Proceeding of 6th Confernce

RIFT VALLEY UNIVERSITY
Proceedings of the 6th National Research Conference

on Research for Quality and Relevant Higher
Education and Training
RVU CONFERENCE (NFYD) HALL, ADAMA, ETHIOPIA

Website:
Email:
www.riftvalleyuc.net/Research/research.html/
rpo.rvuc@gmail.com
Telephone: 0221 12 49 01
Adama, June 14, 2014

Proceedings of the 6th National Research Conference on Research for Quality
and Relevant Higher Education and Training
Morning Session . June 14, 2014
Opening Ceremony.Venue: NFYD/RVUC Conference Hall
TIME
8:008:30
AM
8:30......8:40
AM
8:30......8:40
AM
8:40......8:50
AM
TOPIC
Registration
FACILITATOR/S
Conference Organizing
Committee
CHAIRPERSON
Ato Endalu Rosha,
Corporate Admn.
Manager and PR
Director
Introductions Dr. Haileleul Zeleke
Dr. Fekadu
Vice President for Research Lemessa, Director
and Postgraduate Studies,
for Research and
RVUC
PG Studies, RVUC
Inaugural
Ato Reta Bekele,
Dr. Fekadu
Address
President, RVUC
Lemessa, Director
for Research and
PG Studies, RVUC
Key Note
His Excellency
Dr. Fekadu
Speech
Dr. Tesfaye Teshome,
Lemessa, Director
Director, HERQA
for Research and
PG Studies, RVUC
RAPPORTUERS
Conference
Organizing
Committee
Conference
Organizing
Committee
Conference
Organizing
Committee
Conference
Organizing
Committee
Plenary Session: .Venue: RVUC/NFYD Conference Hall

Chairperson Dr. Fekadu Lemessa, Director for Research and PG Studies, RVUC
Rapporteur Ato Bealemlay Tilahun, Associate Dean, Health Faculty, RVUC
MAJOR THEME
IMPROVING THE QUALITY AND RELEVANCE OF HEALTH EDUCATION
TIME
TOPIC
PRESENTER
9:00
Rending Reciprocitys Rampart: A Theory Left Idle Mindaralew Zewdie,
9:20 Am
Is A Worse Shop Of The Gullible
RVUC
9:20...9:40
9:40.
.10:00
Assessment Of Knowledge, Practice And Related

Zerihun Tadesse,
Factors Among Metal Industry Workers In Adama
RVUC, Health Faculty
Town
Assessing The Impact Of Modern ICT On Youth: The Temesgen File
Case Of Health Science Students Of Rift Valley
University College, Adama, Ethiopia
Discussions
Participants
10:00
10:30
10:3011:00 Coffee Break
Public Relations
11:0011:20
Assessment Of Use Of Traditional Medicine For

Treatment Of HIV/Aids And Its Opportunistic
Infections In Adama Hospital Medical College, East
Shewa, Oromiya Regional State, Ethiopia
11:2011:40 Availability Of Adequately Iodized Salt Among
Urban And Rural Households In Adama District
After One Year Period Of Mandatory Salt Iodization
In Ethiopia
11:4012:20 Assessment Of Knowledge, Attitude And Practice Of
Oral Health Among Students Of Rift Valley
University
12:20
Discussions
12:50
Mustefa Ahmed
Abdi Asfaw
Meryema Abdo
Participants
AFTERNOON SESSION June 14, 2014

Plenary Session: ..Venue: RVUC/NFYD Conference Hall
Chairperson.Dr. Senbeto Busha, Dean, RVUCs Gullele Campus
Rapporteur Dr. Mengistu Sime,Office Quality Assurance, RVUC
Technology, RVUC
MAJOR THEME: IMPROVING THE QUALITY AND RELEVANCE OF BUSINESS AND
SOCIAL SCIENCE EDUCATION
TIME
TOPIC
PRESENTER
2:002:20
Assessment of Academic Staff Motivation in
Mesele Kumlachew,
PM
Private Higher Education Institutions: A Case
RVUC
Study of Selected Private Higher Education
Institutions Found in Adama Town
2:20...2:40
The Impact of Credit Risk on the Financial
Yonas Asfaw
Performance of Microfinance Institutions in
RVUC
Ethiopia
2:40..3:00
3:00..3:30
3:30..4:00
4:00...4:20
4:204:40
4:405:00
5:005:20
Assessment of Teaching - Learning Practices In

Order to Improve the Quality and Relevance of
Business Education: Case of Rift Valley
University College
DISCUSSIONS
Coffee Break
Mekonnen Soboksa
RVUC
Continuous Assessment And Students

Performance In Rift Valley University Adama
Campus
Measurement and Analysis of Labor Productivity
in Construction Projects: A Case Study on
Adama City Building Projects
DISCUSSIONS
Closing Speech and Award of Certificates
Wubetu Mesele
RVUC
PARTICIPANTS
Public Relations
Teame Gebretsadik
RVUC
PARTICIPANTS
President Reta Bekele and
Vice Presidents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Welcome Speech ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -6
Ato Reta Bekele (President , Rift Valley University College
2. Inaugural Address---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -----9
His Excellency, Dr. Tesfaye Teshome, General Director of HERQA
3. Assessment of Knowledge, Practice And Related Factors Among Metal Industry
Workers in Adama Town
Zerihun Tadesse 12
4. Assessing The Impact Of Modern ICT On Youth: The Case Of Health Science
Students Of Rift Valley University College, Adama, Ethiopia
Temesgen File 25
5. Assessment Of Use Of Traditional Medicine For Treatment Of HIV/AIDS And
Its Opportunistic Infections In Adama Hospital Medical College, East Shewa,
Oromiya Regional State, Ethiopia
Mustefa Ahmed 43
6. Availability Of Adequately Iodized Salt Among Urban And Rural Households In Adama
District After One Year Period Of Mandatory Salt Iodization In Ethiopia
Abdi Asfaw
67
7. Assessment of Knowledge, Attitude and Practice of Oral Health Among Students of Rift
Valley University
Meryema Abdo 83
8. The Impact of Credit Risk on the Financial Performance of Microfinance Institutions in
Ethiopia
Yonas Asfaw Zewde
.96
9. Assessment of Teaching - Learning Practices In Order to Improve the Quality and Relevance
of Business Education: Case of Rift Valley University College
Mekonnen Soboksa
.112
10. Continuous Assessment And Students Performance In Rift Valley University Adama Campus
Wubetu Mesele .121
11. Assessment of Academic Staff Motivation in Private Higher Education Institutions: A Case
Study of Selected Private Higher Education Institutions Found in Adama Town
Mesele Kumlachew Aga .139
Welcome Speech
Ato Reta Bekele (President , Rift Valley University College
Dear Dr. TesfayeTeshome,
Director General of Higher Education Relevance and Quality Agency
Dear invited guests and members of RVUC Faculty and Staff;
Dear Students;
Ladies and Gentlemen:
Good Morning,.
May I say that I am honored to have the opportunity to deliver this opening speech at the Annual
National Research Conference organized by Rift Valley University College. In fact this is a
memorable occasion in the life of our institution and I hope you all share with me the pleasure of
being part of this great moment. I would like to express my sincere appreciation for the
organizers of this research conference. This National conference is the sixth of its kind on this
campus and I sincerely commend you on what you have accomplished to make this occasion a
reality.
Having said this, I now would like to briefly turn your attention to the issue that has brought
every one of us together in this conference hall today. Teaching and research are the two most
important traditional functions of higher learning institutions. It is widely recognized that
teaching contributes to the enrichment of research and research in turn contributes to enhanced
levels of teaching. Both are closely related, inter-dependent and mutually supportive.
Consequently, it is my view and the view of all of you in this hall that the nexus between
research and higher learning is a vital one and needs to be encouraged. One of the most
important strategies to encourage this nexus and to promote a research led teaching culture in the
institutions of higher education is to create a conducive environment in which faculty staff can
conduct research alongside teaching and bring their research outputs to attention through public
conferences such as this one. Whenever such environments are created consistently, faculty staff
shall know that they are adding to their knowledge and skills in ways that enable them to make
meaningful and significant contributions towards the expansion of knowledge and the growth of
their students.
Being an acclaimed higher learning institution, Rift Valley University College is committed to
facilitating the nexus between these aspects of higher learning. We at RVUC strongly believe
that when we begin to combine these two aspects in a coherent manner, the relevance and quality
of our services are greatly enhanced and supported. At this very hiatus, you may be wondering
what is gained from relevant and quality higher learning. A simple and straightforward answer is
that relevant and quality education is a sole and vital instrument which allows a country to
produce workforce that is knowledgeable, skilled in technology, creative, critical and
practitioners of positive attitudes and values. When this is fulfilled, a country is said to be on the
right path to development and transformation and industrialization. By strengthening the nexus
between teaching and research, I believe we can help restore confidence in the promises of
relevant and quality education, affirming with pride our own promises to take our nations
growth and development in the 21st Century forward. I have been informed by the organizers that
this conference involves discussions and debates on more than 12 papers that cover topics
encompassing arrange of academic disciplines on offer at our Institution. I trust these topics are
quite interesting to warrant your engagement.
Let me take this opportunity for the sixth time in a row to assure you that the Management of
Rift Valley University College shall resolutely continue to support such professional meetings
annually not only on its main campus but also at all its campus locations throughout the country
and widely share conference outcomes through proceedings and journal publications. I would
also take the same opportunity to express my gratitude for all our guests who offered to share this
moment with us by giving up their other important engagements on this day. May I also express
my sincere appreciation for the academic staff members who thought it important to do
something useful in the way of research and share their findings with us at this annual national
conference.
Ladies and gentlemen,

Let me again offer my welcome to all participants of this Conference. I hope that this day will be
a fruitful one for all of you. The free exchanges of ideas among the various interests represented
here will only further our understanding of the issues raised by the various topics for discussion.
I simply look forward to an active and lively discussion and debate on the issues surrounding the
theme of this national conference.
Thank you very much.
INAUGURAL ADDRESS AT RVUCS 6TH NATIONAL RESEARCH CONFERENCE

Dr. Tesfaye Teshome, Director General, HERQA
Distinguished Researchers,
All Participants of this Research Conference,
Dear All,
Allow me to express a sincere appreciation on behalf of HERQA to Rift valley University
College for continuously organizing a research conference on Research for Quality and
Relevant Education and Training. The major agenda of the conference is the major goal of
HERQA: advancing quality and relevance. At this juncture, let me express my earnest
appreciation to the top management of RVUCs and the organizing committee of this sixth
national research conference for the work well done.
Ladies and Gentlemen,
Undoubtedly, a higher institution like RVUC has to conduct a research work which can advance
quality in education and training, solve health problems of the community and enhance the way
HEIs interchange and transfer technologies and knowledge. A research conducted on the quality
and relevance of education and training can also play a paramount importance and a substantial
role for the socio-economic development of the country. Unless policies and strategies that
potentially consider science, health, business, and technology and basic social needs come in to
practice, development will be ideal.
HERQA is pleased that RVUC has organized the sixth research conference on research for
quality education and training. As I said, the theme of the conference is not RVUCs agenda.
Today Relevant Education is a national issue! We are pleased that RVUC has taken up this
agenda seriously and continuously. It is important to note and appreciate that all the research
works for this 6th research conference are funded by RVUC. One can clearly see that RVUC has
allocated and earmarked a substantial amount of research fund. Secondly it is important that all
these research works are conducted by the staff of RVUC. This also enhances the research and
presentation skills of the staff. Finally, as in last year, this year RVUC has given top priority to
addressing problems related to health which is creditable. This in turn will improve the quality
and relevance of health education at RVUC. Health related research works should enhance the
quality of life.
Dear all participants of this conference,
Improving institutional capacity for conducting applied research is a fundamental tool to realize
sustainable socio-economic development. Diversifying applied research works, in turn, has a
meaningful value to sustain such economic growth and improve the quality of life. As creativity
and new systems are the result of research findings, conducting applied researches paves the way
to new discoveries. Applied research improves the quality of life. Research advances quality.
Research improves the relevance of what we are doing. It is very important that RVUC has
planned to promote the research works of postgraduate students. In many situations, postgraduate
thesis works are often shelved or remain unpublished. As I see RVUCs plan, there is a fertile
ground to publish The Ethiopian Journal of Business and Economics. HERQA will be
pleased if RVUC publishes its third journal on Medical and Health Sciences. As a higher
education Institution, RVUC should work not only educating postgraduate students but also
packaging and transferring knowledge through journals and online publication. The motto is
Either publish or perish!!
It is also encouraging to see RVUC organize research conferences not only in its main campus,
but in all campuses. Introducing research and publication culture in all campuses will support
RVUC realize its vision: to be a leading higher institution education, research and community
services I Eastern Africa. RVUC has almost completed its job to promote the college to a
University level. HERQA experts assessed almost all campuses of RVUC. The process might
have been lengthy but HERQA will exert its level best to complete in short time. What does
becoming a University mean to you? It means more research and more doctoral studies. This will
surely add relevance and quality to the research work you are already engaged in. It is good to
see that staff research engagement at RVUC has increased.
10

RVUC is one of the growing higher education institutions in the country. Its post graduate
programs surely will boost the quality, relevance and dissemination of the research works. Post
graduate programs will create the preparation of research works not only by the students but also
by the research advisors. Postgraduate students should choose research topics to solve practical
problems. RVUC should make maximum efforts in controlling plagiarism which has damaged
the research works of postgraduate students.
Lastly, I would like to make this affirmation that the MOE and HERQA will provide all the
necessary support to RVUC on its way to undertake research and publications which enhances
quality and relevant education and training.
I expect that sixth national conference will come up with fertile recommendations.
I declare this sixth national research conference is officially open.
Thank you.
11
ASSESMENT OF KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICE LEVEL TOWARDS SAFTY

