processes in a relatively short time

Nonrenewable energy:
Resources can be depleted and are not replenished by natural
processes within human timescales
59

Gamma
rays

X rays

UV radiation

Infrared
radiation

Microwaves

TV, Radio waves

Visible light

Shorter
wavelengths
and higher
energy
Wavelengths
(not to scale)

Longer
wavelengths
and lower
energy
Nanometers

Micrometers

Centimeters

Meters
60
Fig. 2-11, p. 41

Some Types of Energy Are More

Useful Than Others
High-quality energy
High capacity to do work
Concentrated
Examples:
High-temperature heat, strong winds, and fossil fuels

Low-quality energy
Low capacity to do work
Dispersed
61

2-5 What Are Systems and How Do They

Respond to Change?
Systems have inputs, flows, and outputs of
matter and energy, and feedback can affect their
behavior
System
Set of components that interact in a regular way
Examples:
Human body, the earth, and the economy

Feedback
Any process that increases or decreases a change in a
system
62

Inputs, Throughput, and Outputs of

an Economic System
Inputs
(from environment)

Throughputs

Energy resources

Matter
resources
Information

Outputs
(to environment)
Work or
products

System
processes

Waste and
pollution
Heat

63
Fig. 2-15, p. 44

Systems Respond to Change through

Feedback Loops
Positive feedback loop
Causes system to change further in the same direction
Can cause major environmental problems

Negative, or corrective, feedback loop

Causes system to change in opposite direction

Time delay
Amount of time between the input of a feedback stimulus
and the response to it

Tipping point, threshold level

Fundamental shift in the behavior of the system

Synergistic interaction and synergy

Two or more processes combine in such a way that
combined effect is greater than the two separate effects
It may be helpful or harmful

64

Positive Feedback Loop

Decreasing
vegetation...

... which causes more

vegetation to die.

... leads to erosion

and nutrient loss...

65
Fig. 2-16, p. 45

Negative Feedback Loop

House warms

Temperature reaches desired

setting and furnace goes off

Furnace on

Furnace off
House cools

Temperature drops
below desired setting
and furnace goes on

66
Fig. 2-17, p. 46

Three Big Ideas for Chapter 2

You cannot really throw anything away
According to the law of conservation of matter, no atoms are created
or destroyed whenever matter undergoes a physical or chemical
change
Thus, we cannot do away with matter; we can only change it from
one physical state or chemical form to another

You cannot get something for nothing

According to the first law of thermodynamics, or the law of
conservation of energy, whenever energy is converted from one
form to another in a physical or chemical change, no energy is
created or destroyed
This means that in causing such changes, we cannot get more energy
out than we put in

You cannot break even

According to the second law of thermodynamics, whenever energy is
converted from one form to another in a physical or chemical
change, we always end up with lower-quality or less usable energy
than we started with
67

Chapter 3: Ecosystems: What Are They and

How Do They Work?
3-1 How Does the Earths Life-Support System
Work?
3-2 What Are the Major Components of an
Ecosystem?
3-3 What Happens to Energy in an Ecosystem?
3-4 What Happens to Matter in
an Ecosystem?
3-5 How Do Scientists Study Ecosystems?
68

Core Case Study: Tropical Rain Forests Are

Disappearing
Cover only about 2% of the earths land surface
Contain about 50% of the worlds known plant and animal
species
Major harmful effects of disruption
Reduces biodiversity
Accelerates global warming
Changes regional weather patterns

69

3-1 How Does the Earths Life-Support

System Work?
The four major components of the earths lifesupport system
The atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water),
the geosphere (rock, soil, and sediment), and the
biosphere (living things)

Life is sustained by the flow of energy from

the sun through the biosphere, the cycling of
nutrients within the biosphere, and gravity
70

The Earths Life-Support System Has Four

Major Components
Atmosphere
Troposphere: where weather happens (7-17 km)
Stratosphere: contains ozone layer (17-50 km)

Hydrosphere: water on the earths surface

Water vapor, liquid water, ice (permafrost)

Geosphere: the solid earth

Core, mantle and crust

Biosphere: the parts of the atmosphere,

hydrosphere, and geosphere where life is found
71

Natural Capital:
General Structure of
the Earth

Atmosphere
Biosphere
(living organisms)

Soil
Rock
Crust
Mantle

Geosphere
(crust, mantle, core)

Mantle

Core

Atmosphere
(air)

Hydrosphere
(water)

72
Fig. 3-2, p. 53

Three Factors Sustain Life on Earth

One-way flow of high-quality energy:
Sun plants living things environment as heat
radiation to space

Cycling of nutrients through parts of the biosphere

Gravity holds the earths atmosphere
1. The solar energy that powers
the earths climate system is
short-wave radiation.
3. Some of the incoming
solar radiation is reflected by
the earths surface and
atmosphere back out to
space.

SUN

2. Roughly
half of the
incoming
solar
radiation
is absorbed
by the
earths
surface.

EARTH

4. The solar radiation absorbed by

the earths surface is converted to
heat and emitted as long-wave
radiation.
5. Some of the infrared
radiation escapes into
space, but most of it is
absorbed by
greenhouse gases and
clouds in the earths
atmosphere, and this
interaction between
gases and radiation
warms the earths lower
73
atmosphere and surface.

3-2 What Are the Major Components of an

Ecosystem?
Some organisms produce the nutrients they
need (producer, autotrophy)
Others get their nutrients by consuming other
organisms (consumer, heterotrophy)
Some recycle nutrients back to producers by
decomposing the wastes and remains of
organisms (decomposer)
74

Ecosystems Have Several Important

Components
Ecology
Science of organisms interactions with each other
and their nonliving environment
Ecologists study interactions within and among:

Organisms
Populations
Communities
Ecosystems
Biosphere
75

Biosphere

Parts of the earth's air, water, and soil

where life is found

Ecosystem

A community of different species

interacting with one another and with
their nonliving environment of matter
and energy

Community

Populations of different species

living in a particular place, and
potentially interacting with each
other

Population

A group of individuals of the same

species living in a particular place

Organism

An individual living being

Cell

The fundamental structural and

functional unit of life

Molecule

Chemical combination of two or

more atoms of the same or different
elements

Atom

Smallest unit of a chemical element

that exhibits its chemical properties

Water

Hydrogen

Oxygen

Stepped Art

76
Fig. 3-4 p. 55

Major Biotic and Abiotic

Components of an Ecosystem

Oxygen (O2)

Precipitaton

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Producer
Secondary
consumer
(fox)
Primary
consumer
(rabbit)

Producers

Water

Decomposers
Soluble mineral
nutrients

77
Fig. 3-5, p. 56

Several Important Components in

Ecosystems
Producers (autotrophs)
Photosynthesis
CO2 + H2O + sunlight glucose + oxygen

Consumers (heterotrophs)

Primary consumers = herbivores

Secondary consumers
Tertiary consumers
Carnivores, omnivores

Decomposers
Consumers that release nutrients

Detritivores
Feed on dead bodies of other organisms

There is very little waste of nutrients in nature

78

Producers

79
Fig. 3-6, p. 56

Consumers

80
Fig. 3-7, p. 57

Decomposer

81
Fig. 3-8, p. 57

Detritivores and
Decomposers

Longhorned
beetle
holes

Decomposers

Detritus feeders

Bark beetle
engraving

Carpenter Termite
ant
and
galleries carpenter
ant work

Dry rot
fungus

Mushroo
Wood
reduced m
to powder
Time
progression

Powder broken down by

decomposers into plant
nutrients in soil
82
Fig. 3-9, p. 58

Organisms Get Their Energy in Different

Ways
Aerobic respiration
Using oxygen to turn glucose back to carbon
dioxide and water

Anaerobic respiration
Fermentation
End products are carbon compounds such as
methane or acetic acid

83

The Components
of an Ecosystem

Heat

Chemical nutrients
(carbon dioxide,
oxygen, nitrogen,
minerals)

Heat

Heat

Producers
(plants)

Decomposers
(bacteria, fungi)

Heat

Solar
energy

Consumers (plant
eaters, meat
eaters)

Heat

84
Fig. 3-10, p. 59

3-3 What Happens to Energy in

an Ecosystem?
As energy flows through ecosystems in food
chains and webs, the amount of chemical energy
available to organisms at each successive feeding
level decreases
Food chain
Movement of energy and nutrients from one trophic
level to the next
Photosynthesis feeding decomposition

Food web
Network of interconnected food chains
85

A Food Chain
First Trophic
Level

Second Trophic
Level

Third Trophic
Level

Fourth Trophic
Level

Producers
(plants)

Primary
consumers
(herbivores)

Secondary
consumers
(carnivores)

Tertiary
consumers
(top carnivores)

Heat

Heat

Heat

Heat

Solar
energy
Heat
Heat

Heat

Decomposers and detritus feeders

86
Fig. 3-11, p. 60

A Food Web

Humans
Sperm whale

Blue whale

Elephant seal
Crabeater
seal

Adelie
penguin

Killer
whale

Leopard
seal

Emperor
penguin

Petrel

Squid
Fish

Carnivorous
zooplankton
Krill

Herbivorous
zooplankton

Phytoplankton

87
Fig. 3-12, p. 60

Usable Energy Decreases with Each Link in

a Food Chain or Web
Biomass
Dry weight of all organic matter of a given trophic
level in a food chain or food web
Decreases at each higher trophic level due to heat
loss