INFORMATION AMONG METAL INDUSTRY WORKERS IN ADAMA TOWN
Zerihun Tadesse (Lecture, Faculty of Health Science, Rift Valley University, Adama)
Abstract
Annually, throughout the world, an estimated 271 million people suffer from work related
injuries, and around 2 million deaths from the injury. From this, over 90 percent was in lowand middle-income countries. In Sub-Saharan African countries about 54 000 fatal occupational
accidents happen annually and approximately 42 million work-related accidents took place
that results at least 3 days absence from work. The fatality rate in Sub-Saharan African
countries is 21/100000 workers and the accident rate per 100000 workers is 16000. In
Ethiopia, the fatal occupational accidents rate is 5596/yr with a fatality rate of 21.5/100000
workers and an accident rate of 16426/100000 workers. In recent years, in developed
countries the occupational health and safety of workers has improved, but there is no
significant improvement developing countries. Ethiopia is categorized among under
developing countries and do not have much data on health and safety.
The objective of the study was to assess the knowledge and practice of factory workers
on occupational safety information and related factors. A descriptive cross- sectional study
was conducted in Adama steel factory and under EFDR Metal engineering corporation Adama
agricultural instrument factory from May 12 to 15. A total of 320 study subjects were selected
from the two factories according to their worker number proportions. The data was collected
using structured questionnaires. The questionnaire was pre-tested for their accuracy and
validation prior to the actual study and the necessary adjustments were done accordingly.
The data were entered after being encoded and analyzed using SPSS Version 19. The mean
(standard deviation) age of the respondents was 24.56 (6.08), 87 % of the participants
were male, 235 (73.5%) percent of the respondents recognized at least one safety sign.
The
majority
of
the
study
participants
302
(94.35%)
used
over
all,
284(88.2%) used boots, 271 (84.5%) used gloves, 46 (14.16%) used goggles
217 (68.3%) respondents got training on different occupational health and safety
information and 52 .5% of the respondents used glove and 38.2% used boots. The workers
12
have less knowledge level and practice when compared to other previously conducted
studies. Health and safety recommendation should be given to the workers. Safety signs
should be posted at a reasonable work sites.
1. INTRODUCTION
In occupational injury is any physical injury condition sustained on a worker in connection with
the performance of his or her work in the industry. Employed people in industries spend at least
one third of a day at work which have a strong effect on their health and safety due to work and
work-related injuries (J.M. Stellman). These occupational injuries pose a major public health
and developmental problems which result in a serious health, social, and economic
consequences on workers and their employers(Elizabeth II)
The World Health Organization (WHO) considers the workplace a priority setting for health
promotion in the 21st century. Workplace can have a positive impact on the health and wellbeing of workers, their families, communities and society at large Safe work and workplace is
necessary for increased production and higher productivity and hence promotion and
protection of safe work and workplace is the complementary aspect of industrial development
However, industrialization has also had adverse health consequences on work places. These
effects have been caused either directly by exposure to safety hazards and harmful agents or
indirectly through environmental degradation(E.E. Lekei, F.T Mununa, A.B. Uronu, Igor A.
Fedotov, John B. Kachuba, Mary A. Newman)
The British Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 makes provision for the health, safety
and welfare of all people at work and for the controlled use of dangerous substances and
emissions(WHO/ILO). The Act places on the whole community a responsibility for caring,
and the co-operation of all in creating safer working environment. There is a responsibility on
all employers to arrange adequate instruction, training and supervision; and to lay down a
safety policy and to tell their employees about it (W. O. Phoon). The prime responsibility for
the health and safety of workers in their employment rests with employers, who should
provide
and
maintain
proper
(h ttp://www.riskman.unsw.edu.au/ohs/sign s.sh tml).
13
working
environments
Employers throughout the world provide a vast amount of safety information to workers both
to encourage safe behavior and to discourage unsafe behavior. These sources of safety
information include, among others relations, codes and standards, industry practices, training
courses, Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs), written procedures, safety signs, product
labels, and instruction manuals. Occupational safety information (sign, label, and symbol)
contains specific information that is of interest at various activities or handling
stages. It i s t h e u s e r s responsibility to read and understand the label when buying,
working,
storing
and
handling
as
well
as
disposing
(http ://www.campus.manch ester.ac.uk/healthandsafety, J.M. Stellman, Fred A.)

The International Labor Office (ILO) estimates that every year there are some 125 million
work related accidents, 220,000 of them fatal. According to WHO, 160 million new cases of
occupational diseases are caused annually by exposure and dangerous conditions at the
work place; 30-40% of them can be expected to lead to chronic diseases and about 10% are
likely to Result in permanent disability.[http ://www.h se.gov.uk/pubns/indg184.htm].
Every nine minutes, someone is killed by their job. In 1994, employers reported 6.3million
disabling
work
injuries
and
515,000
cases
of
occupational
diseases.
[http://www.safeandhealthyworking.com/main- sec tion/wo rkp lace topics/safety signs.cfm].

Annually, throughout the world, an estimated 271 million people suffer from work related
injuries, and 2 million die from these injuries (DR. R S Baloyi ).
Hazard exposure at work is higher than the exposures of the general population. Therefore,
the adverse effects of different work hazards are most likely to appear at work. In recent
years, in developed countries, on the whole the occupational health and safety of the
population has improved, and the situation can be described as relatively satisfactory.
The same, however, cannot be said for the developing countries, in many of which
occupational health receives little attention and comes low on the list of national priorities
(Agnihotram Ramanakumar V).
It is assumed to be similar for Ethiopia, due to the above same reasons. The rationale of
the study is that, Ethiopia is one of the countries in which industries are growing up and at
the same time information concerning on occupational safety to workers is minimal as well
work related injuries are likely to rise among workers with less information. Designing any
14
intervention programme needs a thorough assessment of the knowledge and practice

of the population at which the intervention programme is carried out.
Thus, in order to formulate appropriate control methods to reduce the occupational or
work place incidences, it is necessary to assess the knowledge and practice of factory
workers on occupational safety information and to design appropriate intervention
methods and make the workers safe while they are undergoing different activities.
Therefore, this study is designed to assess the knowledge, practice and related factors of
industrial workers and will provide the necessary information for policy makers and others
who are interested i n m a k i n g a p p r o p r i a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n .
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Study design
A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted to assess the knowledge level and practice
of the metal industry workers on safety information.
2.2. Study area and period: The study was conducted in Adama town. Adama is one of the
biggest town in Oromia region. Adama lies east from Addis Ababa. Totally, in Adama there are
different types of factories metal and steel factory is one of the major industry sectors in the
town and Adama steel factory and Under EFDR metal corporation Adama agricultural
instrument factory were selected. The study was conducted from 18 to 24 April, 2014.
2.3. Source population: All factory workers in Adama town and its surrounding.
2.4. Study population: Factory workers who was selected as a study subject
2.4. Sample size determination. The sample size was determined using a single proportion
formula taking proportion of 50% knowledge, a conservative estimate to obtain a large
sample size at 95% certainty and a maximum discrepancy of 5% between the sample and
the underline population.
2
n = (Z /2) * P (1-p)
d2
Where, n = sample size
15
p = workers knowledge proportion (50%)

Z = standard normal distribution curve value for the
95% confidence interval (1.96)
d = the margin of error or accepted error
N =
2.5. Sampling technique
2
(1.96 ) * 0.5(1 -0 .5 )
2
(0.05)
N =
The two industries were purposely selected in the assumption of time and financial
constraints to account the whole industries in the town and no other descriptive studies that
showed any variation in their working characteristics. In addition, most safety information
througho ut the world in work areas are identical and the work related accidents are
assumed to be higher in these factories since there are difficult work activities.
A n on -p ro ba bi l i t y q u o t a sampling procedure was employed. The sample size that was
determined in the sample size determination technique
was distributed in the two
industries fairly according to their worker number proportion. Workers registrations were
used as sampling frame. To select the study subject the total number of workers in each
industry was categorized in to administrative and product workers and study subjects were
drown.
2.6. Data collection technique
Data was collected using structured s e l f a d m i n i s t e r questionnaire. The questionnaire
was first developed in English and then translated in to Amharic and back to English by
different persons to check its reliability and validity.
Five percent of the questionnaires
was tested in other factory workers for the accuracy and validity and the necessary
adjustments was done prior to the actual study time.
The English version questionnaire, which was translated to Amharic version, has three
parts: the socio demographic character, the knowledge, and the practice of the workers. The
data was collected by study subjects after a thorough training was given. An i n t e n s e
supervision was under taken during the whole period of data collection by the principal
16
investigator. At the end of each day, the questionnaire was revised and checked for
completeness and consistency.
2.7. Data quality control
At the beginning emphasis was given in designing data collection tools (questionnaire). The
principal investigator was making a day to day on site supervision on the data collection and
how to handle the questionnaire. At the end of each day, the questionnaires was checked
for completeness and was submitted to the principal investigator. Pre test was conducted
in other similar industries to check the accuracy and validity of the questionnaire prior to the
actual study period. Five percent (5%) of the questionnaire was tested for their accuracy and
the necessary adjustment was made accordingly.
2.8. Data analysis
The data collected from the field will be entered after being encoded and analyzed using
Statistical Package for Social Science Studies (SPSS) version 19. Any logical and
consistency error identified during data entry was corrected after revision of the original
completed questionnaire. The cleaned and edited data was ready for appropriate statistical
analysis. The mean, standard deviation and the proportion of the variables was done.
Logistic regression analysis (LRA) extends the techniques of multiple regression analysis to
research situations in which the outcome variable is categorical. So logistic regression
method was used to measure how the outcome variables (knowledge of safety sins and safe
practice of workers) were depending on the covariate variables (working environment &
socio demographic variables). The results of the analysis were presented using tables, charts
and graphs.
2.9. Ethical considerations
Ethical clearance was obtained from Rift Valley University College Medical Faculty. Factory
managements were informed and consent obtained. Informed consent was obtained from
respondents who were participating in the study. Confidentiality was maintained by
omitting their names and personal identification or privacy.
17
3. RESULTS
3.1. Socio-demographic characteristics
A total 320(98.55%) respondents were surveyed. The mean (standard deviation) age of
the respondents was 24.56 (6.08), 87 % of the participants were male. The dominant
religion in the study area was Orthodox Christian 230(71.6 %) followed by Muslim
58(18.4%). 122 (38.2%) of the respondents were married, 181 (56.6%) were single, and
9(2.8%) were widowed. Regarding the educational levels of the study subjects, 6 (1.87%)
can read and write only, 122(38%) complete elementary school (1-8), 96(30%) complete
high school (9-12), 38(12%) certificate, and 54(17.6%) were diploma and above (Table 1).
Around 266 (83.4%) were permanent workers and the rest 51 (16.3%) were temporary or
contractual workers.
Table 1 Distribution of socio-demographic characteristic of the respondents, Adama

steel factory and Adama tractor factory June ,2014 (n=320).
Variable
number
Sex:
Male
Female
278
42
87
13
Age:
18-29
30-39
40-49
50+
260
43
14
3
81
13
4
1
Religion:
Orthodox
Muslim
Protestant
231
58
23
71.6
18.
7.3
Married
Single
Widowed
122
181
9
38.2
56.6
2.8
Marital status:
Educational level:
18
Read and write only

6
Elementary school (1-8)122
High school (9-12)
96
Certificate
38
Diploma & above
54
1.9
38
30
12
17.6
Working pattern
Permanent
Contractual
266
51
83.4
16.6
_
3.2. Knowledge on occupational health and safety information
From the total study subjects 235 (73.5%) knew the presence of different kinds of
occupational health and safety information where as the rest 2 6 .5% of the respondents
never heard about any kinds of occupational health and safety information. From 235
respondents, who have knowledge about occupational health and safety information, 186
(79%) knew about danger sign, 63 (25%) knew warning sign, and 5(1.9%) knew about
corrosive sign. 44 (19%) respondents knew flammable sign , 51 (21.9%) respondents knew
exit signs , 23 (10.4%) knew harmful sign, 4 (1.8%) irritant sign, and 11(4.6%) knew
explosive sign, 14 (6.2%) study subjects knew about oxidizing sign, 9 (4.3%) knew toxic
sign and 63 (27.2%) respondents knew high voltage or electrical risk signs (Table 2).
Table 2: The knowledge level of respondents on safety information, Adama steel factory
and Adama tractor factory June , 2014 (n=320).
Safety sign/symbol
(n)
1. Danger signs
Yes
176
79
No
2. Warning signs
Yes
63
(25%)
19
No
3. Corrosive
Yes
(1.9%)
51
(21.9%)
No
4. Exit signs
Yes
No
5. Flammable
Yes
44
(19%)
23
(10.4%)
No
6. Harmful signs
Yes
No
7. Irritant
Yes
(1.8%)
14
(6.2%)
14
(6.2%)
(4.3%)
No
8. Explosive
Yes
No
9. Oxidizing
Yes
No
10. Toxic
Yes
No
20
11. High voltage/ electrical risk

Yes
63
(27.2%)
No
_
Among the participants, 259 (81.3%) knew fire class A, 220 (69.7%) knew fire class B,
163 (51.3%) knew fire class C, and 134 (42.7%) of the respondents knew fire class D
Table 3.workers knowledge on fire classes

n
Fire classes
no
A
B
C
D
256
220
163
134
81.3
69.7
51.3
42.7
Table 4: Workers who get training in the last 12 months in relation to their source of trainer,
Adama steel factory and Adama tractor factory June , 2014 (n=320).
_
_
Trainers
Number
Percent
Yes
11
5.6
No
309
94.4
Yes
185
66.5
No
135
33.5
Yes
76
27
No
244
73
Health professionals
Experienced workers
Material or machine producer or

seller organizations
21
_
The majority of the study participants who got health and safety training, 185 (66.5%) were
trained by experienced workers in the factory, 76 (27%) respondents were trained by
machine producer or seller organizations 11(5.6%) were by health professionals
3.3. Personal protective device usage practice of workers

The majority of the study participants 302 (94.35%) used over all, 271 (84.5%) used gloves
284(88.2%) used boots, 46 (14.16%) used goggles. From the total study subjects, 164
(51.2%) respondents had training on different occupational health and safety information in
the last 12 months and of these trained workers 141 (86.2%) responded that they can
implement fire extinguishers whenever there is fire accidents.
Table 5: Personal protective device usage practice of workers
Overall
Yes
No
No
302
18
gloves
Yes
271
84.5%
Boots
No
Yes
No
49
284
46
15.5%
88.2%
11.8
Yes
No
46
274
14.16%
85.8%
Goggles
4. DISCUSSION
22
%
94.35%
5.4%
The study showed that 186 (79%) knew about danger sign and this was the highest figure of all
the other signs recognized in this study. The study revealed that 63 (25%) of the respondents
knew about warning sign which was remarkably lower as compared to the study conducted in
Ghana where 84% of the respondents recognized this sign. In this study, only 1.9% of the
respondents were aware about corrosive sign which was very low when compared to the
studies conducted different developing countries (Peru, Kenya, Namibia and Zimbabwe)
where their knowledge status on the stated sign was between 23-31 %.
Respondents also had less knowledge status on other safety signs such as flammable (19%),
harmful sign (10.4%), explosive sign (4.6%), and toxic (4.3%) when compared to the
above countries.
On contrary, 6.2% of the respondents knew oxidizing sign, which was high when compared
with those similar studies (< 1%). This discrepancy might be explained by the fact that as
confirmed by physical inspection of the work environment of participants, there was
insufficient safety signs or symbols which were displayed or posted prior to the study time.
Other possible explanation could be absence of health and safety training on safety signs
during their firs time employment. More over the training given might not focus on health and
safety issues or not be periodically. Among the safe practices of the workers, 271 (84.5%)
used a glove. This finding was almost closest to a study conducted in India on steel factory
workers which was 82.6%26. But regarding goggles usage, only 14.16% used goggles which
was very low proportion when compared with the above study(43%) 302 (94.35%) of the
participants used over all, which was larger proportion when compared with a study done on
textile industry workers in Philippines16
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1. Conclusion
Among the safe practices of the workers, 271 (84.5%) used a glove. This finding was
almost closest to a study conducted in India on steel factory workers which was 82.6%26.
but regarding goggles usage, only 14.16% used goggles which was very low proportion
when compared with the above study(43%) 302 (94.35%) of the participants used over
all, which was larger proportion when compared with a study done on textile industry
workers in Philippines.
23
5.2 Recommendation
Different safety signs should be made available at appropriate working sites and
labeled at different materials and equipment to improve the knowledge level and safe
practice of the workers. Occupational health and safety committee should be established
in factories. Provision of safety/health training for factory workers should be strengthen .
Further recommendation will be given having analyzed and observed results from multi
stage multivariate analysis.
Acknowledgments
I am very grateful to the higher officials of RVUC for the concern they showed. My
acknowledgement also goes to management bodies of Adama steel factory and Under
EFDR Metal Engineering corporation Adama Agricultural instrument assembly. I also
thank more importantly the survey respondents who were critical for this study
6.
REFERENCES
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Labor Office Geneva, 2002
2. Elizabeth II, Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1996.
http://www.healthandsafety.co .u k/inflib .h tm.], 1996.
3. Barry S. Levy, David H. Wegman. Occupational Health, 3
rd
ed. 1999, USA.
4. E.E. Lekei, F.T Mununa, A.B. Uronu, Pesticide labels and risk reduction in
developing countries, African Newsletter on occupational health and safety vol. 14(3),
2004.
5. Igor A. Fedotov, World Health Forum, An international journal of health development,
Vol. 19(4), pp.390-396, 1998, WHO, Geneva.
6. John B. Kachuba, Mary A. Newman, Protect yourself from the 10 occupational injuries and
illnesses, Why is this job killing me? 1999.
7. WHO/ILO. Occupational Health and Safety in Africa. Meeting report on occupational health
hazard. 1997.
24
8. W. O. Phoon, World Health Forum, Occupational hazard exposure of workers, an

international journal of health development. Vol. 4(4), Pp.340-343, 1983 WHO,
Geneva.
9. Safety handbook 1999/2000. [ http ://www.nottingham.ac .uk/safe ty/loc al/rad talk.d oc]. 2000.
10. Occupational Health &Safety and Environment. h ttp://www.riskman.unsw.edu.au/ohs/sign s.sh tml].
UNSW, 2002
12. Health and Safety Services Code of Practice & Guidance Note.
http ://www.campus.manch ester.ac.uk/healthandsafety], 2005.
12. J.M. Stellman. Accidents and Safety management, Encyclopedia of occupational health
and safety, vol. III, International Labor Office. Geneva, 1998
13. Fred A. Manuel. On the practice of safety. 2
nd
ed. 1997.
14. Occupational Injuries and Diseases.[http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubn s/indg184.htm].2003

15. Safety Signs and Signals
[http://www.safeandhealthyworking.com/main- sec tion/wo rkp lace topics/safety-signs.cfm], 2002.

16. DR. R S Baloyi. Study on the comprehensibility of chemical safety information in five
southern African Countries. November 1997.
Research Title: Assessing the Impact of Modern ICT on youth. (The case of
health science students of Rift Valley University College, Adama/Ethiopia)
Temesgen File Huluka, (Dean and Lecture, Faculty of Health Science, Rift Valley
University, Adama)
1. ABSTRACT:
The purpose of the study is to assess and identify the prospects and challenges of modern ICT
use by young students attending higher learning institutions. The finding of the study is intended
to promote lifelong learning that is fundamental in todays emerging knowledge society and
25
advance healthy ICT use. The study was conducted among generic students in Rift Valley
University Colleges, Faculty of Health Sciences, located at Adama/ Ethiopia.
This study site was selected for the reason that it is the dominant accredited health training
Institution in Adama/Ethiopia having the total of (415 F + 194 M = 609) student population,
from which 138 (the calculated sample size) + 22 (contingency) = 160 sample were taken for the
study. This encompasses 26% of the total population.
Both the Quantitative and Qualitative research methods were used for the study. For the
quantitative approach descriptive survey method was employed by using self administered
questionnaire comprising five major research questions. Stratified random sampling technique
was used in collecting the data. In using the qualitative method FGDs were separately held with
Dean and selected
Lecturesenior
of Health,
RVUC,and
Adama
purposively
Instructors
senior students in the faculty. The quantitative data
was separately analysed by using SPSS version 20 (Independent T test and ANOVA test). The
findings of both the quantitative and qualitative data were triangulated to arrive at conclusions.
Likewise; the major findings shows that there is;
Lack of accessibility of electronic learning resources.

Lack of knowledge and positive attitude on healthy ICT use.
Educational and occupational status of parents has a significant influence on the
knowledge and attitude of the students.
2. Key Words: ICT, Youth, Digital Divide
3. Background
Advance in science and technology of the 21 st century is becoming the driving force for the
emergence of information/knowledge society.
In such society the knowledge/information is treated as commodity and the possession of
knowledge gives more power to the owner (IGNOU, 2008). The emerging society is thus the
knowledge society whose source of power is information, and whose source of economy is
knowledge. Education is therefore, a pre-requisite for knowledge based economy. The
production and use of new knowledge both requires lifelong educated population and workforce
26
(Kurt Larset and Stephan Vincent Lancrin, 2005). Learning is thus becoming life long process in
knowledge society. Exclusion from knowledge/information is the major source of inequality. In
the
Information
age,
the
handling,
transmission,
storage,
and
Information/knowledge is also a base in human aspect of development.
retrieval
of
the
In the emerging
knowledge society the meaning of literacy is therefore, more than knowing how to read, write, or
calculate. Instead, it involves lifelong learning mainly by the use of ICT tools like internet, cell
phones, wireless communication technologies and the use of information for the desired purpose.
ICT is a term that includes any communication device or application including radio, television,
cellular phones, computer and network, hard ware and soft ware, and satellite systems, as well as
various services and applications associated with them... (The Linked world, 2008).
ICT is a powerful tool for diffusing knowledge and information. It plays a fundamental
pedagogical role by advancing knowledge economy and innovations in education process in
general and tertiary education in particular. In higher learning institutions; the use of ICT has
resulted, a move from teacher - centred delivery to trans missive learning to student centred
learning. ICT functions as information sources and cognitive tools, supporting and enabling
students to be responsible for their own learning. (Jonassen and Reeves 1996)
Scientific research in many fields of study has been revolutionized by the use of modern ICT
tools, due to digitalization of information, new recording, a tool for data capturing, processing,
simulation, virtual experiments information system, interpretation, publishing, presentation tools,
digital recording equipment, computer projection technology, computer controlled microscope,
etc., (Jonathan Osbourne, 2004)
ICT promote pedagogical innovation by encouraging teaching and learning process. It affects
the interaction pattern between and among students and teachers are changed, re-defining the
roles of teachers and learner, (Anja Balanskat, Roger Balmire, Stella Kefala, 2006). As a result,
Proponents of ICT like World Bank has taken optimistic view and highlight the positive effects
of the internet and other forms of ICTs to create new economic, social and political opportunities
for developing countries and the poor. And as such it has truly revolutionized the way we live
and work. On the other hand, the pessimistic view claim that the existing socioeconomic
inequalities will favour the privileged within the society, by leading to a widening the
socioeconomic gap with in developing countries (World youth report, 2003). Higher learning
27
institutions in developing country like Ethiopia are therefore the strategic organization to address
such social divide as shown in the concern of the pessimistic view and promote the positive
effects of ICT in learning. Studies also have shown that ICT increases pupils confidence and
motivation by making school work more enjoyable. In addition, pupils attitudes and
involvement in learning change. ICT has a potential to enhance student centred learning
approach and promote learners to be more responsible for their own learning. Basically, these
technologies are mainly used in;
1.
2.
Improving the quality of life by eliminating repetitive works.

Increasing efficiency and productivity through better decision making and cost effective
procedures.
3. Improving communication,
trade,
politics,
health,
education,
socioeconomic
development, etc.
4. Job searching, mailing, life building skills, business opportunities, good governance,
5. Promoting lifelong learning, through continuing education because of the short shelf
life of knowledge, and skills.
On the other hand, Development of ICT has its own side effect, some of which are;
1. Using computers replacing human labour that will ultimately influence human natural
capabilities.
2. Illegal activities like Internet Scam
3. Erosion of cultural Values, especially those of developing countries like Ethiopia.
4. Misusing ICT like searching extraneous information like hip hop stars, and music,
chatting with unknown people, viewing immoral sites like pornography. (Youth and ICT,
2012)
However, some scholars agree that no guarantee that the benefits always out way the
potentially negative effects. ... (The Linked world, 2008).
Young people are often the leading innovators in the use and spread of information and
communications technologies (ICT). They adapt quickly and are generally quite hungry for the
great quantities of information, locally and globally, that can be provided through emerging
information and communication technologies. ( world youth report 2005). Youth age (15-24) is
the age where major life transition occur, that might have a long lasting effect on their life,
family and society. Therefore, helping young people while navigating this life transition
28
positively have an effect not only on youth, but, also on countries prospect for development and
poverty reduction in general.
As it is depicted above the proliferation of information and communication technologies of
todays world present both opportunities and challenges particularly on youth (World youth
report 2005). Youth are hungrily using modern ICT tools mainly for their education,
entertainment, and social interactions. While doing the same youth may lack experiences, and
maturity in decision making skills to use ICT for the desired purpose. The other challenges for
effective use of ICT are;
1. Lack of money and ICT resources
2. The newest ICT applications are too expensive at least for developing countries.
3. Language barrier in using of ICT resources, for instance about 80% of the internet web sites
use only English
4. Lack of skills to explore an adequate information from ICT services at hand, etc
Although there are variations, the use of modern ICT tools like internet, cell phone, satellite
broadcasting services, there use is expanding globally even in developing countries. No doubt
these technologies are transforming ways of acquiring and transmitting information/knowledge,
and also teaching and learning processes, communication, and decisions.
But, as to my understanding related challenges and opportunities as a consequence of using such
modern technology is not given due attention at family, community and national level in
developing countries in general and in Ethiopia in particular.
This research paper is therefore targeted to assess the prospects and challenges of using modern
electronic learning resources (ICT tools) by generic students in tertiary schools offering health
science education in Adama, Ethiopia.
4. Definitions
ICT: ICT is a term that includes any communication device or application including radio,
television, cellular phones, computer and network hard ware and soft ware, and satellite systems,
as well as various services and applications associated with them... (The Linked world, 2008).
The term encompasses all those technologies that enable the handling of information and
facilitate different forms of communication among human beings, between human beings and
electronic systems, and among electronic systems, and broadly includes the capturing, output,
storage and processing systems of a computer and communications technologies that produce
29
devices, methods and networks to transmit information in digital form (Cees J. Hamelink, 1997;
in Asaffa)
Youth: UN defines Youth as a persons aged between 15 and 24 years inclusive. This definition
was first used for 1985 International youth year. However, a working group for the UNs world
youth forum in 2001, requested that the UN reconsider its 15-24 years definition of youth and
raise the upper limit to age 30 to meet the challenges of young people specially in developing
countries. (UNs world youth forum in 2001)
Digital Divide: The term 'digital divide' describes the fact that the world can be divided into
people who do and people who don't have access to - and the capability to use - modern
information technology, such as the telephone, television, or the Internet. The digital divide
exists between those in cities and those in rural areas. For example, a 1999 study showed that
86% of Internet delivery was to the 20 largest cities. The digital divide also exists between the
educated and the uneducated, between economic classes, and, globally, between the more and
less industrially developed nations. (Margaret Rouse, 2005)
5. Statement of the Problem

Generic students in higher learning institution are basically in the age of youth (15-24). This age
is the age where a major physical and psychological transition occurs having long lasting
consequences not only for themselves but also for the society in general in affecting countrys
prospects for growth and development. The digital divide, characterized by unequal access to and
use of ICT remained one of the major challenges to youth/students. Lack of skills in proper usage
of ICT is another challenge.
Besides adances in information and communication technologies (ICTs) have influenced both the
developed and developing countries of the world, in promoting social and human development.
In such aspect one can say that ICT is really a blessing. On the other hand, ICT expertise,
intellectuals & elders daily express their deep concern on the consequences of at least some of
the information available on ICT, unwise use, or no use of ICT resources.
30
Based on this fact, this research work is therefore, designed to examine the impact of ICT on
generic students, by focusing on higher learning Institutions offering health science education in
Adama, (Ethiopia) as study site.
6. Purpose of the study

The study was aimed at identifying the prospects and challenges ICT use, and the strategy
to promote healthy ICT use for lifelong learning in the emerging knowledge society.
7. Research Questions
In this research the basic research questions, to be examined are the following:
7.1.
Which type, to what extent and place where modern ICT tools are used by the
learners?
7.2.
What is the status of the students knowledge and attitude of modern ICT use?
7.3.
To what extent do students utilize internet services?
7.4.
What are the major benefits and challenges students face in utilizing modern ICT
tools?
8. Significance of the Study