Pyramid of energy flow

90% of energy lost with each transfer
Less chemical energy for higher trophic levels
88

Usable energy available

at each trophic level
(in kilocalories)

Tertiary
consumers
(human)

10

Secondary
consumers
(perch)

100

Primary
consumers
(zooplankton)

Heat

Heat

Heat

Decomposers

Heat

1,000
Heat
10,000

Producers
(phytoplankton)

Stepped
89 Art
Fig. 3-13, p. 61

Some Ecosystems Produce Plant

Matter Faster Than Others Do
Gross primary productivity (GPP)
Rate at which an ecosystems producers convert
solar energy to chemical energy and biomass
Kcal/m2/year

Net primary productivity (NPP)

Rate at which an ecosystems producers convert
solar energy to chemical energy, minus the rate at
which producers use energy for aerobic
respiration
Ecosystems and life zones differ in their NPP
90

Estimated Annual Average NPP in Major

Life Zones and Ecosystems

91
Fig. 3-14, p. 62

3-4 What Happens to Matter in

an Ecosystem?
Matter, in the form of nutrients, cycles within and
among ecosystems and the biosphere, and
human activities are altering these chemical
cycles (Nutrient cycle)

Hydrologic
Carbon
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Sulfur

Nutrients may remain in a reservoir for a period

of time (for example, ground water)
92

The Water Cycle

Three major processes
Evaporation, precipitation, transpiration

Alteration of the hydrologic cycle by humans

Withdrawal of large amounts of freshwater at
rates faster than nature can replace it
Clearing vegetation
Increased flooding when wetlands are drained

93

Condensation

Ice and
snow

Condensation

Transpiration
from plants
Precipitation
to land

Evaporation of
surface water
Runof
f
Lakes and
reservoirs

Infiltration and
percolation
into aquifer
Groundwater
in aquifers

Evaporation
from ocean
Runoff

Increased runoff on land

covered with crops,
buildings and pavement
Runoff

Overpumping
of aquifers

Runoff

Precipitation
to ocean

Increased runoff
from cutting
forests and filling
wetlands
Water pollution

Ocean
Natural process
Natural reservoir
Human impacts
Natural pathway
Pathway affected by
human activities

94
Fig. 3-15, p. 63

Science Focus: Waters Unique Properties

Properties of water due to hydrogen bonds
between water molecules:
Liquid over large temperature range
Changes temperature slowly
High boiling point: 100C
Adhesion and cohesion
Expands as it freezes
Solvent
Filters out harmful UV
95

Slightly negative charge

Hydrogen Bonds in Water

Hydrogen
bonds

Slightly positive charge

96
Fig. 3-A, p. 64

The Carbon Cycle

Based on CO2
Producers remove CO2 from the atmosphere
Consumers use CO2
Some carbon takes a long time to recycle
Humans altering carbon cycle by burning fossil
fuels

97

Carbon
dioxide in
atmosphere

Respiration
Photosynthesis

Animals
(consumers)
Diffusion

Burning
fossil fuels

Forest fires
Plants (producers)
Deforestation

Transportation

Carbon dioxide
dissolved in ocean

Marine food webs

Producers,
consumers,
decomposers
Carbon
in limestone or
dolomite
sediments

Process
Reservoir
Pathway affected by
humans
Natural pathway

Respiration
Carbon in
animals
(consumers)

Carbon in
plants
(producers)
Decomposition

Carbon in
fossil fuels

Compaction

98
Fig. 3-17, p. 66

The Nitrogen Cycle: Bacteria in Action

Nitrogen fixation
Lightning
Bacteria and cyanobacteria
Combine gaseous nitrogen with hydrogen to make ammonia (NH3)
and ammonium ions (NH4+)

Nitrification

Soil bacteria change ammonia and ammonium ions to

nitrate ions (NO3-)

Denitrification

Nitrate ions back to nitrogen gas

Humans are removing nitrogen from the atmosphere

faster than it can be replaced
99

Denitrification by
bacteria

Nitrogen
in
atmosphere

Process

Reservoir

Nitrification by
bacteria

Pathway affected by humans

Natural pathway

Nitrogen in animals
(consumers)

Electrical storms

Nitrogen oxides from

burning fuel and
using inorganic
fertilizers

Nitrates from
fertilizer
runoff and
decomposition

Commercial
nitrogen
fertilizer

Nitrogen
in plants
(producers)

Decomposition
Uptake by plants

Nitrate in soil
Nitrogen
loss
to deep
ocean
sediments

Nitrogen
in ocean
sediments

Nitrification
by bacteria

Ammonia
in soil
100
Fig. 3-18, p. 67

The Phosphorous Cycle

Cycles through water, the earths crust, and
living organisms
Impact of human activities
Clearing forests
Removing large amounts of phosphate from the
earth to make fertilizers
Erosion leaches phosphates into streams

101

Process
Reservoir
Pathway affected by humans
Natural pathway

Phosphates
in sewage

Phosphates in
mining waste

Phosphates
in fertilizer
Runoff

Runoff

Sea
birds

Runoff
Erosion
Animals
(consumers)

Phosphate
dissolved
in water
Plants
(producers)

Plate
tectonics

Phosphate in
rock (fossil
bones, guano)

Phosphate
in shallow
ocean
sediments

Ocean
food webs

Phosphate
in deep
ocean
sediments

Bacteria

102
Fig. 3-19, p. 68

The Sulfur Cycle

Most sulfur found in rocks and deep under
ocean sediments
SO2 in the atmosphere
Released by volcanoes

Human activities affect the sulfur cycle

Burn sulfur-containing coal and oil
Refine sulfur-containing petroleum
Convert sulfur-containing metallic mineral ores
103

Sulfur dioxide
in atmosphere

Smelting

Burning
coal

Sulfuric acid
and Sulfate
deposited
as acid rain

Refining
fossil fuels
Sulfur
in animals
(consumers)

Dimethyl
sulfide a
bacteria
byproduct

Sulfur
in plants
(producers)

Mining and
extraction
Sulfur
in ocean
sediments

Uptake
by plants

Decay
Decay

Process
Reservoir
Pathway affected
by humans
Natural pathway

Sulfur
in soil, rock
and fossil fuels
104
Fig. 3-20, p. 69

3-5 How Do Scientists Study Ecosystems?

Scientists use both field research and laboratory research, as well as
mathematical and other models, to learn about ecosystems
Field research
Observing and measuring in nature

New technologies available

Remote sensors
Geographic information system (GIS) software
Digital satellite imaging

Model ecosystems and populations under laboratory conditions

Simplified systems
Supported by field research
Mathematical and other models
Computer simulations and projections
Field and laboratory research needed for baseline data
105

We Need to Learn More about the Health

of the Worlds Ecosystems
We need to determine the condition of the worlds
ecosystems (holocene to anthropochene?)
More baseline data needed
Carbon cycle climate change-atmospheric concentration of CO2
Nitrogen cycle-amount of N2 removed from atmosphere per
year
Biodiversity loss-number of species extinctions per year
Phosphorus cycle-amount of phosphorous entering global
oceans per year
Ocean acidification-carbonate concentration in global oceans
Freshwater use-global consumption of water per year
Land use-percentage of global land surfaces converted to
farming
Ozone depletion-stratospheric ozone concentration
Atmospheric aerosols-regional atmospheric concentration of
particulates
Chemical pollution-levels of persistent organic pollutants, toxic
heavy metals, plastics, endocrine disruptors, and radioactive
water in the environment
106

Three Big Ideas for Chapter 3

Life is sustained by:
The flow of energy from the sun through the biosphere
The cycling of nutrients within the biosphere
Gravity

Some organisms produce the nutrients they need,

Some organisms consume others, Some organisms live
on wastes and recycle nutrients
Human activities are altering:
The flow of energy through food chains and webs
The cycling of nutrients within ecosystems and the
biosphere
107

Chapter 4: Biodiversity and Evolution

4-1 What is Biodiversity and Why is it Important?
4-2 How Does the Earths Life Change over Time?
4-3 How Do Geological Processes and Climate Change
Affect Evolution
4-4 How Do Speciation, Extinction, and Human Activities
Affect Biodiversity?
4-5 What is Species Diversity and Why is it Important?
What Roles Do Species Play in Ecosystems?

108

Core Case Study: Why Are Amphibians

Vanishing?
Rapid changes in land and water habitats
Most likely caused by humans (33%, 40%)

Amphibians:
Are sensitive biological indicators
Play important ecological roles in their communities
(eat more inserts than birds)
Are a genetic storehouse of pharmaceutical products
waiting to be discovered

109

4-1 What Is Biodiversity and Why

Is It Important?
The biodiversity found in genes, species,
ecosystems, and ecosystem processes is vital to
sustaining life on the earth
Biodiversity variety in the earths species
Species set of individuals who can mate and
produce fertile offspring
8 million to 100 million species
About 2 million identified
Unidentified species are mostly in rain forests and
oceans
110

Biodiversity Is a Crucial Part of the Earths

Natural Capital
Species diversity
Number and variety of species

Genetic diversity
Variety of genes in a population

Ecosystem diversity
Biomes: regions with distinct climates/species

Functional diversity
Variety of processes within ecosystems

Biodiversity is an important part of natural capital

111

Functional Diversity The biological and

chemical processes such as energy flow and
matter recycling needed for the survival of
species, communities, and ecosystems.