It is undeniable fact that modern ICT tools have a potential impact on political, economic and
social development of a society. On the other hand, scholars express their deep concern that
children and youth are often seen as innocent victims of at least some of the information spread
by modern ICT tools. In that, they may breakdown of the nuclear family, promote teenage
pregnancy, victim of venereal diseases, and child/youth prostitution, drug use, etc. Because,
children/youth have not yet reached a stage of development that allows them to appropriately
process the information they are receiving. (World Youth Report 2003). On the other hand, the
issue of digital divide is another challenge.
Overlooking such negative impacts inevitably will have social, economic, and political
implications. It is also becoming the serious, regional, national and global issue of our time. In
fact, it is this basic understanding that motivated me to conduct research work in the area.
31
This research is thus expected to investigate; the prospects and challenges of modern ICT tools
used by generic students, Provide feedback on the potential of proper ICT use for human aspect
of development, elaborate the challenges of the unwise use of modern ICT tools. The finding
from the study also provide feedback for the Policy makers, community , & students to rise
awareness on healthy ICT use, and again from such feedback further research could be also
promoted in the area.
9. Research Methodology
9.1.
Research Design
Descriptive survey was conducted for the study for the reason that it describes the
state of affairs of the study as it exists.
9.2.
Target Population
The Target population for the study are generic students in the faculty of health
sciences, Rift Valley University College, Adama Campus/ Ethiopia.
9.3.
Sample and Sampling Technique
In the faculty of health sciences there is a total of (415 F + 194 M = 609) generic student
population.
Sample size determination formula employed for the study is
Sample size =
pqz 2
E2
Where; p is the population estimate, q is derived by subtracting p from 100, Z is the value
corresponding to the confidence level chosen for the study, E is the maximum deviation from the
true proportion that can be tolerated in the study. Therefore, for this study the calculated sample
size is
1090(1.961.96)
55
= 3457/25 = 138.
22 (Contingency), and the total of (138+ 22 =160) sample were taken for the study. This is
about 26%, of the total. In conducting the self-administered questionnaire stratified random
sampling technique was employed by stratifying their study program, year of study, seating
arrangement in class room and their sex.
9.4.
Data collection Instrument
For this study; the Data was collected by using the following instruments;
32
9.5.
Self-administered Questionnaire having a total of four major questions were

developed and administered
Focus Group discussions guided by FGD checklist having a total of eight
questions were held with purposively selected senior health Faculty students
and Instructors to supplement the data already collected.
Data Collection procedure;
Data for the self administered questions were collected by the researcher and selected staff
members from the faculty staff. Data for the FGD were collected by the researcher, by noting
important issues rose through the discussion.
9.6.
Data analysis and procedure
Data collected using self-administered questionnaire were organized and entered in to SPSS ion
20, to analyse the frequencies, independent t-test and ANOVA Tests. The findings of the
quantitative and qualitative approached were brought together for triangulation to analyse and
interpretation the data and arrive at conclusions.
9.7.
Ethical Clearance
After orientating the respondents, on the topic of the research, the purpose of the research, and
ensuring the confidentiality of the data, the right to get feedback of this research work, and the
right of the respondent to participate or not to participate in this survey. For both the quantitative
and qualitative approaches verbal consent were obtained from the respondents.
10. Results
I.
Statistical summary of the findings

For Research Question 1:
Which type, to what extent and place where modern ICT tools are used by the
learners?
Table1. Percentage of the accessibility of modern ICT services for the respondent
S.N
Modern ICT tools
1.
2.
3.
TV with Satellite dish

Internet services
Mobile phone
No
accessibility
8.1
6.3
1.3
Household
access only
48.1
3.8
5.0
33
School
access only
7.5
63.8
1.3
Easy
only
36.3
26.3
92.5
access
The result shows that; TV with satellite dish is more accessible at home, and internet services
mainly school access. But, nearly all the respondents are having easy cell phone access.
Table 2. Percentage of the frequency of the use of modern ICT services for the respondent
S.N
1.
2.
3.
4.
Modern ICT tools

TV with Satellite dish
Computer
Internet services
Mobile phone
Not at all
5.9
5.9
5.3
1.8
Rarely
12.4
18.9
21.9
1.2
Some times
34.3
52.7
46.7
8.3
Always
42
17.2
20.7
83.4
Respondents more frequently use cell phone and TV with satellite dish. And occasionally use
computer and its associate services like internet.
Table 3: Percentage showing place were respondents frequently use electronic learning resources
S.
N
1.
2.
3.
4.
Place of ICT use
Not at all
Rarely
Some times
Always
In computer lab.
In class room
In library
At home
17.2
25.4
8.9
20.1
14.8
14.2
14.8
17.2
54.4
33.1
51.5
30.8
7.7
21.9
19.5
26.6
The result shows that respondents occasionally use electronic learning resources; in computer
laboratory, in class rooms, in Library, and some at their home. And still some (26.6%) of the
respondents always use electronic learning resources at their home.
Research Question 2: What is the status of the students knowledge and attitude of modern
ICT use ?
Table 4: Showing status of knowledge/skills of the respondents in using ICT/computer
Descriptive Statistics
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Microsoft office publisher
160
2.13
.833
Microsoft power point
160
2.16
.813
Microsoft access
160
2.35
.926
Microsoft excel
160
2.49
1.046
Browsing Internet
160
2.71
.974
word processing
160
2.92
1.110
34
Valid N (list wise)
160
The Likerts scale analysis knowledge/skills test having four scales have shown the above mean
value. Lower mean value of the knowledge test is an indication of the gap in the knowledge and
skills of the respondents. The respondents are relatively having better knowledge in word
processing and browsing internet.
Table 5: showing the attitude of the respondents in using modern ICT tools
Descriptive Statistics
N
Mean
Statistic
Statistic
Std. Error
Statistic
160
4.33
.086
1.091
in class room teaching by 160
3.90
.078
.992
3.70
.089
1.120
3.91
.091
1.157
4.16
.070
.887
160
3.91
.090
1.137
160
3.80
.091
1.148
the development and use of 160
3.77
.078
.992
ICT have great impact on

learning
Std. Deviation
ICT accelerate learning process

saving time
ICT use improves learners GPA 160
Respondents
are
strongly
motivated when ICT is used in 160

learning
Getting information from ICT
is much faster than using the 160
print material
Respondents study very well
by using ICT tools
Class room lectures should be
supported with ICT
Curriculum strongly promote
basic ICT skills
Valid N (list wise)
160
Grand mean = 3.93

The lower mean value of the attitude test as shown above is an indication of the gap in the
attitude of the respondent. Likewise, the finding shows;
ICT have a great impact on learning, 4.33 (Favourable attitude)
35
ICT accelerate learning process in class room teaching by saving time, 3.90 (Gap in
attitude)
ICT use improves learners GPA, 3.70 (Gap in attitude)
Respondents are strongly motivated when ICT is used in learning, 3.91 (Gap in attitude)
Getting information
from ICT is much faster than using the print material,
4.16
(Favourable in attitude)
Respondents study very well by using ICT tools, 3.91 (Gap in attitude)
Respondents are strongly motivated when ICT is used in learning, 3.91 (Gap in attitude)
Class room lectures should be supported with ICT, 3.80 (Gap in attitude)
Curriculum strongly promote the development and use of basic ICT skills, 3.77 (Gap in
attitude)
Research Question 3: To what extent do students utilize internet services?

Table 6: Showing the frequency of internet use by the respondents
Frequency of internet use by respondents
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Missing
Total
Not at all
1.8
1.9
1.9
Rarely
18
10.7
11.3
13.1
Some times
103
60.9
64.4
77.5
Always
36
21.3
22.5
100.0
Total
160
94.7
100.0
System
5.3
169
100.0
The result show that only 22.5% of the respondents use internet more frequently, 64.4% of them
uses it some times, 11.3% of them use it rarely, and even 1.9% of them not use it at all. When the
purpose of internet use by the respondents is separately analysed only (60.9%) of them use it for
academic purpose , others are it for chatting (38.5%), sending /receiving e-mail (39.6%),
enjoying on line games (34.3%), enjoying social media (55.6%), searching songs and movies
(33.7%), searching for pornographic content (33.7%), searching recent news (33.7%).
36
The result also reveals that most of the students are not either using internet frequently, or
wisely.
Research Question 4: What are the major benefits and challenges students face in utilizing
modern ICT tools?
Table 7: Major benefits of the respondent by using e. resources from internet
S.
N
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Kinds of benefit
% of the respondent
Yes
Improved Quality of the Assessment
91.1
Improved motivation to learn
83.4
Improved Academic achievement
75.1
Improved social networking
86.4
Able to read variety of learning resources
85.2
Feel more responsible for their own learning
81.7
Improved team working in doing assignment and 87
project works
Improved reading and critical thinking habit to 87
learn
No
3.6
11.2
19.5
8.3
9.5
13.0
7.7
7.7
The result shows that; the majority of the respondents (above 75%) know the benefit of
eLearning.
Table 8: Showing the major challenges of the respondents in using internet
S.
N
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Kinds of challenges
Law internet connectivity
Lack of Knowledge in using different search engine
Lack of Knowledge and skills in using different web
sites
Un accessibility of Computer with internet
Lack of time to use ICT
Electricity failure
Course Instructors are not encouraging the use of
Internet
Respondents experienced personnel attack/harassment
% of the respondent
Yes
No
80.5
13.6
65.1
29
65.1
29
70.4
69.8
69.8
23.7
24.3
24.3
62.7
31.4
52.7
41.4
The result indicates that; the challenges of the respondents in using internet can be summarized
not only lack of accessibility of the services, but also lack of knowledge and skills
II.
Statistical analysis of the findings
37
Table 9: t-test showing the influence of sex on the knowledge of modern ICT tools
DV
Knowledg
e
IV
M
F
N
45
115
M
14.5
14.85
SD
4.2
4.5
t
1.712
df
158
p
0.09
In order to address a research question: does knowledge of modern ICT vary as a function of the
sex of students an independent t-test was employed. The analysis of a t-test revealed a nonsignificant results [t (158) = 1.72, p = 0.09]. This means that there is no significant difference in
the knowledge of ICT among male and female students of Rift Valley University College.
Table10. Summary of ANOVA Table of the knowledge of modern ICT tools as a function of
educational status of fathers.
DV
Educational
Status of
father
the
IV
SD
Not attended any school
25
13.4
3.2
Attended primary school
48
14.5
4.3
Attended secondary school
32
14.7
4.9
Attended diploma program
24
14.5
5.6
Attended Degree program
31
14.7
4.6
2.7
0.095
In order to address a research question: does knowledge of modern ICT vary as a function of
educational status of fathers? .One-way ANOVA was employed to see the relation exists. The
ANOVA test showed a non-significant result [F (4, 155) = 2.7, P = .095]. This implies that there
is no significant variation of the knowledge of modern ICT usage in terms of fathers educational
level.
Table11. Summary of ANOVA Table of the knowledge of modern ICT tools as a function of
educational status of mothers.
DV
IV
38
SD
df
25
13.4
3.4
48
14.5
3.2
32
14.7
5.3
Educational
Attended secondary school
Status of the
mother
2.014
Attended diploma program
24
14.5
4.5
31
16.5
5.3
0.032
4
educational status of mothers? .One-way ANOVA was employed to see if the relation exists. The
ANOVA test showed significant result [F (4, 155) = 2.014, P = .0032]. This implies that there is a
significant variation of the knowledge of modern ICT usage in terms of mothers educational
level.
Table 12: Summary of ANOVA Table of the knowledge of modern ICT tools as a function of
occupation of parents
DV
Occupation of the
parents
IV
SD
Managerial 24
16
5.3
Clerical
55
15.1
4.5
Manual
services
16
15.2
4.9
Daily
labourer
10
17.2
5.1
Farming
55
13.3
3.01
df
3.18
0.015
4
occupation of parents? .One-way ANOVA was employed to see if the relation exists. The
39
ANOVA test showed significant result [F (4, 155) = 3.18, P = .0.015]. This implies that there is a
highly significant variation of the knowledge of modern ICT usage in terms of mothers
educational level.
.Table 13: Summary of t-test showing the influence of sex on the attitude of modern ICT services
DV
Attitude
IV
M
F
N
45
115
M
32
31
SD
4.9
5.1
t
0.84
df
158
p
0.4
In order to address a research question: does attitude of modern ICT use vary as a
function of the sex of students. An independent t-test was employed. The analysis of a ttest revealed a non-significant results [t (158) = 0.84, p = 0.04]. This means that there is
no significant difference in the attitude of modern ICT among male and female students
of Rift Valley University College.
Table 14: Summary of t-test showing the influence of marital status on the attitude of
modern ICT services
DV
Attitude
IV
single
married
N
147
13
M
31.4
32.4
SD
5.1
4.3
t
0.7
df
158
p
0.3
In order to address a research question: does attitude of modern ICT use vary as a function of
the marital status of students. An independent t-test was employed. The analysis of a t-test
revealed a non-significant results [t (158) = 0.7, p = 0.3]. This means that there is no significant
difference in the attitude of modern ICT based on their marital status of the students of Rift
Valley University College.
Table 15: Summary of ANOVA Table; to test the influence of educational status of father on the
attitude of modern ICT tools of the respondent.
DV
IV
SD
25
31.9
4.7
48
31.1
5.2
Occupation of
40
df
the father
Attended secondary school 32
34.1
3.1
4.1
Attended Diploma program 24
29
4.7
30.7
5.8
31
0.004
158
In order to address a research question: does attitude of modern ICT vary as a function of
educational status of the father? .One-way ANOVA was employed to see if the relation exists.
The ANOVA test showed significant result [F (4, 155) = 4.1, P = .0.004]. This implies that there
is a highly significant variation of the attitude of modern ICT usage in terms of educational status
of the parents.
.
11. Summary and Conclusion
In assessing the impact of modern ICT services on youth, the most important aspect is to assess
the accessibility the services. The finding indicates; lack of accessibility of internet for most of
the students. And the available services are mainly limited to school only. The less frequent use
of internet not only shows the lack of accessibility of the services, but also lack of knowledge,
and skills. This argument can also be explained by the fact that, even though 94.7% of the
respondents ever used internet, only 27.2% of them knew internet use through formal training.
The gap in knowledge and attitude test as shown in Likerts scales analyses is an indication of this
fact.
Analysis of the status of internet use by the respondents shows that most of the internet users use
it for academic purpose, but considerable proportion of them also use internet for the purpose of
enjoying social media, and searching for song and movies, and even searching immoral sites like
pornography. This shows the gaps not only in effectively using e. resources, but also, healthy
internet use by students.
Further analysis of the finding by using independent sample t-test and ANOVA tests have shown
that the influence of mothers educational status on the respondents knowledge of modern ICT is
found highly significant (p = 0.032), Occupational statuses of the respondents parent also have a
highly significant influence on the attitude of the students (p= 0.015). The influence of the
educational status of the father on the attitude of the students is found to be highly significant (p=
0.004). These shows that mother are more important in offering first-hand information to her
children than the father, on the other hand fathers are more important in shaping the attitude of
his children.
41
12. Recommendations
As we can see from the above finding, the accessibility of ICT particularly internet is
limited mainly to school access only. The frequency of internet use by most of the student
is very low. On the other hand some scholars agree that, accessing to and healthy use of
ICT in general and internet in particular plays a decisive role in individual, community
and society wide empowerment and ensures human aspect of development. One of the
major challenge that hinder the accessibility of ICT services in general and internet in
particular, is the fact that Telecom services in Ethiopia can be considered expensive to the
citizen, whose capita income is around USD 200 and 40% of whose population is living
below poverty line (Asefa, in www.yaleisp.org/2009)
The other challenge that contributed to the less or no accessibility of ICT particularly
internet to youth is the lack of skills in using it.
The following recommendations are therefore forwarded by the researcher to address the
challenges.
Policy makers must ensure that the existing telecom services rate need to be revised
in such a way that it could promote ICT use in general, and internet use in particular.
As we can learn from the existing harmonized curricula of health science programs,
the lack of uniformity, well standardized, and up to date content that could promote
not only the development of knowledge, skills but also healthy ICT use by youth
attending higher learning institutions. Therefore, revision of the curricula to address
the gaps shown above is highly recommended.
Studies have shown that successful use of computers in class room depends on
teachers attitudes towards computer and its services. Promoting teachers through
regular training on effective utilization of ICT that would ensure the utilization of
varieties of up-to-date standardized e. resources (3 D illustration, practical guides,
model lecture notes, recent books, journals, on line lectures, etc) is highly
recommended.
Higher learning institutions like RVUC are the strategic organizations to access
computer and related services like internet to students so that the issues of the digital
divide is some how addressed.
Government and nongovernmental organizations should work in unison not only in
promoting ICT services, but also healthy ICT use by youth.
13. References
1. Anja Balanskat Roger Blamire Stella Kefala, 2006. The ICT impact report
2. Asefa, in ICT in Ethiopia- Information society project, www.yaleisp.org/2009
3. Cees J. Hamelink, New Information and Communication technologies, Social
42
Development and Cultural Change, UNRISD Discussion Paper, June 1997,

availabl at www.unrisd.org.
4. IGNOU, 2008. Development sociology (MSO 002), Module II. Block 7,
5. Jonathon, 2004. Literature review in Science Education and the role of ICT,
University of Cambridge.
6. Jonassen and Reeves 1996. In Australian journal of Education and Technology ,
2011,ICT in the changing Landscape of higher Education in south east Asia
7. Krejeie and Morgan ( 1970 ) , Social Research, 2nd edition, Sotirious Sarantakos,
Charles Sturt University, Australia
8. Kurt Larsen and Stphan Vincent-Lancrin, 2005. The impact of ICT on tertiary
education, advances and promises, Washington DC.
9.
Linked world, 2008.How ICT is transforming societies and Culture,

www.pressoffice.telefonica.com.
10. Margaret
Rouse,
2005,
Information
and
Communication
Technology.www.searchcio.techtarget.com
11. UN, World youth forum, 2001. youth and the united nations,
WWW.UN.org/youth.
12. World youth Report, 2003. Youth and Information and Communication
Technologies.www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/document/ch12.pdf.
13. Youth and the united nations, 2005. world youth report
14. Youth and ICT, 2012. www.un.org/esa/United Nation youth fact sheets.
43
Assessment of use of traditional medicine for the treatment of HIV/AIDS and its
opportunistic infections in Adama Hospital Medical College, East Shewa,
Oromiya Regional State, Ethiopia.
Mustefa Ahmed
(Lecture,
Faculty
of
Health
Science,
Rift
Valley
University,
Adama,
Email:
mustebati@yahoo.com)
Abstract
Traditional medicine use is common among individuals with HIV/AIDS. The aim of this crosssectional study is to assess the use of traditional medicine (TM) among HIV patients who are on
antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Adama hospital Medical College, Ethiopia. The study carried out
a cross-sectional survey among individuals with HIV disease taking ART in Adama hospital
Medical College to determine prevalence of TM use, dosage forms, routes of administration and
costs. Using random sampling, 418 HIV-positive patients who are on ART were selected from
ART clinic from the hospital medical college in Adama and they were interviewed with a
questionnaire.
Among 418 patients taking ART, One hundred twenty six (30%) reported ever use of TMs, while
84 of the 418 (20%) reported use of TMs during the time of the survey. Among TM use during the
time of the survey, sixty six (78.5%) and 18 (22.5%) participants reported use of herbal therapies
and spiritual therapies, respectively; fifty eight (69%) participants reported use of TM for the
treatment of opportunistic infection(OI) and 26 (31%) used for treatment of HIV. Among 84 TM
users, the most commonly used dosage forms and route of administration were liquid and oral
comprising 38 (45.2%) and 52 (61.9%), respectively. Participants spent an average 40 ETB
range (0-250) per visit on traditional medicines. The most commonly used herbs are Aloe species
and black cumin (Nigella sativa) and, the most frequently used natural health products are garlic
(Allium sativum), olive oil and honey.
44
Traditional medicine use is common among individuals with moderate and advanced HIV
disease. Concomitant use with ART has the potential for drug interactions and should be
discussed routinely in ART counseling. Further work is important to investigate whether
commonly used TMs interact with ART in vivo.
Key words: Traditional Medicine, HIV/AIDS, Opportunistic Infection
Introduction
According to WHO, traditional medicine continues to provide health coverage for over 80% of
the world population, especially in the developing world. In many African countries including
Tanzania, traditional healers play a crucial role of providing primary health care including taking
care of people living with emerging diseases such as HIV/AIDS. In 2006, almost two thirds
(63%) of all persons infected with HIV/AIDS in the world are living in sub-Saharan Africa.
HIV/AIDS pandemic is currently the most socio-economic challenge that faces Tanzania as it
affects mostly the young and most economically productive population. This translates to loss of
skills, talents, expertise and man-hours. Majority of the people living with HIV/AIDS are
susceptible to fungal and bacterial opportunistic infections that result from immune suppression.
These infections have been reported from the early days of the HIV/AIDS pandemic and are one
of the leading causes of deaths in Tanzania and worldwide. Treatment of such infections is
therefore one of the most important factors for management of HIV/AIDS cases. However,
poverty, high cost of life-enhancing drugs, resistance to conventional medicine and the serious
side effects associated with antiretroviral drugs are the main draw backs to the use of
conventional therapies (Daniel P, et al, 2007).
The use of traditional medicine and Natural Health Products is widespread among those living
with HIV infection. Many patients take a broad range of natural health products (NHPs) in
addition to their conventional therapeutic products. In Africa, traditional herbal medicines are
often used as primary treatment for HIV/AIDS and for HIV-related problems including
dermatological disorders, nausea, depression, insomnia, and weakness. Some herbal and
traditional medicines are not well-researched, poorly regulated, may contain adulterated
products, and may produce adverse effects. Notwithstanding these concerns, the use of
45
traditional medicines by Africans living with HIV is believed to be widespread, although

insufficiently documented (Edward M, et al, 2005).
Herbal medicinedefined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as herbs, herbal materials,
herbal preparations and finished herbal products, that contain as active ingredients parts of
plants, or plant materials, or combinations thereofis used to treat a multitude of ailments
throughout the world. Despite the physical availability and subsidized costs of several
pharmaceutical drugs, the majority of Africans lack the financial means to afford conventional
treatments on a consistent and/or sustainable basis. Africans living with HIV/AIDS are no
exception, and access to essential drugs, including antiretroviral (ARV) drugs, is often well
beyond their means. As conventional medical care (CMC) co-exists with traditional medicine
systems in many regions of Africa and elsewhere, people may use medicine from one system
exclusively or they may acquire medicine from each health system and use it simultaneously or
sequentially (Deanne L, et al, 2007).
Herbal medicines are widely used by HIV patients. Several herbal medicines have been shown to
interact with antiretroviral drugs, which might lead to drug failure. Echinacea, garlic, ginkgo,
milk thistle, and St. John's wort have the potential to cause significant interactions. In vitro and
in vivo animal studies also indicated other herbs with a potential for interactions; however, most
evidence is based on in vitro studies. Further pharmacokinetic studies to unveil potential Western
and especially African herbantiretroviral drug interactions are urgently required, and the clinical
significance of these interactions should be assessed (Carolien et al., 2006).
The specific pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions between various combinations
of herbal medicine and pharmaceutical drugs have rarely been investigated, leaving the overall
consequences of medical pluralism largely unknown. This is particularly true of the potential
interactions between African herbal medicines and ARV drugs despite concern being raised about
such interactions: African potato (Hypoxis hemerocallidea) and Sutherlandia can potentially
inhibit ARV drug metabolism and transport. In North America, commonly used herbal dietary
supplements have been found to impede ARV drug effectiveness. Specifically, garlic
supplements (A.sativum) and St. Johns wort (Hypericum perforatum) have detrimental effects on
the plasma concentrations of saquinavir and indinavir, respectively. Crucially, reduced plasma
concentrations of ARV drugs can lead to limited effectiveness of antiretroviral therapy (Deanne
et al., 2007)
46
The substantial reliance on traditional medicine by the majority of the sub-Saharan Africa
population led to the generally accepted conclusion that traditional medicine is used for the
treatment of HIV and related symptoms. Furthermore, traditional medicine use for the treatment
of HIV is not done in our country.
This study sought to identify and deepen the understanding of the role of traditional medicine in
the treatment of HIV/AIDS among HIV-infected adults enrolled in conventional HIV/AIDS
treatment programs in Adama, Oromiya regional state, Ethiopia.
This study aimed to provide an assessment of the prevalence of TM use for treatment of
HIV/AIDS. The objectives were to identify the most commonly used dosage forms; to determine
the average cost of TM; and to identify route of administration of TM.
Methodology
Study setting
This study was conducted in Adama hospital medical college among patients taking ARV drugs.
Study Design and Sample
This study was designed as a cross-sectional study to assess the prevalence of TM use for the
treatment of HIV/AIDS and opportunistic infections and was conducted from April through June
2014. Semi-structured interview was used. A simple random sampling procedure was used to
select 418 patients in the facility surveyed. Using this sampling procedure, all patients meeting
the inclusion criteria described below were recruited at the facility. Patients were excluded if
they did not wish to participate, or refused informed consent.
Study participants
Eligible participants were either men or women aged18 years and older on treatment in the study
area. Non-eligible participants were being an HIV-infected person < 18 years of age; and not
being currently taking treatment at study area.
47
Data Collection
Data were collected utilizing a questionnaire administered by experienced interviewers. A semistructured questionnaire was used. The survey questionnaire which was administered to the
patients included data on demographic information---gender, age, education, employment,
income; traditional medicine use; route of administration; dosage forms; and treatment cost of
TM. All interviewers had been trained for one week on the tools and operating procedures for
data collection. Furthermore, prior to the start of data collection, each interviewer completed a
refresher course on general research methodology. Informed consent was obtained from all
participants.
Ethical considerations: Approval of the study was obtained from Rift Valley University
College, Ethical review committee.
Statistical Methods
Statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 19.0 programs were used for data entry
and analysis. Prevalence data as well as predictors of use were evaluated for TM use.
Demographics were assessed in relation to TM use/nonuse through bivariate analyses. Estimated
rates of TM use were calculated and bivariate associations between the independent variables
and any use of TM for HIV/AIDS were investigated. Multivariate logistic regression was used to
estimate the influence of each independent variable on the odds of using TM; included in the
model were all variables significant at P < .05 in bivariate analysis. The 95% confidence
intervals for odds ratios and p values obtained by logistic regression were obtained using SPSS
version 19.0.
Results
Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents
As shown in table 3, the sample included 418 HIV-positive patients who are on ART, 167(40%)
were male and 251 (60%) were female with an age range of 18 to 65 years (Median = 34.5
years). The majority, 368 (88%) are in the age group between nineteen and forty nine. The
majority of patients, 217 (52.0%) were Christians. More than half (68.9 %) of the samples were
single; more than forty percent had completed secondary education and college. The majority of
participants 272 (65.0%) were from Oromo ethnic group. The main source of household income
48
of half of the participants includes family, donations by private welfare organization and no
income. The sample is further characterized by residing in urban areas (90.4%) and high
unemployment (59.8%).
Traditional Medicine use
The study results showed that 126 (30%) of study participants ever used TM for treatment of
HIV/AIDS and opportunistic infections. As indicated in table 4 and 5, eighty four, 20 % of
participants used TM at the time of the survey of which seventy (68%) for treatment of OIs and
33 (32%) for treatment of HIV. Herbal therapies and spiritual therapies were used by 67 (65%)
and 36 (35%) of participants, respectively.
Table 1: Baseline characteristics of respondents in Adama Hospital Medical College, East