Genetic Diversity The variety

of genetic material within a
species or a population.

Ecological Diversity The variety of

terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems
found in an area or on the earth.

Species Diversity The number and

abundance of species present in
different communities.

112
Fig. 4-2, p. 79

Genetic Diversity

113
Fig. 4-3, p. 81

Major Biomes
Denver

San
Francisco

Coastal
mountain
ranges

Coastal
chaparral
and scrub

Baltimore

Las
Vegas

Sierra
Nevada

St. Louis

Great
American
Desert

Coniferous
forest

Rocky
Mountains

Desert

Great
Plains

Coniferous
forest

Mississippi
River Valley

Prairie
grassland

Appalachian
Mountains

Deciduous
forest
114
Fig. 4-4, p. 81

4-2 How Does the Earths Life Change Over

Time?
The scientific theory of evolution explains how
life on earth changes over time through
changes in the genes of populations
Populations evolve when genes mutate and
give some individuals genetic traits that
enhance their abilities to survive and to
produce offspring with these traits (natural
selection)
115

Biological Evolution by Natural Selection

Explains How Life Changes over Time
Fossils
Physical evidence of ancient organisms
Reveal what their external structures looked like

Fossil record entire body of fossil evidence

We only have fossils of 1% of all species that
lived on earth

116

Biological Evolution by Natural Selection

Biological evolution how the earths life
changes over time through changes in the
genetic characteristics of populations
Darwin Origin of Species

Natural selection individuals with certain

traits are more likely to survive and reproduce
under a certain set of environmental
conditions
Huge body of evidence
117

Mutations and Changes in the Genetic

Makeup of Populations
Populations evolve by becoming genetically
different
Genetic variations
First step in biological evolution
Occurs through mutations in reproductive cells
Mutations random changes in DNA molecules

Natural selection: acts on individuals

Second step in biological evolution
Adaptation may lead to differential reproduction
Genetic resistance ability of one or more members
of a population to resist a chemical designed to kill it
118

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Normal bacterium Resistant bacterium

Stepped
119 Art
Fig. 4-6, p. 84

Case Study: How Did Humans Become Such

a Powerful Species?
Three adaptations have helped the human
species
Strong opposable thumbs
The ability to walk upright
Complex brain

120

Adaptation through Natural Selection Has

Limits
Adaptive genetic traits must precede change in the
environmental conditions (already present in a
populations gene pool or occur randomly)
A populations reproductive capacity
Species that reproduce rapidly and in large
numbers are better able to adapt

And Man Created Dog

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
GFzbBVMR8zA
121

Three Common Myths about Evolution

through Natural Selection
Fitness is reproductive success, not strength
Organisms do not develop traits out of need or
want
There is no grand plan of nature for perfect
adaptation

122

4-3 How Do Geological Processes and

Climate Change Affect Evolution?
Tectonic plate movements, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and
climate change have shifted wildlife habitats, wiped out large
numbers of species, and created opportunities for the evolution of
new species
Tectonic plates affect evolution and the location of life on earth
Locations of continents and oceans have shifted through geologic time
Species physically move, or adapt, or form new species through
natural selection

Earthquakes separate and isolate populations

Volcanic eruptions destroy habitats
Ice ages followed by warming temperatures
Collisions between the earth and large asteroids
New species
Extinctions
123

The Effect of Movement over Tectonic Plates, Climate

Change and Catastrophes Affect Natural Selection
225 million years ago

Present

124
Fig. 4-9, p. 86

4-4 How Do Speciation, Extinction, and

Human Activities Affect Biodiversity?
As environmental conditions change, the
balance between formation of new species
and extinction of existing species determines
the earths biodiversity
Human activities can decrease biodiversity:
By causing the extinction of many species
By destroying or degrading habitats needed for
the development of new species
125

How Do New Species Evolve?

Speciation one species splits into two or more
species
Geographic isolation
First step
Physical isolation of populations for a long period

Reproductive isolation
Mutations and natural selection in geographically
isolated populations
Leads to inability to produce viable offspring when
members of two different populations mate
126

Geographic Isolation Can Lead to Reproductive Isolation

Adapted to cold through
heavier fur, short ears,
short legs, and short
nose. White fur matches
snow for camouflage.
Arctic Fox

Northern
population
Early fox
population

Different environmental
conditions lead to different
selective pressures and
evolution into two different
species.

Spreads
northward and
southward and
separates

Gray Fox
Southern
population
Adapted to heat through
lightweight fur and long
ears, legs, and nose,
which give off more heat.
127
Fig. 4-12, p. 88

All Species Eventually Become Extinct

Extinction
Process in which an entire species ceases to exist

Endemic species
Found only in one area
Particularly vulnerable to extinction

Background extinction
Typical low rate of extinction (0.001%)

Mass extinction
Significant rise above background level (25-95%, every
20-60 million years in the past 500 million years)
128

4-5 What Is Species Diversity and Why

Is It Important?
Species diversity is a major component of biodiversity and tends to
increase the sustainability of ecosystems
Species diversity
Number and variety of species in a given area

Species richness
The number of different species in a given area

Species evenness
Comparative number of individuals of each species present

Diversity varies with geographical location

The most species-rich communities

Tropical rain forests

Coral reefs
Ocean bottom zone
Large tropical lakes
129

Species-Rich Ecosystems Tend to Be

Productive and Sustainable
Species richness
Increases productivity and stability or sustainability
Provides insurance against catastrophe

How much species richness do you think is needed?

130

4-6 What Roles Do Species Play in an

Ecosystem?
Each species plays a specific ecological role called its
niche
Any given species may play one or more of five
important rolesnative, nonnative, indicator,
keystone, or foundationin a particular ecosystem
Ecological niche
Everything that affects survival and reproduction
Water, space, sunlight, food, temperatures

Generalist species
Broad niche wide range of tolerance

Specialist species
Narrow niche narrow range of tolerance
131

Specialist Species and

Generalist Species Niches

132
Fig. 4-15, p. 92

Specialized Feeding Niches of Various Bird Species in a

Coastal Wetland

Black skimmer
seizes small fish
at water surface

Flamingo
feeds on
minute
organisms
in mud

Brown pelican
dives for fish,
Avocet sweeps bill
which it locates through mud and
from the air
surface water in
search of small
crustaceans,
insects, and seeds

Scaup and other

diving ducks
feed on
mollusks,
crustaceans,
and aquatic
vegetation

Louisiana
heron wades
into water to
seize small
fish

Herring
gull is a
Ruddy
tireless
turnstone
scavenger
searches
Dowitcher probes
under shells
deeply into mud in
and pebbles
search of snails,
for small
marine worms, and
invertebrates
small crustaceans

Oystercatcher feeds
on clams, mussels,
and other shellfish
into which it pries
its narrow beak

Knot (sandpiper)
picks up worms
and small
crustaceans left
by receding tide

Piping plover
feeds on insects
and tiny
crustaceans on
sandy beaches

133
Fig. 4-16, p. 92

Species Can Play Four Major Roles

within Ecosystems
Native species
Normally live in an ecosystem

Nonnative species
Not native

Indicator species
Provide early warning of damage to a community
Can monitor environmental quality

Keystone species
Keystone species
Have a large effect on the types and abundances of other
species
Can play critical roles in helping sustain ecosystems
Pollination
Top predators
134

Case Study: A Keystone Species That

Almost Went Extinct
The American alligator:

Largest reptile in North America, keystone species in its ecosystems

1930s Hunted and poached
1967 added to the endangered species list
1977 impressive comeback
More than a million alligators today in Florida
They dig large gator holes,
which hold freshwater
during dry seasons for
aquatic life, and supply
freshwater and food for
fishes, insects, snakes,
turtles, birds, and other
animals.
135

Three Big Ideas of Chapter 4

Populations evolve through mutations in genes
Certain genetic traits enhance individuals ability to
produce offspring with these traits

Human activities are degrading biodiversity

Hastening the extinction of species
Disrupting habitats needed for development of new
species

Each species plays a specific ecological role (its

ecological niche) in the ecosystem where it is
found
136

Chapter 5: Biodiversity, Species

Interactions, and Population Control
5-1 How do species interact?
5-2 How do communities and ecosystems
respond to changing environmental
conditions?
5-3 What limits the growth of populations?

137

Core Case Study: Southern Sea Otters - A

Species in Recovery
Live in giant kelp forests
By the early 1900s they had been
hunted almost to extinction
Partial recovery since 1977
Why care about sea otters?
Ethics
Tourism dollars
Keystone species
138

5-1 How Do Species Interact?

Five types of species interactionscompetition,
predation, parasitism, mutualism, and
commensalismaffect the resource use and
population sizes of the species in an ecosystem
Five basic types of interactions

Interspecific Competition
Predation
Parasitism
Mutualism
Commensalism
139

Most Species Compete with One

Another for Certain Resources
Interspecific competition
Compete to use the same limited resources

Resource partitioning
Species may use only parts of resource
At different times
In different ways

140

Sharing the Wealth

Blackburnian
Warbler

Black-throated
Green Warbler

Cape May
Warbler

Bay-breasted
Warbler

Yellow-rumped
Warbler

Stepped
141 Art
Fig. 5-2, p. 103

Specialist Species
of Honeycreepers

Fruit and seed eaters

Insect and nectar eaters

Greater Koa-finch
Kuai Akialaoa
Amakihi
Kona Grosbeak

Akiapolaau

Crested
Honeycreeper

Maui Parrotbill

Unkown finch ancestor

Apapane

142
Fig. 5-3, p. 104

Consumer Species Feed on Other Species

Predator feeds directly on all or part of a living
organism
Carnivores
Pursuit and ambush
Camouflage
Chemical warfare

Prey can avoid predation

Camouflage
Chemical warfare
Warning coloration
Mimicry
Behavioral strategies
143

Interactions between Predator and Prey

Species
Intense natural selection pressures between
predator and prey populations
Coevolution
Interact over a long period of time
Changes in the gene pool of one species can cause
changes in the gene pool of the other
Bats and moths
Echolocation of bats and sensitive hearing of moths

144

Some Species Feed off Other Species by

Living on or inside Them
Parasitism
Parasite is usually much smaller than the host
Parasite rarely kills the host
Parasite-host interaction may lead to coevolution

145

In Some Interactions, Both Species Benefit

Mutualism
Nutrition and protective relationship
Gut inhabitant mutualism
Not cooperation mutual exploitation

146

In Some Interactions, One Species Benefits

and the Other Is Not Harmed
Commensalism
Benefits one species and has little affect on the
other
Epiphytes
Birds nesting in trees

147

5-2 Responding to Changing Environmental

Conditions
How do communities and ecosystems respond to
changing environmental conditions?
The structure and species composition of communities and
ecosystems change in response to changing environmental
conditions through a process called ecological succession

Ecological succession
Gradual change in species composition
Primary succession
In lifeless areas

Secondary succession
Areas of environmental disturbance

Examples of natural ecological restoration

148

Primary Ecological Succession

Exposed
rocks

Lichens
and
mosses

Small herbs
and shrubs

Heath mat

Jack pine,
black spruce,
and aspen

Balsam fir,
paper birch,
and white
spruce forest
community

149
Fig. 5-11, p. 109

Natural Ecological Restoration

Annual
weeds

Perennial
weeds
and
grasses

Shrubs and
small pine
seedlings

Young pine forest

with developing
understory of oak
and hickory trees

Mature oak and

hickory forest

150
Fig. 5-12, p. 110

Ecological Succession Does Not Follow a

Predictable Path
Traditional view
Balance of nature and climax communities

Current view
Ever-changing mosaic of patches of vegetation in different
stages of succession

Living Systems Are Sustained through Constant Change

Inertia
Ability of a living system to survive moderate disturbances

Resilience
Ability of a living system to be restored through secondary
succession after a moderate disturbance
151

5.3 What Limits the Growth of Populations

No population can grow indefinitely because of limitations on
resources and because of competition among species for those
resources
Population
Group of interbreeding individuals of the same species

Population distribution: most Populations Live in Clumps

Clumping
Species cluster for resources
Protection from predators
Ability to hunt in packs

152

A School of Anthias Fish

153
Fig. 5-13, p. 111

Populations Can Grow, Shrink, or Remain

Stable
Population size governed by:
Births and deaths; immigration and emigration

Population change = (births + immigration) (deaths +

emigration)
Age structure
Pre-reproductive age
Reproductive age
Post-reproductive age

Some Factors Can Limit Population Size

Range of tolerance
Variations in physical and chemical environment
Individuals may have different tolerance ranges
154

Some Factors Can Limit Population Size

Limiting factor principle
Too much or too little of any physical or chemical
factor can limit or prevent growth of a population,
even if all other factors are at or near the optimal
range of tolerance
Precipitation, nutrients, sunlight

Populations density
Number of individuals in a given area

155

Trout Tolerance of Temperature

Lower limit
of tolerance
Few
organisms

Abundance of organisms

Few
organisms

No
organisms

Zone of
physiological
stress

Zone of
intolerance

Population size

No
organisms

Higher limit
of tolerance

Zone of
intolerance

Low

Zone of
physiological
stress

Optimum range

Temperature

High

156
Fig. 5-13, p. 113

Different Species Have Different

Reproductive Patterns
Some species:
Have many small offspring
Little parental involvement

Other species:
Reproduce later in life
Have small number of offspring

157

No Population Can Grow Indefinitely:

J-Curves and S-Curves
There are always limits to population growth in
nature
Environmental resistance factors that limit
population growth
Carrying capacity
Maximum population of a given species that a
particular habitat can sustain indefinitely

Exponential growth
At a fixed percentage per year

Logistic growth
Population faces environmental resistance
158

Growth of a Sheep Population

Population overshoots
carrying capacity

Environmental resistance

Number of sheep (millions)

2.0
Carrying capacity
1.5
Population recovers
and stabilizes
1.0
Exponential
growth

Population runs out of

resources and crashes

.5

1800

1825

1850

1875

Year

1900

1925
159
Fig. 5-16, p. 115

When a Population Exceeds Its Carrying

Capacity It Can Crash
A population exceeds the areas carrying capacity
Reproductive time lag may lead to overshoot
Subsequent population crash

Damage may reduce areas carrying capacity

160

Humans Are Not Exempt from Natures

Population Controls
Ireland
Potato crop in 1845

Bubonic plague (black

death)
Fourteenth century ( killed
nearly a third of the
people of Europe)

AIDS
Current global epidemic
161

Three Big Ideas of Chapter 5

Certain interactions among species
Affect their use of resources and their population
sizes

Changes in environmental conditions

Cause communities and ecosystems to gradually
alter their species composition and population
sizes (ecological succession)

There are always limits to population growth

in nature
162

Chapter 6: The Human Population and Its

Impact
6-1 How do environmental scientists think about
human population growth?
6-2 What factors influence the size of the human
population?
6-3 How does a populations age structure affect
its growth or decline?
6-4 How can we slow human population growth?

163

Core Case Study: Planet Earth: Population

7 Billion
The evolution of Homo sapiens and a total
population of 2 billion has taken 200,000 years
It has taken less than 50 years to reach the
second 2 billion
It took 25 years to add the third 2 billion
Twelve years later, the population topped 7.1
billion
What is a sustainable human population?
164

Core Case Study: Planet Earth: Population 7 Billion

Billions of people

2011 (7 billion)
1999 (6 billion)
1987 (5 billion)
1974 (4 billion)
1960 (3 billion)
1930 (2 billion)
1800 (1 billion)

Time
Hunting and
gathering

Agricultural revolution

Industrial
revolution
165
Fig. 6-1, p. 122

6-1 How Do Environmental Scientists Think

about Human Population Growth?
The continuing rapid growth of the human
population and its impacts on natural capital raise
questions about how long the human population
can keep growing
Human Population Growth Shows Certain Trends
Rate of population growth has slowed in recent
decades
Human population growth is unevenly distributed
geographically
People are moving from rural to urban areas
166

Annual Growth Rate of World Population,

1950-2010

167
Fig. 6-2, p. 123

World population (in billions)

Where Population Growth Occurred, 19502010

Population in less-developed countries

Population in more-developed countries

Year
168
Fig. 6-3, p. 123

Human Population Growth Impacts Natural

Capital
As the human population grows, so does the
global total human ecological footprint
Cultural carrying capacity
Total number of people who could live in
reasonable freedom and comfort indefinitely,
without decreasing the ability of the earth to
sustain future generations

169

Natural Capital Degradation

Altering Nature to Meet Our Needs
Reducing biodiversity
Increasing use of net primary
productivity
Increasing genetic resistance in
pest species and diseasecausing bacteria
Eliminating many natural
predators
Introducing harmful species into
natural communities
Using some renewable resources
faster than they can be replenished
Disrupting natural chemical
cycling and energy ow
Relying mostly on polluting and
climate-changing fossil fuels

170
Fig. 6-4, p. 125

6-2 What Factors Influence the Size of the

Human Population?
Population size increases through births and
immigration, and decreases through deaths and
emigration
The average number of children born to women in a
population (total fertility rate) is the key factor that
determines population size
Population change =
(births + immigration) (deaths + emigration)
Crude birth rate
The number of live births/1000/year

Crude death rate

The number of deaths/1000/year
171

Women Are Having Fewer Babies, But the

Worlds Population Is Still Growing
Fertility rate
Number of children born to a woman during her lifetime

Replacement-level fertility rate

Average number of children a couple must have to replace
themselves
Approximately 2.1 in developed countries
Up to 2.5 in developing countries

Total fertility rate (TFR)

Average number of children born to women in a population
Between 1955 and 2012, the global TFR dropped from 5 to 2.4
However, to eventually halt population growth, the global TFR
will have to drop to 2.1
172

Births per woman

Total Fertility Rate

Baby boom
(194664)

Replacement
level

173
Fig. 6-5, p. 127

Case Study: Singapore Population

174

Several Factors Affect Birth Rates and

Fertility Rates

Children as part of the labor force

Cost of raising and educating children
Availability of private and public pension
Urbanization
Educational and employment opportunities for
women
Average age of a woman at marriage (>25 ys)
Availability of legal abortions
Availability of reliable birth control methods
Religious beliefs, traditions, and cultural norms
175

Several Factors Affect Birth Rates and

Fertility Rates

176
Fig. 6-9, p. 129

Several Factors Affect Death Rates

Life expectancy
Infant mortality rate
Number of live births that die in first year

High infant mortality rate indicates:

Insufficient food
Poor nutrition
High incidence of infectious disease

177

Infant mortality rate

(deaths per 1,000 live births)

Several Factors Affect Death Rates (contd.)