Shewa, Oromiya Regional State, Ethiopia, April-May 2014 (N=418)
___________________________________________________________________________
Variable
Number
Percent
Sex
Male
167
40.0
Female
251
60.0
Age in years
1849
368
88.0
50 and above
50
12.0
Marital status
Single
288
68.9
Married
112
26.8
Others
18
4.3
Level of education
Cant read and write
122
29.2
Primary
112
26.8
Secondary
97
23.2
College
87
20.8
Ethnicity
Oromo
272
65
Amhara
125
30
Others
21
Christians
217
52.0
Muslims
184
44.0
Others
17
4.0
Religious affiliation
49
Residence
Rural
40
9.6
Urban
378
90.4
Employed
168
40.2
Unemployed
250
59.8
Formal salary
168
40.2
Family
100
23.9
Donations
98
23.4
No income
42
10.0
Other
10
2.5
Employment situation
Main source of household income
Table 2: Use of TM for treatment of HIV/AIDS in Adama Hospital Medical College, East
Shewa, Oromiya Regional State, Ethiopia, April-May 2014 (N=418)
_________________________________________________________________________
Variable
Ever use of TM
Number
Percent___
Yes
126
30.0
No
292
70.0
Current use of TM
Yes
84
20.0
No
334
_______________________________________________________________________
80.0
Regarding health worker awareness of patients taking TM, majority 76 (90.4 %) of TM users in
this study did not report any use of TM to their health care providers. Table 3: Indication of TM
use among HIV/AIDS patients in Adama Hospital Medical College, East Shewa, Oromiya
Regional State, Ethiopia, April-May 2014 (n=84)
50
___________________________________________________________________________
Variable
number
percent__
Indication of TM
Treatment of OI
58
69.0
Treatment of HIV
26
31.0
Herbal therapy
66
78.5
Spiritual therapy (Tsebel and Dua)*
18
22.5
Treatment type
____________________________________________________________________________
*Holy water and Islamic supplication
Dosage forms of TM
From a total of 84 current TM users, 38 (45.2%) revealed that the most frequently used dosage
forms were liquids followed by ointments 30 (35.7%) and unprocessed herbs 10 (11.9%).
Powders, pellets and inhalation constituted only 7.1 % as shown in figure 2 below.
Dosage forms
% of dosage forms
50
40
30
20
10
0
51
Figure 1: Dosage forms of TM for the treatment of HIV/AIDS and opportunistic infections
in the study area
Routes of administration of TM
As shown in figure 3, more than half of TM use was taken orally 52 (61.9%), 18 (21.4%),
topically, 10 (11.9%) bathing and 4 (4.7%) inhalation.
Route of administration
Oral
Topical
Bathing
Inhalation
Figure 2: Route of administration of TM for the treatment of HIV/AIDS and opportunistic

infections in the study area
Cost of treatment of TM
The majority of respondents 55 (65.4%) spent between 20 and 50 ETB per visit. The cost of
herbal and spiritual therapies was, with an average 40 ETB (range 0250) per visit. Seventeen
(20.2%) of respondents obtained traditional therapy for free.
52
Table 4: Cost of TM for treatment of HIV/AIDS and opportunistic infections in Adama Hospital
Medical College, East Shewa, Oromiya Regional State, Ethiopia, April-May 2014 (n=84)
_____________________________________________________________________________
Amount of money paid per visit
number
percent_____
Free
17
20.2
20-50
55
65.4
51-100
9.6
4.8
101
and above
Source of information about TM

Twenty six (30.9%) of participants obtained the information from healers and the other 23
(27.5%) from their relatives. Participant friends as a source of information contributed 20
(23.8%) and other sources (like, TV, Radio, Internet, Magazine, etc) comprised 15(17.8%).
Table 5: Source of information about TM in Adama Hospital Medical College, East Shewa,
Oromiya Regional State, Ethiopia, April-May 2014 (n=84)
____________________________________________________________________
_____Variable_____________
number__________
_percent______
Source of information
Traditional healer
26
30.9
Relative
23
27.5
Friend
20
23.8
Other
15
17.8
______________________________________________________________________
Demographic Correlates of TM Use

Religion and TM use
53
Majority of participants who are Muslims 25 (29.8 %) use herbal therapy more frequently than
other religious affiliations. Patients who are Christians used greater amount of spiritual therapies
than others. However, the association were not significant (X2=8.390 df=2 and P=0.223).
Multivariate logistic regression with use of TM for HIV as the dependent variable confirmed
results from the bivariate analysis for source of income by family members (AOR=12.820,95%
CI 2.228-20.872, P=.044), trade (AOR= 4.228, 95% CI 1.591-9.504, P=.003), grants/donations
by private welfare organization (AOR=6.003, 95% CI 1.741-18.035, P=.004) and no income
(AOR=4.077, 95% CI 1.701-9.771, P=.002) significantly associated with current use of TM
(Table 9).
Table 6: Religion and treatment type of TM among HIV/AIDS patients in Adama Hospital
Medical College, East Shewa, Oromiya Regional State, Ethiopia, April-May 2014 (n=84)
_______________________________________________________________________
Religion
Treatment Type___________________________
Herbal Plants n (%)
Spiritual therapy n (%) Total n (%)
Christians
20(23.8)
25 (29.8)
45 (53.6)
Muslims
25 (29.8)
5 (5.9)
30 (35.7)
Others
4 (4.8)
5 (5.9)
9 (10.7)
The association between rural residence of patients and TM use were also significant in the
multivariate model (AOR=14.887, 95% CI .023-.122, P=.033). Multivariate logistic regression
with TM use for HIV as the dependent variable confirmed results from the bivariate analysis,
namely that, age and educational level were not significantly associated with current use of TM.
Gender was significantly associated with current use of TM in multivariate analysis
(AOR=1.499, 95% CI .387-.774, P=.031).
54
Table 7: Association between demographic characteristics and current use of TM among

HIV/AIDS patients in Adama Hospital Medical College, East Shewa, Oromiya Regional State,
Ethiopia, April-May 2014 (n=84)
____________________________________________________________________________
Variable
COR* (95% CI)
AOR* (95% CI)_______
Sex
Male
1.00
1.00
Female
1.9(.678-1.598)
1.499 (.387-.774)
Age Group in years

18-49
1.00
1.00
50 and above
2.297(.803-6.569)
2.490(.741-8.369)
Illiterate
1.00
1.00
Primary
1.666(.905-3.065)
1.250(.597-2.617)
Secondary
0.916(.530-1.582)
0.675(.321-1.419)
College
1.521(.723-3.201)
1.552(.543-4.437)
Urban
1.00
1.00
Rural
7 .176(4.519-11.396)
14.887 (.023-.122)
1.00
1.00
Trade
1.582(.872-2.868)
4.228 (1.591-9.504)
Farm
1.247(.466-3.332)
2.875(.802-10.303)
Educational level
Residence
Source of income
Formal salary
55
____
Family
Grants/donations
No income
*COR: Crude odds ratio
1.587(.761-3.309)
12.820 (2.228-20.872)
3.173(1.255-8.023)
2.009(1.107-3.647)
*AOR: Adjusted odds ratio
6.003 (1.741-18.035)
4.077(1.701-9.771)
Other correlates of TM use

Indication and treatment type
In this study, the majority of participants used herbal therapies more frequently for treatment of
opportunistic infections than treating HIV. According to participants, HIV was highly treated
with spiritual therapies. There were significant association between purpose of treatment and
treatment type (X2=61.006 df=1 and P=0.003). (Table 10). Table 8: Indication of TM for
HIV/AIDS and opportunistic infections in Adama Hospital Medical College, East Shewa,
Oromiya Regional State, Ethiopia, April-May 2014 (n=84)
_____________________________________________________________________________
Indication
Treatment Type_________________________________
Herbal therapy n (%)
Opportunistic infections
50 (59.5)
Spiritual therapy n (%)

8 (9.5)
Total n (%)
58 (69.0)
HIV treatment
6 (7.1)
20 (23.8)
26
(30.9)
_____________________________________________________________________________
Regarding the improvement of patients by taking TM for HIV, as shown in figure 6, 52 (61.9%)
of participants claimed that they got improvement after taking TM. The rest 32 (38.1%) of
patients reported that they didnt see any improvement on their health.
56
Any Improvement
Yes
No
Figure 3: Improvement of patients taking TM for treatment of HIV/AIDS and

opportunistic infections
Discussion
This study was conducted to assess the prevalence of TMs use in the treatment of HIV/AIDS
and opportunistic infections in Adama Hospital Medical College. The study also aimed to
identify the predominant dosage forms, route of administration and costs. Among 418 HIV/AIDS
patients on ART from the hospital, TM was currently used for treatment of HIV/AIDS and
opportunistic infections by 84 (20%) study participants. From 84 TM users, spiritual therapy was
used by 18 (22.5%) participants and herbal therapies by 66 (78.5%) participants for treatment of
HIV and opportunistic infections. Even if there are variability among study designs recall
periods and seasonal variations in disease frequency and associated choice of treatment options,
most studies proved high rates of TM use.
Contrary to this study, the prevalence of TM use in AIDS out-patients of western Uganda was
found to be 63.5% and patterns of traditional herbal medicine use were quite similar between
those on antiretroviral therapy and those who received supportive therapy only (Langlois et al.,
2007). Another study of prevalence of herbal medicines use by HIV-infected patients attended at
Hospital Universitario de Brasilia, Brazil, found to be 52.3%. Contrary to this study, roughly half
(49%) of the HIV participants in an Australian study had used TMs to manage their HIV/AIDS
(Thomas et al., 2007). Contrary to the above findings, the prevalence of TM use was found to be
57
low (20%) in this study. Within this study, the prevalence of TM use by HIV patients was notably
lower (20%) than previously cited estimates of TM use in the African population (WHO, 2002
and Langlois et al., 2007). This could be due to either under-reporting of use as a result of
community's belief that traditional practice is unlawful act or high prevalence of illnesses is
believed to be treatable by modern care (Flatie et al., 2009).
Despite low prevalence, dissatisfaction with the services of modern health institutions due to
their time consuming nature, as well as cost considerations and perceived efficacy may explain
the continued and potentially increasing use of TM among AIDS patients (Burford et al., 2000).
Manfredi and Chiodo also suggest that unconventional therapies remain popular with AIDS
patients due to the conventional health-care systems inability to provide a definitive cure for
HIV infection. Limited access and/or affordability of conventional health care (including
pharmaceuticals) and the current incurability of HIV/AIDS may explain why AIDS patients used
THM despite its perceived risks (Manfredi and Chiodo, 2000). The predominant dosage forms
reported to be used by study participants and healers in this survey was found to be liquid
preparations, 38 (45.2%). This agrees with the report in central Ethiopia (Gedif & Hahn, 2002)
and Bulamogi, Uganda (Tabuti et al., 2003). The reason for the popularity of liquid preparations
may be ease of formulation. Ointments are the second commonly used dosage form. Pellets,
powder and inhalation are the less frequently reported dosage forms.
In this study, the popular route of administration is oral, 52 (61.9%). In line with this study,
studies in general population of Zay people (Giday, 2001) and Shirka District, Arsi (Addis et
al., 2001) indicated that peroral adminstration was common. Although in some other studies
topical route of administration is common next to Peroral administration. The average cost of
treatment of TM for HIV reported by patients was 40 ETB per patient per visit and 17 (20.2%) of
respondents obtained traditional therapy for free. Contrary to this finding, studies in South Africa
found higher costs of traditional herbal HIV medicines; costing on average 128 Rand
(US$16=154.81 ETB) per patient per month in South Africa (Peltzer et al., 2008). In other study,
South Africa, participants spent 4 - 27 pounds (74.8 504.9 ETB) per month on TMs (Babb et
al., 2007).
58
The result showed that females more frequently use TM than males. And also herbal therapies
were used slightly to higher extents by females than male HIV patients. However, the association
were not significant (X2=0.522 df=1 and P=0.695). As indicated above, this study found that
female HIV patients were engaged more frequently in TM use than male patients. Other studies
found that female patients generally more frequently utilize traditional health medicine than male
patients (Duggan et al., 2001; Furler et al. 2003; Agnoletto et al., 2006). Similar to this study, a
study in South-Africa found female HIV patients were engaged more frequently in TM use than
male patients (Peltzer et al., 2008). Female patients used greater amounts of faith healing and
spiritual care practices than males in this sample. Concurrent to the study, in Mozambique,
poorer women, particularly those who belonged to charismatic churches, preferred to use the
prophets in the African Independent Churches (AIC) or charismatic churches instead of
traditional healers as they didn't have to pay at the prophets (Pfeiffer , 2002).
This study indicated that patients who belonged to orthodox churches used greater amount of
spiritual therapies than others. This may be due to the fact that the use of holy water is widely
associated with the Christian faith and tradition. There are many mentions of holy water in
Ethiopian church literature. In short, in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, holy water is part of the
sacrament (Wondmagegnehu A and Motovu J, 1970).
Studies have also found however that religious and spiritual beliefs may conflict with
mainstream HIV treatment and care, particularly if patients believe that prayer alone may cure
them (Chinouya and O'Keefe,2005). Results from adjusted odds ratio (AOR) in this finding
showed that there is significant association between rural residence of patients and TM use
(AOR=16.967, 95% CI .033-.111).
Concurrently, in a study done among HIV/AIDS patients in French Guiana, Prevalence of TM is
higher in rural areas than in urban areas (Couppie et al., 2002). In Uganda, post-secondary
education was associated with THM use (Langlois et al., 2007). In US, lower levels of education
were associated with increased use of TM (Rivera et al., 2005). Majority of participants used
herbal therapies more frequently for treatment of opportunistic infections than treating HIV.
According to participants, HIV was highly treated with spiritual therapies.
A study done in Katima Mulilo, Namibia showed that, due to several constraints of the
antiretroviral therapy programme, HIV-infected persons still use ethnomedicines to manage
59
AIDS-related opportunistic infections. Despite the reliance on plants to manage HIV/AIDS in