Less-developed
countries

World

More-developed
countries

Year

178
Fig. 6-10, p. 129

Migration Affects an Areas Population Size

Migration
The movement of people into and out of specific
geographic areas

Causes:
Economic improvement
Religious and political freedom
Wars

Environmental refugees
179

6-3 How Does a Populations Age Structure

Affect Its Growth or Decline?
The numbers of males and females in young,
middle, and older age groups determine how
fast a population grows or declines
Age structure categories
Prereproductive ages (0-14)
Reproductive ages (15-44)
Postreproductive ages (45 and older)

Seniors are the fastest-growing age group

180

A Populations Age Structure Helps Us

Make Projections
Male

Female

Male

Female

Expanding Rapidly
Guatemala Nigeria
Saudi Arabia

Expanding Slowly
United States
Australia China

Prereproductive ages
014

Reproductive ages
1544

Male

Female Male

Stable Japan
Italy Greece

Female

Declining Germany
Bulgaria Russia

Postreproductive ages 4585+

181
Fig. 6-11, p. 131

A Populations Age Structure Helps Us

Make Projections

182
Fig. 6-12, p. 132

Populations Made Up of Mostly Older

People Can Decline Rapidly
Slow decline
Manageable

Rapid decline
Economic problems
Proportionally fewer young people working
Labor shortages

183

Some Problems with Rapid

Population Decline
Can threaten economic growth
Labor shortages
Less government revenues with fewer
workers
Less entrepreneurship and new
business formation
Less likelihood for new technology
development
Increasing public deficits to fund higher
pension and health-care costs
Pensions may be cut and retirement age
increased

184
Fig. 6-14, p. 133

Populations Can Decline due to a Rising

Death Rate: The AIDS Tragedy
AIDS has killed more than 30 million people
Many young adults die loss of most
productive workers
Sharp drop in life expectancy
International community
Reduce the spread of HIV through education and
health care
Financial assistance and volunteers
185

The AIDS Tragedy

Botswana: 25% of people ages 15-49 were infected
with HIV in 2011.

186
Fig. 6-15, p. 134

6-4 How Can We Slow Human Population

Growth?
We can slow human population growth by reducing
poverty, elevating the status of women, and
encouraging family planning
For some other countries, for example, Singapore,
Taiwan, and Japan, the key problem is how to manage
human population and its age distribution.

187

The First Step Is to Promote Economic

Development
Demographic transition
As countries become industrialized
First death rates decline
Then birth rates decline

Four stages
Preindustrial
Transitional
Industrial
Postindustrial
188

Birth rate and death rate

(number per 1,000 per year)

Stage 1
Preindustrial

Stage 2
Transitional

Population
grows very
slowly because
of a high
birth rate
(to compensate
for high infant
80 mortality) and a
70 high death rate

Population grows rapidly

because birth rates are high and
death rates drop because of
improved food production and
health

Stage 3
Industrial

Stage 4
Postindustrial

Population growth
slows as both birth
and death rates
drop because of
improved food
production, health,
and education

Population growth
levels off and then
declines as birth
rates equal and
then fall below
death rates

Total population

60
Birth rate

50
40
30

Death rate

20
10

0
Low

Increasing

Very high
Decreasing
Growth rate over time

Low

Zero

Negative

Stepped
189 Art
Fig. 6-16, p. 135

Empowering Women Can Slow Population

Growth
Factors that decrease total fertility rates:
Education
Paying jobs
Ability to control fertility

Women:
Do most of the domestic work and child care
Provide unpaid health care
2/3 of all work for 10% of worlds income
Discriminated against legally and culturally
190

Family Planning Can Provide Several

Benefits
Family planning in less-developed countries
Responsible for a 55% drop in TFRs
Financial benefits money spent on family planning
saves far more in health, education costs

Two problems
42% pregnancies unplanned, 26% end with abortion
Many couples do not have access to family planning

How can family planning programs be expanded?

191

Case Study: Slowing Population

Growth in India
Population: 1.26 billion people in 2012
Problems
Poverty, malnutrition, and environmental
degradation

Causes
Bias toward having male children
Poor couples want many children
Only 47% of couples use family planning

Huge potentials for future economy growth

192

Case Study: Slowing Population

Growth in India

193
Fig. 6-20, p. 137

Case Study: Slowing Population Growth in

China: A Success Story
Worlds most populous country
Threat of mass starvation in the 1960s
Government established a strict family
planning and birth control program
Reduced number of children born per woman
from 5.7 to 1.5

Population bonus for fast economy growth

New problems: rapid aging in 20 years
194

Three Big Ideas for Chapter 6

The human population is increasing rapidly and
may soon bump up against environmental limits
Increasing use of resources per person
Expanding the overall human ecological footprint and
putting a strain on the earths resources

We can slow population growth by reducing

poverty through economic development,
elevating the status of women, and encouraging
family planning
195

Chapter 7: Climate and Biodiversity

7-1 What factors influence climate?
7-2 How does climate affect the nature and
location of biomes?
7-3 How have human activities affected the
worlds terrestrial ecosystems?

196

Core Case Study: A Temperate Deciduous

Forest
Why do forests grow in some areas and not
others?
Climate
Tropical
Polar
Temperate

Temperate deciduous forests

Globally more disturbed than any other ecosystem

197

7-1 What Factors Influence Climate?

Key factors that determine an areas climate

Incoming solar energy

The earths rotation
Global patterns of air and water movement
Gases in the atmosphere
The earths surface features

Weather
Temperature, precipitation, wind speed, cloud cover
Hours to days

Climate
Areas general pattern of atmospheric conditions over
decades and longer
198

The Earth Has Many Different

Climates

199
Fig. 7-2, p. 145

The Earth Has Many Different

Climates
Ocean currents
Prevailing winds
Earths rotation
Redistribution of heat from the sun
Surface currents and deep currents

Air circulation in lower atmosphere due to

Uneven heating of the earths surface by sun
Rotation of the earth on its axis
Properties of air, water, and land
200

The Earth Has Many Different

Climates (contd.)
Moist air rises,
cools, and releases
moisture as rain

Polar cap
Cold
deserts
Evergreen
coniferous forest

60N
The highest solar
energy input is at
the equator.

Westerlies

30N

Northeast trades

Temperate deciduous
forest and grassland

Air cools and

descends at
lower
latitudes.

Hot desert

Solar
energy

Tropical deciduous
forest
Equator

Tropical rain forest

Tropical deciduous
forest
Hot desert

Southeast trades

30S

Westerlies
60S

Warm air
rises and
moves
toward
the poles.

Temperate deciduous
forest and grassland
Cold
deserts

Air cools and

descends
at lower
latitudes.

Polar cap
201
Fig. 7-3, p. 146

The Earth Has Many Different Climates (contd.)

Warm, less
salty, shallow
current

Cold, salty,
deep current

202
Fig. 7-5, p. 147

The Earth Has Many Different

Climates
El Nio-Southern Oscillation
Occurs every few years
Prevailing winds in tropical Pacific Ocean change direction
Affects much of earths weather for 1-2 years

What is the link between air circulation, ocean currents,

and biomes?
203

Greenhouse Gases Warm the Lower

Atmosphere
Greenhouse gases
H2O
CO2
CH4
N2O

Natural greenhouse effect

Gases keep earth habitable

Human-enhanced global warming

204

Earths Surface Features Affect Local

Climates
Mountains interrupt flow of prevailing winds
Rain shadow effect
Most precipitation falls on the windward side of mountain
ranges
Deserts leeward

Cities create microclimates

205

7-2 How Does Climate Affect the Nature

and Locations of Biomes?
Differences in average annual precipitation and
temperature lead to the formation of tropical,
temperate, and cold deserts, grasslands, and
forests, and largely determine their locations
Major biomes
Large land regions with certain types of climate and
dominant plant life
Not uniform
Mosaic of patches

Change with latitude and elevation

206

Climate Helps Determine Where Organisms Can Live (contd.)

Cold
Arctic tundra

Evergreen coniferous forest

Temperate
desert

Temperate deciduous forest

Chaparral

Hot
Wet

Cold desert

Temperate
grassland

Tropical desert

Tropical rain forest

Dry
Tropical grassland (savanna)
207
Fig. 7-7, p. 149

Elevation Mountain ice

and snow
Tundra (herbs,
lichens,
mosses)
Coniferous
Forest
Deciduous
Forest

Latitude

Tropical
Forest
Tropical
Forest

Deciduous
Forest

Coniferous
Forest

Tundra
(herbs,
lichens,
mosses)

Polar ice
and snow

Stepped
208 Art
Fig. 7-8, p. 153

Climate Helps Determine Where Organisms

Can Live

209
Fig. 7-9, p. 150

There Are Three Major Types of Deserts

Desert annual precipitation low and often
scattered through the year
Tropical deserts
Temperate deserts
Cold deserts

Why are deserts fragile ecosystems?

Slow plant growth, low species diversity, slow
nutrient cycling (low bacterial activity), and very
litter water
210

Tropical desert

Sahara, Namib
211
Fig. 7-10a, p. 150

Temperature desert

Arizona, Mexico
Shrubs and cacti
212
Fig. 7-10b, p. 150

Cold deserts

Gobi desert in Mongolia

213
Fig. 7-10c, p. 150

There Are Three Major Types of Grasslands

Grasslands occur in:
Interior continents too moist for deserts and too
dry for forests

Three main types:

Tropical
Temperate
Cold (arctic tundra)

214

Tropical grassland

East Africa (savannas) Grazing animals and browsing animals

Wildebeests, gazelles, zebras, giraffes, antelopes, lions, hyenas
215
Fig. 7-11a, p. 153

Temperate grassland

American mid-western prairie

Cold winters and hot and dry summers
Fertile topsoil, often converted to farmland (crops and cattle)
216
Fig. 7-11b, p. 153

Cold grassland

South of ice cap

Plants close to ground to conserve heat, most growth in short summer, animals have thick fur
permafrost (underground soil that stays frozen)
Alpine tundra (above tree line in mountains)
217
Fig. 7-11c, p. 153

There Are Three Major Types of

Forests

Forests lands dominated by trees

Tropical
Temperate
Cold
Northern coniferous and boreal

218

Tropical rain forest

Hot and high moisture

Stratification of specialized plant and animal niches (50% of terrestrial
plant and animal species)
Rapid recycling of scarce soil nutrients (daily rainfall, thin topsoil)
What is the impact of human activities in the rain forest? (>50% destroyed)

219
Fig. 7-13a, p. 156

There Are Three Major Types of Forests (contd.)

Emergent
layer

Harpy
eagle

Height (meters)

Toco
toucan

Understory

Wooly
opossum

Brazilian
tapir
Black.crowned
antpitta

Canopy

Shrub
layer
Ground
layer
220
Fig. 7-14, p. 157

Temperature deciduous forest

Cooler temperature and less moisture

Broad-leaf deciduous trees
Slow rate of decomposition (storehouse of nutrients)
What is the impact of human activities on temperate forests? (come back in
100-200 years)

221
Fig. 7-13b, p. 156

Northern coniferous forest

Evergreen coniferous forests: boreal and taigas -- cold winter, few

species of cone-bearing trees (pine, spruce, fir, cedar, hemlock), slow
decomposition
Found in scattered coastal regions (pacific coast of American, redwood)

222
Fig. 7-13c, p. 156

Mountains Play Important Ecological Roles

Mountains steep high elevation lands
Majority of the worlds forests
Islands of biodiversity
Habitats for endemic species
Help regulate the earths climate
Major storehouses of water
Role in hydrologic cycle

223

7-3 How Have Human Activities Affected

the Words Terrestrial Ecosystems?
Human activities are disrupting ecosystem and
economic services provided by many of
earths deserts, grasslands, forests, and
mountains
About 60% of the worlds major terrestrial
ecosystems are being degraded
The human ecological footprint is spreading
across the globe
224

Natural Capital Degradation

Major Human Impacts on Terrestrial Ecosystems
Deserts

Large desert cities

Destruction of soil and

underground habitat
by off-road vehicles

Grasslands

Conversion to
cropland
Release of CO2 to
atmosphere from
burning grassland

Forests

Mountains

Clearing for
agriculture, livestock
grazing, timber, and
urban development
Conversion of
diverse forests to
tree plantations

Agriculture

Damage from offroad vehicles

Air pollution blowing in from

urban areas and power plants

Depletion of
groundwater

Overgrazing by
livestock

Land disturbance and

pollution from mineral
extraction

Oil production and

off-road vehicles in Pollution of forest
arctic tundra
streams

Timber and
mineral extraction
Hydroelectric dams
and reservoirs

Soil damage from off-road

vehicles
225
Fig. 7-17, p. 160

226
Fig. 7-18, p. 160

Size and Locations of Biomes Can Change

Biomes are not fixed
They change as the climate changes
Human activities are likely to affect biome placement
in the future

227

Three Big Ideas for Chapter 7

Differences in climate:
Based on long-term differences in average
temperature and precipitation
Largely determine the types and locations of the
earths deserts, grasslands, and forests

The earths terrestrial systems provide important

ecological and economic services
Human activities are degrading and disrupting
many of the ecological and economic services
provided by the earths terrestrial ecosystems
228

Chapter 8: Aquatic Biodiversity

8-1 What is the general nature of aquatic systems?
8-2 Why are marine aquatic systems important?
8-3 How have human activities affected marine
ecosystems?
8-4 Why are freshwater ecosystems important?
8-5 How have human activities affected freshwater
ecosystems?

229

Core Case Study: Why Should We Care

about Coral Reefs?
Biodiversity
Coral reefs form in clear, warm coastal waters in
tropical areas
Tiny animals (polyps) and algae have a mutualistic
relationship
Polyps secrete calcium carbonate shells, which become
coral reefs

Provide important ecological and economic services

Vulnerable to damage
Warmer ocean temperatures leading to coral bleaching
Kills algae and thus the polyps

Increasing ocean acidity

230

8-1 What Is the General Nature of

Aquatic Systems?
Saltwater and freshwater aquatic life zones cover
almost three-fourths of the earths surface, with
oceans dominating the planet
Key factors determining biodiversity in aquatic systems
Temperature, dissolved oxygen content, availability of
food, and access to light and nutrients necessary for
photosynthesis

Saltwater 71% of the earths surface

Global ocean divided into four areas: Atlantic, Pacific,
Arctic, Indian
Freshwater 2.2% of the earths surface
231

Most of the Earth Is Covered with

Water
Aquatic life zones
Saltwater life zones (marine life zones)

Oceans and estuaries

Coastlands and shorelines
Coral reefs
Mangrove forests

Freshwater life zones

Lakes, rivers, and streams
Inland wetlands
232

Aquatic Species Drift, Swim, Crawl, and

Cling
Plankton drifting
Phytoplankton
Primary producers for most aquatic food webs

Ultraplankton
Tiny photosynthetic bacteria

Zooplankton
Secondary consumers
Single-celled to large invertebrates like jellyfish

Nekton
Strong swimmers fish, turtles, whales

Benthos
Bottom dwellers oysters, sea stars, clams, lobsters, crabs

Decomposers
Mostly bacteria
233

Aquatic Species Drift, Swim, Crawl, and

Cling
Key factors in the distribution of organisms
Temperature
Dissolved oxygen content
Availability of food
Availability of light and nutrients needed for
photosynthesis

Turbidity
Degree of cloudiness in water
Inhibits photosynthesis
234

8-2 Why Are Marine Aquatic Systems

Important?
Saltwater ecosystems
Provide major ecosystem and economic services
Are irreplaceable reservoirs of biodiversity

Estimated $12 trillion per year in goods and

services
Three major life zones:
Coastal zone
Warm, nutrient rich, shallow; shore to edge of continental
shelf; usually high NPP from ample sunlight and nutrients

Open sea
Ocean bottom
235

Oceans Provide Vital Ecosystem and

Economic Services
Estimated $12 trillion per year in goods and
services
Three major life zones:
Coastal zone
Warm, nutrient rich, shallow; shore to edge of
continental shelf; usually high NPP from ample sunlight
and nutrients

Open sea
Ocean bottom
236

Natural Capital

Marine Ecosystems
Ecological
Services
Oxygen
supplied through
photosynthesis
Water purification

Economic
Services
Food
Energy from
waves and tides

Climate
moderation

Pharmaceuticals

CO2 absorption

Harbors and
transportation
routes

Nutrient cycling
Reduced storm
impact (mangroves,
barrier islands,
coastal wetlands)
Biodiversity:
species and habitats

Recreation and
tourism
Employment
Minerals
237
Fig. 8-5, p. 170

Depth in
meters
Sea level

Euphotic
Zone

Estuarine
Zone

Twilight

Continental
shelf

Bathyal Zone

Water temperature
drops rapidly between
the euphotic zone and
the abyssal zone in an
area called the
thermocline.