Katima Mulilo, there have been no empirical studies to document the specific plant species used
by traditional healers to treat AIDS-related opportunistic infections. The results showed that a
total of 71 plant species from 28 families were used to treat conditions such as herpes zoster,
diarrhoea, coughing, malaria, meningitis, and tuberculosis (Chinsembu and Hedimbi, 2010).
Most participants in this study indicated that their health care provider was not aware that they
were taking TM (90.3%). It is higher than a study among Canadian HIV outpatients that more
than half (53%) did not report any TM use to their treating health worker. A study done in Brazil
revealed that 77.6 % of HIV patients reported not to inform the medical staff on the use of
medicinal plant/herbal remedy. Given the potential for adverse reactions and drug interactions
related to TM use, health care providers' awareness of TM use is crucial to optimize patient care
(Furler et al. 2003). Health care providers should be informed about this to include inquiring
about herbal and TM use for both HIV-related illnesses and other comorbid conditions as part of
their history taking and clinical assessments (Langlois et al., 2007).
Findings in this study showed that 52 (61.9%) of participants claimed that they got improvement
after taking TM. The rest 32 (38.1%) of patients reported that they didnt see any improvement
on their health. Despite a fear to inform the treating health care provider of TM use, the vast
majority of patients in this study reported a high degree of improvement with the traditional
treatment they were receiving. Concurrent with this finding, the vast majority of HIV patients in
Kuazulu Natal, South Africa reported a high degree of improvement with the traditional medical
treatment they were receiving (London et al., 2003). Another study in Brazil showed that both
patients who informed the medical staff about the use of medicinal plants and/or herbal
medicines and those who did not inform the medical staff had obtained positive results with this
utilization (93% and 84%, respectively) (Sales et al., 2008).
The fact that majority of the healers were aged above 50 years implies that the legacy of the use
of TMs to manage HIV/AIDS related infections is in danger of being irrevocably lost if quick
efforts are not exerted to document this invaluable knowledge.
60
This study indicated that family and religious institutions were reported to be the major sources
of healing wisdom. This is in good agreement with different studies done in central Ethiopia
(Gedif and Hahn, 2002) and Arab practioners in the Middle East (Azarzeh et al., 2003). Also the
importance of family in acquiring traditional healing practice is mentioned by a study carried out
in Tanzania (Gesseler et al., 1995). The contribution of the Bible, the Koran, and religious
institutions in acquiring the wisdom is also well observed in other studies (Bekele, 2002;
Kebebew, 2002). The role of religious institutions in expanding herbalist knowledge in Ethiopian
TM has been described by Vecchiato (Vecchiato, 1993).
Most of participants preferred to keep secret to indicate the names of herbs they most frequently
use to treat HIV/AIDS conditions. The most utilized herbal remedies are black cumin (N.sativa),
Aloe species, J.shimperiana, C.spinarum, C. macrostachyus and the most utilized natural health
products are garlic (A.sativum), olive oil and honey. Garlic and aloe species reported among
some of the plants used to treat common HIV-related symptoms and conditions. According to
some healers, aloe species were mostly applied topically and used for treatment of Herpes zoster.
Garlic (A.sativum) alone and/or black cumin (N.sativa) mixed with honey are also taken orally to
be used as cough remedy. An experimental study done on effect of combination therapy of
HAART (lamivudine, zidovudine and nevirapine) and -zam herbal preparation (herbal
concoction that contained black seed (N.sativa), honey and water as the major constituents and
used for treatment of HIV infection in Nigeria) for HIV infection in rats, in Osun state
University, Osogbo, Nigeria, showed that there was neither mortality nor behavioural
abnormality observed in all the drug administered rats. There were some mild atrophic changes
in liver and kidney with hyper-cellularity of bone marrow but no statistically significant
difference (P>0.05) were found in all blood (haematological and biochemical) parameters in rat
groups administered combination therapy (herbal concoction+ HAART). It was concluded that
the combined administration of -zam and HAART (lamivudine, zidovudine and nevirapine) did
not cause any significant adverse drug reaction. Rather beneficial effects were observed in
amelioration of side-effects associated with the herbal concoction and orthodox anti-viral
medicines. -Zam phytochemistry revealed the presence of alkaloids, saponins, tannins,
cardenolides and anthraquinones (Onifade et al., 2011).
61
Healers indicated that they use J. schimperiana for treatment of different viral infections. A study
in Ethiopia revealed that there are hepatoprotective activities of J. shimperiana and used
Ethiopian traditional medical practices for the treatment of liver diseases (Umer et al., 2010).
A study conducted in Nairobi, Kenya, showed the use of the roots of C. spinarum for the
treatment of Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) infection, major opportunistic infection in
immunosuppressed persons (Tolo et al., 2006). C.macrostachyus also reported to treat headache,
jaundice and venereal diseases. Studies reported that extracts from the Stem Bark of Croton
macrostachyus (Euphorbiaceae) has anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory Activities in Mice
and Rats (Albert et al., 2009). These findings are in accordance with the traditional use of the
plant and indicate that C. macrostachyus is a potent source of analgesic and anti-inflammatory
principles.
Olive oil contains naural non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents, named, oleocanthal. The
compound inhibits activity of cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes and used in throat sting
(Beauchamp et al., 2005).
Garlic (A.sativum) extracts are very commonly used by HIV-infected patients and are alleged to
have antihyperlipidemic, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities (Tattelman, 2005). It is also
described to treat opportunistic infections/ symptoms (Homsy et al., 2004). It was shown to
cause induction of CYP450 and reduction of maximum concentration of saquinavir and protease
inhibitors (Sales et al., 2008).
A study conducted in Caprivi region, Namibia, showed the use of Aloe zebrine for treatment of
Herpes zoster (Chinsembu and Hedimbi, 2010). Aloe vera is a stimulant to the immune system, a
powerful anti-inflammatory, and analgesic and is able to speed up cell growth. Aloe spp.can
increase the peristaltic movement and promote changes in the ARV absorption due the increasing
on gastric emptying (Sales et al., 2008). It is worthy noting that the highest number of herbal
remedies reported by healers was associated with treatment of Herpes zoster. Despite uses,
potential side effects of TM in patients with HIV/AIDS were described (Daniel et al., 2007).
62
Interactions involving phytochemicals and conventional drugs give the wrong impression of
being less frequent and severe than drug-drug interactions. This induces the false idea that plants
and/or phytomedicine present irrelevant pharmacological profile and that their actual
pharmacological potential should not be taken into account. Such fact leads to the occurrence of
misidentification and lack of notification about the adverse effects of plants and herbal medicines
that, in addition to a small number of scientific researches about them, contribute to the
maintenance of the condition of being inappropriately used by the population, with increased risk
to the users health. In fact, the market of largely unregulated herbal medicines presents
significant risks to the public health. There were several limitations to this study include hospital
patients, therefore the study results cannot be generalized to the general population of persons
living with HIV/AIDS in the study area. The cross-sectional study design did not permit an
investigation of the cause-effect relationship between HIV/AIDS and use of TM. Recall bias of
study participants cannot be excluded. Participants were often discouraged by health care
providers to use TMs.
Conclusion
The prevalence of TM use for treatment of HIV/AIDS and OIs in Adama Hospital Medical
College was found to be 84 (20%). From 84 TM users, spiritual therapy was used by 18 (22.3%)
participants and herbal therapies by 66 (78.5%) participants for treatment of HIV and
opportunistic infections. The predominant dosage forms and route of administration reported to
be used by study participants was found to be liquid preparations and oral route, respectively
Black cumin (N.sativa), Aloe species, J.shimperiana, C.spinarum, C. macrostachyus were the
most utilized herbal remedies and garlic (A.sativum), olive oil and honey were the most utilized
natural health products. Despite the reported low prevalence of TM use, herbal medicine remains
important component of public health care in the study community as it is the only option for
some illnesses and also the next alternative when modern medicine fails.
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67
Availability of Adequately Iodized Salt among Urban and Rural Households in Adama
district after one year period of mandatory salt iodization in Ethiopia
Abdi Asfaw, (Lecture, Faculty of Health Science, Rift Valley University, Adama)
Iodine is a trace element essential for growth and development of humans and animals. Iodine
deficiency is a major public health problem for populations throughout the world. However, it is
also among the easiest and least expensive of all nutrient disorders to prevent. The solution is to
ensure universal access and consumption of iodized salt.
A cross sectional survey was conducted between January (1-10), 2014. A structured
questionnaire was administered and household salt tested for iodine content across 1064
households to identify current knowledge and practices towards use of iodized salt. Thirty eight
percent of the salt contained adequate iodine greater than 15ppm, 38.9% had iodine levels of
less than 15 ppm whereas 23.4%% of the salt tested had no iodine. The results of multivariate
logistic regression analysis revealed that in comparison to rural areas, urban households were
more likely to use of iodized salt ( AOR =1.50, 95% CI 1.02-2.19), and those who reported to
have iodized salt were more likely to have adequately iodized salt as compared to those who do
not (AOR =1.92, 95% CI 1.27-2.89). In addition, good knowledge about iodized salt and IDD
(AOR =1.85, 95% CI 1.24-2.78), use of fine salt (AOR =5.14, 95% CI 3.48-7.59), not washing
salt (AOR =2.62, 95% CI 1.21-5.69), and shorter duration of salt storage at household level
(AOR =2.55, 95% CI 1.50-4.34) were also identified as the main determinant factors with
availability of adequately iodized salt in Adama district.
Availability of adequately iodized salt at household level was far behind the WHO
recommendation. Moreover, the urban/rural difference in the use of adequately iodized salt is
high. All concerned parties should work together to enforce the law that the country had on
fortification and iodized salt marketing.
68
1. INTRODUCTION
Iodine is a trace element present in the human body in minute amounts. It is an essential element
for growth and development of humans and animals because it is a constituent of the thyroid
hormones which play a crucial role in metabolism (Mahfouz, Gaffar et al. 2012). A diet low in
iodine is the main cause of iodine deficiency. When iodine requirements are not met, thyroid
hormone synthesis is impaired, resulting in hypothyroidism and a series of functional and
developmental abnormalities collectively called Iodine Deficiency Disorders (IDD)(Benoist,
Andersson et al. 2004).
IDD remains a significant public health problem in over 50 countries. Iodine deficiency is
known to cause goiter and cretinism. Children with IDD can grow up stunted, apathetic, mentally
retarded, and incapable of normal movement, speech, or hearing. IDD in pregnant women may
cause miscarriage, stillbirth, and mental retardation in infants (Abedi and Srivastava 2013).
People living in areas affected by severe iodine deficiency may have an intelligence quotient
(IQ) of up to 13.5 points below that of those from comparable communities in areas where there
is no iodine deficiency (WHO 2007).
However, IDDs are among the easiest and least expensive of all nutrient disorders to prevent.
Supplying properly iodinated salt is considered the most effective long-term public health
intervention for achieving optimal iodine. Effective salt iodination is a pre-requisite for the
sustainable elimination of iodine deficiency disorders. Salt is iodized by the addition of fixed
amounts of potassium iodate (KIO3) or potassium iodide (KI) at the point of production. Iodate is
recommended as fortificant in preference to iodide because it is much more stable (UNCEF
2008). Salt has been demonstrated to be an excellent carrier for iodine and other nutrients as it is
consumed at relatively constant and well-defined levels by most people within a country or
region. Intake is largely independent of economic status (Zimmermann 2009).
In nearly all countries where iodine deficiency occurs, it is now well recognized that the most
effective way to achieve the virtual elimination of IDD is through Universal Salt Iodization. USI
involves the iodization of all human and livestock salt, including salt used in the food industry.
69
Over 30 countries have achieved the goal of USI (greater than 90% of households using iodized
salt), and many others are on track (WHO 2007).
In Ethiopia, one out of every 1000 child is a cretin mentally handicapped, due to a congenital
thyroid deficiency, and about 50,000 prenatal deaths are occurring annually due to iodine
deficiency disorders. Of the total population, 26% have goiter and 62% are at risk of IDD
(Gebrearegawi, Edris et al. 2013). From the various surveys conducted in many parts of Ethiopia,
IDD has become one of the biggest public health concerns with the goiter prevalence ranging
from 0.4% to 63% (Takele, Belachew et al. 2003). Besides, the Ethiopian Demographic and
Health Survey (EDHS) report revealed that only 15.4 percent of the households in Ethiopia were
using iodized salt. Even though the data specific to the study area is not available, too low
proportion of households in Oromia region, 17.4%, were using adequately iodized salt (CSA
2012). As a result the magnitude of iodine deficiency and the disorders that could emanate from
it may remain a challenge to the public health managers.
Though the Ministry of Health launched an iodine deficiency disorder prevention and control
program almost two decades ago, in 1996, (F-MOH 2004) the program was not fruitful. To
make the pace to IDD elimination faster Food, Medicine and Health Administration and Control
Authority of Ethiopia have implemented new directive, following the council of ministers
regulation No. 204/2011 that make mandatory for the iodization of table salt produced, imported
and distributed in the country (FMHACA 2012).
However, even the iodization program in place, the actual availability of iodine from iodized salt
at the household level can vary over a wide range of factors. At the production site there may be
variability in the amount of iodine added during the iodization process and uneven distribution of
iodine in the iodized salt due to insufficient mixing of salt after the salt iodization process. In
addition, due to the volatile nature of iodine it may be lost due to improper packaging and
environmental conditions during storage and distribution. The availability of non-iodized salt
from unconventional marketing sources is also another challenge that hindered adequately
iodized salt not to reach households (WHO 2007).
Thus, this study assessed the level of iodization of salt consumed by the rural and urban
households and associated factors in Adama district of the Oromia National Regional state.
70
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Study design, period, and setting. A household based quantitative cross-sectional study was
carried out to assess the availability of iodized salt at household level in Adama district during
January 110, 2014, in the in selected kebeles of Adama district, which is located in East Shoa
Zone of the Oromia National Regional State. The district is found 100 kilometer east of Addis
Ababa. According to the 2007 Ethiopian census report, Adama district has an estimated total
population of 286,198 (PCC 2008; Oromia 2011). The urban population in Adama district was
estimated to be 59.8% of the total population (Oromia 2011).
2.2. Study Population and Sampling Procedures. The study population consists of people
residing in selected urban and rural kebeles of Adama district and selected using multistage
sampling technique. The sample size was determined by using double population proportion
formula. The following assumptions were made: 13.3% and 23.2% proportion of iodinated salt in
rural and urban respectively [8], 0.05 level of significance, 0.8 power, 1.49 ratio of the urban
population to rural and design effect of 2. Then, 10% was added for the expected non response,
making the final sample size 1096 including 440 rural and 656 urban households.
The study employed multi-stage sampling scheme using stratified and simple random sampling.
First, the study area was stratified into urban and rural kebeles and then four kebeles from each
stratum were randomly selected. The total number of households planned to cover by the survey
was 1096 including 656 urban and 440 rural households. The sample size was distributed to each
selected kebele proportionate to the number of households in those kebeles. A systematic
sampling method was then used for each kebele to select the households to be studied. The
sampling frame was obtained from the local administrative offices. When the household selected
by the systematic sampling could not be considered for not satisfying the inclusion criteria or the
home is closed, the next immediate household to the right side was included.
2.3. Data Collection. A pretested and structured questionnaire was used as an interview guide.
For the purpose of assessment of the populations knowledge and practices with regard to iodized
salt and IDD prevention the questionnaire was developed containing 34 questions divided into
four parts, the first containing socio-demographic information, the second part dealt with the
71
knowledge about iodized salt use and IDD, the third part was about the practice regarding the use
of iodized salt and the fourth part was a section for observing the content of iodine of salt used
by households. Household salt samples were tested for absence (0ppm) and adequacy (<15ppm
or 15ppm) of iodine by rapid test kits.
The questionnaire was initially prepared in English and then translated to Afan Oromo and
Amharic language for better understanding for data collectors and respondents, then back to
English for consistency by language experts. Data were collected by 10 college students and 2
B.sc holders were recruited as supervisors. Data collectors and supervisors were trained for two
days prior to the data collection. Informed consent was obtained from the respondents before the
interview was conducted. The person in the household principally responsible for food cooking
and buying salt was interviewed. Sample from the salt used for cooking households food in the
previous day of the interview was taken. In each household, permission was sought to run tests
on samples of the salt used for cooking to determine their iodine levels. The iodine content of
salt used for cooking in the households was tested by the data collectors with a UNICEFrecommended salt-testing kit (MBI Kits International, Chennai, India) in accordance with written
instructions supplied with the kits. The semi-quantitative estimation of the salt iodine by using a
rapid test kit is based on the reaction between starch and iodine to form starch-iodine complex.
This test solution contains an acidic buffer and a reducing agent, which convert potassium iodate
(KIO3) to elemental iodine (I2). This elemental iodine reacts with the iodide ion (I-) to form a triiodide anion (I3-) and this further reacts with it to give a penta-iodide anion (I 5-). This pentaiodide anion (I5-) forms a visible blueblack complex with the amylose of the starch
2.4. Data Management and Analysis. At the end of the interviews, questionnaires were checked
for completeness and internal consistency by supervisors. The questionnaire data was coded
before entry into a computer. Double entry of data was used to ensure data accuracy in the
database. The data was entered by Epi data version 3.1 statistical package and then transferred to
SPSS version 16 for analysis. Descriptive statistics tests were conducted for the items which
were summarized by frequencies and percentages. Association between dependent and
independent variables were assessed by using logistic regression. Variables having - value 0.2
in the bivariate analysis were entered into multiple logistic regression model for control of
confounding. Odds ratio with 95% confidence interval was used to show associations. - value
72
of 0.05 was considered statistically significant in the multivariate analysis. Adequately iodized
salt at household level was defined as salt sample which has 15 parts per million (PPM) of
iodine. Participants who scored above the mean for knowledge questions were considered as
having good knowledge about iodized salt.
2.5. Ethical Considerations. Following the approval of the research proposal, official letter of
cooperation was written to concerned bodies by Health faculty dean. Permission letter was
obtained from Adama district health office. Prior to their participation each participants was
explained about the purpose of the study and verbal and written consent was obtained from each
study participant. Interviews were carried out privately in a separate room. Furthermore,
participants were informed that participation is voluntary and that they are not obliged to answer
to any questions if they are not comfortable about it. They were also been told that they can
withdraw at any time they want. Names or personal identifiers were not included in the written
questionnaires to ensure participants confidentiality. Health education on the importance and
source of adequately iodized salt and proper handling of it at household level were given by the
data collectors for households with inadequately iodized salt during the data collection.
3. RESULTS
3.1. Socio-demographic Characteristics of the Study Participants. Of the 1096 households
recruited 1064 participated in the study that resulted in a response rate of 97.1%. The mean age
standard deviation of the study participants was 31 years 12.32. More than two third 724 (68%)
of respondents were less than 35 years age. Of the total respondents 611 (57.4%) were Oromo,
647 (60.8%) were Orthodox Christians, 340 (32.0). Nine hundred forty (88.3%) of the
respondents, among which 359 (83.7%) from rural and 581(91.5%) from urban households were
female. Moreover, 190 (44.3%) of the respondents from rural households had no formal
education and almost half 313 (49.3%) of respondents from urban households attained education
level of secondary and above. Two hundred ten (49.0%) of the rural household heads had no
formal education and more than two third 436 (68.7%) of the urban household heads attained
education level of secondary and above. The socio-demographic characteristics of the
respondents are summarized below (Table 1).
73
Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents at Adama district, Eastern Shoa