Water temperature (C)

Photosynthesis

Coastal Open
Sea
Zone

Abyssal
Zone

Darkness

High tide
Low tide

238
Fig. 8-6, p. 171

Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands Are Highly

Productive
Estuaries
Where rivers meet the sea

Coastal wetlands
Coastal land covered with water all or part of the
year

Seawater mixes with freshwater

Very productive ecosystems with high nutrient
levels
239

Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands Are Highly

Productive
Examples:
River mouths
Inlets
Bays
Sounds
Salt marshes
Sea-grass beds
Mangrove forests
240

Rocky and Sandy Shores Host Different

Types of Organisms
Intertidal zone
Area of shore between high and low tides
Rocky shore
Sandy shore, barrier beach

Organism adaptations necessary to deal with

daily salinity and moisture changes
What is the importance of sand dunes in this
type of ecosystem?
241

Rocky Shore Beach

Hermit crab

Sea star

Shore crab
High tide
Periwinkle

Sea urchin

Anemone

Mussel
Low tide

Sculpin

Kelp

Barnacles
Sea lettuce

Monterey flatworm
Nudibranch
242
Fig. 8-11a, p. 174

Beach
ea

Barrier Beach
Peanut worm
Blue crab

Tiger
beetle
Clam

Dwarf
olive

High tide

Sandpiper
Silversides

Low tide

White sand Sand

macoma dollar

Mole
shrimp

Ghost
shrimp

Moon
snail
243
Fig. 8-11b, p. 174

Coral Reefs Are Amazing Centers

of Biodiversity
Marine equivalent of tropical rain forests
Reefs are being destroyed and damaged
worldwide
Ocean acidification
Oceans absorb CO2
CO2 reacts with ocean water to form a weak acid
that decreases levels of carbonate ions (CO32-)
needed to form coral
244

The Open Sea and the Ocean Floor Host a

Variety of Species
Three vertical zones of the open sea
Euphotic zone

Phytoplankton
Nutrient levels low
Dissolved oxygen levels high
Upwelling brings nutrients from below

Bathyal zone
Dimly lit
Zooplankton and smaller fishes

Abyssal zone

Dark and cold

High levels of nutrients
Little dissolved oxygen
Deposit feeders
Filter feeders

NPP low in the open sea

Except in upwelling areas

245

8-3 How Have Human Activities Affected

Marine Ecosystems?
Human activities
Threaten aquatic biodiversity
Disrupt ecosystem and economic services provided by
saltwater systems

Major threats to marine systems include:

Coastal development
Overfishing; use of fishing trawlers
Runoff of nonpoint source pollution
Point source pollution
Habitat destruction
Introduction of invasive species
Pollution of coastal wetlands and estuaries
246

Natural Capital Degradation

Major Human Impacts on Marine Ecosystems and Coral
Reefs
Marine Ecosystems

Half of coastal wetlands lost to

agriculture and urban development
Over one-fifth of mangrove forests
lost to agriculture, aquaculture,
and development
Beaches eroding due to
development and rising sea levels

Coral Reefs

Ocean bottom habitats degraded

by dredging and trawler fishing

Ocean warming
Rising ocean acidity
Soil erosion
Algae growth from
fertilizer runoff
Bleaching
Rising sea levels
Increased UV exposure

At least 20% of coral reefs

severely damaged and 2533%
more threatened

Damage from anchors

and from fishing and
diving

247
Fig. 8-12, p. 176

8-4 Why Are Freshwater Ecosystems

Important?
Freshwater ecosystems
Provide major ecosystem and economic services
Are irreplaceable reservoirs of biodiversity

Standing (lentic) bodies of freshwater

Lakes
Ponds
Inland wetlands

Flowing (lotic) systems of freshwater

Streams
Rivers
248

Natural Capital

Freshwater Systems
Ecological
Services

Economic
Services

Climate
moderation

Food

Nutrient cycling

Drinking water

Waste treatment
Irrigation water
Flood control

Groundwater
recharge
Habitats for many
species
Genetic
resources and
biodiversity
Scientific
information

Hydroelectricity
Transportation
corridors
Recreation
Employment
249
Fig. 8-14, p. 178

Water Stands in Some Freshwater Systems

and Flows in Others
Lakes have four zones based on depth and distance from shore
Littoral zone
Near shore where rooted plants grow; high biodiversity
Turtles, frogs, crayfish, some fish

Limnetic zone
Open, sunlight area away from shore; main photosynthetic zone
Some larger fish

Profundal zone
Deep water too dark for photosynthesis
Low oxygen levels
Some fish

Benthic zone

Decomposers
Detritus feeders
Some fish
Nourished primarily by dead matter
250

Painted
turtle

Blue-winged
teal

Green
frog
Muskrat

Pond
snail

Littoral zone

Plankton

Diving
beetle

Northern
pike
Yellow
perch

Bloodworms

251
Fig. 8-16, p. 179

Some Lakes Have More Nutrients

Than Others
Oligotrophic lakes
Low levels of nutrients and low NPP
Very clear water

Eutrophic lakes
High levels of nutrients and high NPP
Murky water with high turbidity

Cultural eutrophication of lakes from human

input of nutrients
252

Freshwater Streams and Rivers Carry Large

Volumes of Water
Surface water (runoff)
Downward flow of water from mountains
Three aquatic life zones
Source zone
Shallow, cold, clear, swiftly flowing
High dissolved oxygen

Transition zone
Wider, deeper, warmer streams
More turbid
Less dissolved oxygen

Floodplain zone
Wide, deep rivers
Broad, flat valleys
253

Rain and
snow

Lake
Glacier
Rapids
Waterfall
Tributary
Flood plain
Oxbow lake
Salt marsh

Delta Deposited
sediment
Ocean
Source Zone
Transition Zone

Floodplain Zone

Water
Sediment

Stepped
254 Art
Fig. 8-18, p. 180

Case Study: River Deltas and Coastal

Wetlands
Coastal deltas, mangrove forests, and coastal
wetlands provide natural protection against
storms
Dams and levees reduce sediments in deltas
Subsidence of New Orleans

Rising sea levels will inundate coastal areas

255

Freshwater Inland Wetlands Are Vital

Sponges
Inland wetlands
Lands located away from coasts that are covered with
freshwater all or part of the time

Include:
Marshes, swamps, prairie potholes, floodplains, and arctic
tundra

Provide free ecosystem and economic services

Filter and degrade toxic wastes

Reduce flooding and erosion
Help to replenish streams and recharge groundwater aquifers
Biodiversity
Food and timber
Recreation areas
256

8-5 How Have Human Activities Affected

Freshwater Ecosystems?
Human activities
Threaten and disrupt ecosystem and economic
services provided by freshwater lakes, rivers, and
wetlands

Dams and canals restrict the flows of rivers

40% of the worlds largest rivers

Flood-control destroys aquatic habitats and alters

wetlands
Cities and farms pollute water
Many wetlands have been drained for human
purposes
257

Three Big Ideas for Chapter 8

Water dominates the planet
Saltwater and freshwater aquatic life zones cover
almost three-fourths of the earths surface

The earths aquatic systems provide important

ecosystem and economic services
Human activities threaten biodiversity and
disrupt ecological and economic services
provided by aquatic systems
258

Chapter 9: Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving

Species and Ecosystem Services
9-1 What role of humans play in the loss of species
and ecosystem service?
9-2 Why should we care about sustaining species
and ecosystem services they provide?
9-3 How do humans accelerate species extinction
and degradation of ecosystem services?
9-4 How can we sustain wild species and their
ecosystem services?
259

Core Case Study: Where Have All the

Honeybees Gone?
Bees play a key role in pollination
Globally, about one third of the food supply
comes from insect-pollinated plants
Currently, agriculture depends heavily on a
single species of bee
Suffering from Colony Collapse Disorder
Each year, 30-50% of colonies in Europe and the U.S.

260

9-1 What Role Do Humans Play in the Loss

of Species and Ecosystem Services?
Species are becoming extinct 100 to 1,000 times faster
than they were before modern humans arrived on the
earth
By the end of this century, the extinction rate is expected
to be 10,000 times higher than that background rate

Biological extinction
No species member alive

Trophic cascade
Population declines or extinctions among connected
species

Mass extinction
Many species in a short amount of time
261

Some Human Activities Hasten Extinctions

and Threaten Ecosystem Services
Background extinction rate
1 extinct species / year / 1 million species

Extinction rates have risen recently

Current extinction rate is at least 100 times higher than
typical background rate of 0.0001%

Rate of extinction and threats to ecosystem services

likely to rise sharply in the next 50-100 years
Due to harmful human impacts

Biodiversity hotspots
Extinction rates projected to be much higher than average

Biologically diverse environments are being eliminated

or fragmented
262

Endangered and Threatened Species Are

Ecological Smoke Alarms
Endangered species
So few members that the species could soon become extinct

Threatened species (vulnerable species)

Still enough members to survive, but numbers declining
May soon be endangered

Regionally extinct
In areas a species is normally found

Functionally extinct
To the point at which species can no longer play a functional role in the
ecosystem

263

41%

Amphibians

30%

Conifers

25%

Mammals

Birds

13%

264
Fig. 9-3, p. 194

Characteristic

Examples

Low reproductive
rate

Blue whale, giant

panda, rhinoceros

Specialized
niche

Narrow
distribution

Blue whale, giant

panda, Everglades
kite
Elephant seal,
desert pupfish

Feeds at high
trophic level

Bengal tiger, bald

eagle, grizzly bear

Fixed
migratory
patterns
Rare

Commercially
valuable
Large territories

Blue whale,
whooping crane,
sea turtle
African violet,
some orchids

Snow leopard, tiger,

elephant, rhinoceros,
rare plants and birds
California condor,
grizzly bear, Florida
panther

Stepped
265 Art
Fig. 9-4, p. 194

9-2 Why Should We Care about the Rising

Rate of Species Extinction?
We should avoid speeding up the extinction of
wild species because:
Of the ecosystem and economic services they
provide
It can take millions of years for nature to recover
from large-scale extinctions
Many people believe that species have a right to
exist regardless of their usefulness to us
266

Species Are a Vital Part of the Earths

Natural Capital
Major reasons to prevent extinctions
Species provide vital ecosystem services
Help keep us alive and support our economies

Many species also contribute economic services

Plants for food, fuel, lumber, and medicine
Ecotourism

It will take 5-10 million years to regain species

biodiversity after this centurys extinctions
Many people believe species have an intrinsic right to
exist
How do we decide which species to protect?
267

Pacific yew
Taxus
brevifolia,
Pacific
Northwest
Ovarian cancer

Rauvolfia
Rauvolfia sepentina,
Southeast Asia
Anxiety, high blood
pressure
Foxglove

Digitalis
purpurea, Europe
Digitalis for heart
failure

Rosy
periwinkle
Cathranthus
roseus,
Madagascar
Hodgkin's
disease,
Cinchona
lymphocytic
Cinchona
leukemia
ledogeriana, South
America Quinine
for malaria
treatment

Neem tree
Azadirachta
indica, India
Treatment of
many diseases,
insecticide,
spermicides
268
Fig. 9-6, p. 196

Orangutan
Hyacinth macaw
269

9-3 How Are We Threatening Species and

Ecosystem Services?
The greatest threats to any species are (in
order):
Loss or degradation of its habitat
Harmful invasive species
Human population growth
Pollution
Climate change
Overexploitation
270

Loss of Habitat Is the Single Greatest

Threat to Species: Remember HIPPCO
Habitat destruction, degradation, and
fragmentation
Invasive (nonnative) species
Population and resource use growth
Pollution
Climate change
Overexploitation
271

Loss of Habitat Is the Single Greatest

Threat to Species
Habitat fragmentation
Large intact habitat divided by roads, crops, and urban
development

National parks and nature reserves as habitat islands

272

We Have Moved Disruptive Species into

Some Ecosystems
Many species introductions are beneficial
Corn, wheat, rice, cattle, poultry, trees, honeybees

Nonnative species may have no natural:

Predators, competitors, parasites, pathogens

Nonnative species can crowd out native

species
Invasive species

273

Deliberately introduced species

Purple
European
loosestrife starling

Marine toad
(Giant toad)

African honeybee Nutria

(Killer bee)

Water
hyacinth

Japanese
beetle

Hydrilla

Salt cedar
(Tamarisk)

European wild
boar (Feral pig)

Accidentally introduced species

Sea lamprey
(attached to
lake trout)

Formosan
termite

Argentina
fire ant

Zebra
mussel

Brown tree
snake

Eurasian
ruffe

Common pigeon
(Rock dove)

Asian long- Asian tiger Gypsy moth

horned beetle mosquito
larvae

Stepped
274 Art
Fig. 9-9, p. 199

Case Study: The Kudzu Vine and Kudzu

Bugs
Imported from Japan in the 1930s
Help control soil erosion

Very difficult to kill

Could there be benefits of kudzu?
Kudzu bug imported from Japan
Can kill Kudzu vine
Also kills soybeans

275

Some Accidentally Introduced Species Can

Disrupt Ecosystems
Argentina fire ant introduced in the 1930s

Reduced populations of native ants

Painful stings can kill
Pesticide spraying in 1950s and 1960s worsened conditions
Tiny parasitic flies may help control fire ants

Burmese Pythons Are Eating Their Way through the

Florida Everglades
Accidentally introduced
Reproduce rapidly and are hard to kill
Greatly depleted Everglades populations of: rabbits, foxes,
raccoons, opossums, and deer
276

277
Fig. 9-11, p. 201

Prevention Is the Best Way to Reduce

Threats from Invasive Species
Research programs identifying invaders
Establishing international treaties banning
transfer between countries
Public education about exotic pets and plants
What else can be done to prevent invasive
species?

278

279
Fig. 9-12, p. 202

Other Causes of Species Extinctions

Human population growth and
overconsumption
Degrading habitat

Pollution
Bioaccumulation can cause extinctions of species
not directly affected by pollution

Climate change
Some species will become extinct, some will
spread
280

DDT in fish-eating
birds (ospreys)
25 ppm

DDT in large fish

(needle fish)
2 ppm
DDT in small
fish (minnows)
0.5 ppm

DDT in
zooplankton
0.04 ppm

DDT in water
0.000003 ppm,
or 3 ppt
Stepped
281 Art
Fig. 9-13, p. 202

Case Study: Polar Bears and Climate

Change
Live only in the Arctic
Arctic ice is melting
Decreasing polar bear habitat
Polar bears must swim farther between ice
Weaker females; less reproduction

282

Illegal Killing, Capturing, and Selling of Wild

Species Threatens Biodiversity
Poaching and smuggling of animals and plants
Animal parts
Pets
Plants for landscaping and enjoyment

Prevention
Research and education

283

A Rising Demand for Bushmeat Threatens

Some African/Asian Species
West and Central African wild animals
Supply major cities with exotic meats

Hunting has driven one species to extinction

Miss Waldrons red colobus monkey

Threatened species:
Monkeys, apes, antelope, elephants, and hippos

gorilla

pangolin

284

Case Study: A Disturbing Message

from the Birds
70% of the worlds bird species are declining
Habitat loss and fragmentation of the birds
breeding habitats
Forests cleared for farms, lumber plantations,
roads, and development

Intentional or accidental introduction of

nonnative species
These species eat the birds (rats, snakes,
mongooses)
285

Case Study: A Disturbing Message

from the Birds
Exposure to pesticides
Overexploitation
For pets

Birds are indicator species

Respond quickly to environmental changes

Birds perform critical ecosystem and economic

services
Extinctions could affect many other species
286

9-4 How Can We Sustain Wild Species and

Their Ecosystem Services?
We can reduce species extinction and sustain
ecosystem services by:
Establishing and enforcing national environmental
laws and international treaties
Creating protected wildlife sanctuaries
Taking precautionary measures to prevent such
harm

287

International Treaties and National

Laws Help to Protect Species
1975 Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species (CITES)
Signed by 172 countries

Convention on Biological Diversity (BCD)

Focuses on ecosystems
Ratified by 190 countries (not the U.S.)

288

Singapore Endangered Species Act

The Endangered Species (Import
and Export) Bill was passed in
Parliament in 2006 and revised in
2008.
Any person guilty of an offence
under this Act for which no penalty
is expressly provided shall be liable
on conviction to a fine not
exceeding $10,000 or to
imprisonment for a term not
exceeding 12 months or to both.
Animals and Birds Act, Wild Animals
and Birds Act, and Control of Plants
Act.
289

We Can Establish Wildlife Refuges

and Other Protected Areas
In 1903, Theodore Roosevelt established the first federal
wildlife refuge
Pelican Island, Florida

Wildlife refuges
Most are wetland sanctuaries
More needed for endangered plants
Are not immune from disturbance

In Singapore, NParks have over 300 parks and 4 nature

reserves. NParks is responsible for maintaining and enhancing
the greenery of our City in a Garden.

Bukit Timah Nature Reserve

Central Catchment Nature Reserve
Labrador Nature Reserve
Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve
290

Seed Banks, Botanical Gardens, and

Wildlife Farms Can Help Protect Species
Seed banks
Preserve genetic material of endangered plants

Botanical gardens and arboreta

Living plants

Farms can raise organisms for commercial sale

291

Zoos and Aquariums Can Protect

Some Species
Techniques for preserving endangered terrestrial
species

Egg pulling
Captive breeding
Artificial insemination
Embryo transfer
Use of incubators
Cross-fostering

Goal of ultimately releasing/reintroducing

populations to the wild
Limited space and funds
292

293
Fig. 9-22, p. 212

The Precautionary Principle

Precautionary principle
Act to prevent or reduce harm when preliminary
evidence indicates acting is needed

Species are the primary components of

biodiversity
Should we focus on the preservation of species or
the preservation of ecosystems?
How do we decide which species should get the
most attention?
How do we determine which habitat areas are
the most critical to protect?
294

Case Study: Protecting Honeybees and

Other Pollinators
Failure to protect honeybees
Loss of vital ecosystem services

Farmers are:
Breeding bees resistant to harmful parasitic mites
and fungi
Raising their own colonies
Improving bee nutrition

295

Three Big Ideas for Chapter 9

We are hastening the extinction of wild species and
degrading the ecosystem services they provide by:
Destroying and degrading habitats
Introducing harmful invasive species
Increasing human population growth, pollution, climate change,
and overexploitation

We should avoid causing the extinction of wild species

Species provide vital ecosystem and economic services
Their existence should not depend primarily on their usefulness
to us

We can work to prevent the extinction of species and to

protect overall biodiversity and ecosystem services by:
Using laws and treaties
Protecting wildlife sanctuaries
Making greater use of the precautionary principle
296