zone, Oromiya region, Central Ethiopia, January 2014. (n=1064; rural=429, urban=635)
Variable
Rural
Urban
Total
freq. (%)
freq. (%)
freq. (%)
Sex
Male
70 (16.3)
54 (8.5)
124 (11.7)
Female
359 (83.7)
581(91.5)
940 (88.3)
Age
18-24
128 (29.8)
236 (37.2)
364 (34.2)
25-34
162 (37.8)
198 (31.2)
360 (33.8)
35-44
78 (18.2)
106 (16.7)
184 (17.3)
45-54
34 (7.9)
56 (8.8)
90 (8.5)
55-64
13 (3.0)
25 (3.9)
38 (3.6)
65
14 (3.3)
14 (2.2)
28 (2.6)
Educational status
No formal education 190 (44.3)
150 (23.6)
340 (32.0)
Primary school
137 (31.9)
172 (27.1)
309 (29.0)
Secondary and above 102 (23.8)
313 (49.3)
415 (39.0)
Ethnic group
Oromo
369 (86.0)
242 (38.1)
611 (57.4)
Amhara
59 (13.8)
204 (32.1)
263 (24.7)
Gurage
0 (0.0)
104 (16.4)
104 (9.8)
Others*
1 (0.2)
85 (13.4)
86 (8.1)
Religion
Orthodox Christian
295 (68.8)
352 (55.4)
647 |(60.8)
Muslim
46 (10.7)
156 (24.6)
202 (19.0)
Protestant
82 (19.1)
107 (16.9)
189 (17.8)
Others**
6 (1.4)
20 (3.2)
26 (2.4)
Household heads Sex
Male
315 (73.4)
473 (74.5)
788 (74.1)
Female
114 (26.6)
162 (25.5)
276 (25.9)
HHs Educational status
No formal education 210 (49.0)
89 (14.0)
299 (28.1)
Primary school
147 (34.3)
110 (17.3)
257 (24.2)
Secondary and above 72 (16.8)
436 (68.7)
508 (47.7)
Family income
1000
244 (56.9)
188 (29.6)
432 (40.6)
1001-2000
111 (25.9)
205 (32.3)
316 (29.7)
2001-3000
30 (7.0)
130 (20.5)
160 (15.0)
>3000
44 (10.3)
112 (17.6)
156 (14.7)
* include Tigre, somale, walayita
** include Wakefeta, Catholic
74
Knowledge and practice of respondents regarding iodized salt

Regarding knowledge of participants about the usefulness of iodized salt and consequence of
IDD, less than half 479 (45.0%) of them had good knowledge. About half 541 (50.8%) of the
respondents indicated that they had heard about iodized salt. The major source of information
was radio and television. Less than half 486 (45.7%) of respondents reported that they heard
about IDD. Only one tenth 130 (12.2%) of respondents in the district know that the non iodized
salt is banned for human consumption in Ethiopia (Table 2).
Table 2: Knowledge of respondents about iodized salt and IDD at Adama district, Eastern Shoa
zone, Oromiya region, Central Ethiopia, January 2014. (n=1064; rural=429, urban=635)
Variable
Ever heard about iodized salt
Yes
No
Source of information
(n=541; rural=97, urban=444)
Radio/Television
Health workers
Neighbors
Labels
School
Other*
Mentioned benefits of iodized salt
(n=541; rural=97, urban=444)
Yes
No
Ever heard about IDD
Yes
No
Mentioned at least one ill effect
(n=486; rural=81, urban=405)
Yes
No
Know non-iodized salt is banned
Yes
No
* shop keepers, own child
Rural
Freq. (%)
Urban
Freq. (%)
Total
Freq. (%)
97 (22.6)
332 (77.4)
444 (69.9)
191 (30.1)
541 (50.8)
523 (49.2)
70 (72.2)
3 (3.1)
4 (4.1)
12 (12.4)
19 (19.6)
0 (0.0)
322 (72.5)
125 (28.2)
48 (10.8)
74 (16.7)
48 (10.8)
31 (7.0)
392 (72.5)
128 (23.7)
52 (9.6)
86 (15.9)
67 (12.4)
31 (5.7)
42 (43.3)
55 (56.7)
346 (77.9)
98 (22.1)
388 (71.7)
153 (28.9)
81 (18.9)
348 (81.1)
405 (63.8)
230 (36.2)
486 (45.7)
578 (54.3)
79 (97.5)
2 (2.5)
401 (99.0)
4 (1.0)
480 (98.8)
6 (1.2)
15 (3.5)
414 (96.5)
115 (18.1)
520 (81.9)
130 (12.2)
934 (87.8)
75
Respondents practices regarding the use of iodized salt

Three hundred fifty two (33.1%) of the respondents reported as they use iodized salt. The
response is higher in urban dwellers 303 (47.7%) than the rural dwellers 49 (11.4%). Eight
hundred fifty (79.9%) of the respondents bought the salt from shops and majority 912 (85.7%) of
them stored the salt in closed containers (Table 3).
Table 3: practice of participants about iodized salt at Adama district, Eastern Shoa zone,
Oromiya region, Central Ethiopia, January 2014. (n=1064; rural=429, urban=635)
Variable
Rural
Urban
Total
Freq. (%)
Freq. (%)
Freq. (%)
Have iodized salt
Yes
49 (11.4)
303 (47.7)
352 (33.1)
No
380 (88.6)
332 (52.3)
712 (66.9)
Reason for not havingiodized salt
(n=712; rural=380, urban=332)
lack of knowledge about the benefit 358 (94.2)
227 (68.4)
585 (82.2)
being more expensive
12 (3.2)
51 (15.4)
63 (8.8)
being less testy
10 (2.6)
34 (10.2)
44 (6.2)
Others*
0 (0.0)
20 (6.0)
20 (2.8)
Type of salt
Coarse
401 (93.5)
402 (63.3)
803 (75.5)
Fine
28 (6.5)
233 (36.7)
261 (24.5)
Place where the salt was purchased
Shops
324 (75.5)
526 (82.8)
850 (79.9)
Supermarket
2 (0.5)
75 (11.8)
77 (7.2)
From weekly market
103 (24.0)
34 (5.4)
137 (12.9)
Place of salt storage
dry area
405 (94.4)
622 (98.0)
1027 (96.5)
moisture area
10 (2.3)
4 (0.6)
14 (1.3)
fire area
14 (3.3)
9 (1.4)
23 (2.2)
Storage condition
Container with lid
356 (83.0)
556 (87.6)
912 (85.7)
Container without lid
68 (15.8)
18 (2.8)
143 (13.5)
Others**
5 (1.2)
4 (0.6)
9 (0.8)
Exposed to light
Yes
119 (27.7)
31 (4.9)
150 (14.1)
No
310 (72.3)
604 (95.1)
914 (85.9)
wash salt
Yes
27 (6.3)
34 (5.4)
61 (5.7)
No
402 (93.7)
601 (94.6)
1003 (94.3)
Duration of salt storage
2months
83 (19.3)
54 (8.5)
137 (12.9)
<2 months
346 (80.7)
581 (91.5)
927 (87.1)
* Not advised to do so, not ordered to do so
** The same bag/packet in which salt is bought, on the floor open, on the floor covered
76
Adequacy of Iodine in salt sample at the Household Level.

Four hundred one (37.7%) of the tested salt samples were adequately iodized ( 15 ppm), 414
(38.9%) were partially iodized and 249 (23.4%) were uniodized (0 ppm) (Figure 1).
0PPM; 23%
15 PPM; 38%
<15 PPM; 39%
Figure 1: Content of iodine in households salt at Adama district, Eastern Shoa zone, Oromiya
region, Central Ethiopia, January 2014. (n=1064)
Four hundred forty four (69.9%) of the respondents from urban and 97 (22.6%) of respondents
from rural households mentioned that they heard about iodized salt. Based on respondent
reporting 303 (47.7%) of urban and 49 (11.4%) of rural households said they have iodized salt.
However, following testing of household salt samples, the actual use of iodized salt (15 ppm)
was found to be 314 (49.4%) in urban and 87 (20. 3%) in rural households. (Figure 2).
Actual use
Stated use
49.40%
20.30%
47.70%
11.40%
Rural
Urban
Ever heard
69.90%
22.60%
Percent
77
Figure 2: Comparison of knowledge, stated and actual use of iodized salt at Adama district,
Eastern Shoa zone, Oromiya region, Central Ethiopia, January 2014. (n=1064; rural=429,
urban=635)
Factors Associated with Availability of adequately iodized Salt at Household Level.
The investigation on the presence of association between suspected factors and availability of
adequately iodized salt revealed that the socio-demographic factors including respondents
education level, household heads education level, income and urban Residence; and knowledge
and practice related factors including, having good knowledge about Iodized salt, stated use of
iodized salt, use of fine salt, not exposing to sunlight, not washing salt and shorter duration of
stay of salt at the household level were significantly associated with availability of adequately
iodized salt during bivariate analysis.
During multivariate model knowledge about iodized salt and IDDs, stated use of iodized salt, use
of fine salt, not exposing to sunlight, not washing salt, shorter duration of stay of salt at
household level and urban residence were significantly associated with availability of adequately
iodized salt.
Those who have good knowledge about iodized salt and IDDs were 1.85 (AOR = 1.85, 95% CI
1.24, 2.78) times more likely to have adequately iodized salt than those who have poor
knowledge. Those who reported to have iodized salt were found to be more likely to actually
have adequately iodized salt than those who responded as did not have iodized salt (AOR =
1.92, 95% CI 1.27, 2.89). Similarly, those who did not have experience of washing salt were
found to increase the likelihood of having adequately iodized salt (AOR = 2.6, 95% CI 1.21,
5.69) than those who wash salt to remove impurities.
Using fine salt was also identified as one of the determinant factors for having adequately
iodized salt than the coarse one (AOR = 5.14, 95% CI 3.48, 7.59). Storing salt for less than two
months at household level was also found to increase the odds of having adequately iodized salt
than storing salt for more than two months (AOR= 2.55 , 95% CI 1.50, 4.34). Furthermore,
residence was found to be associated with availability of iodized salt. Urban dwellers were found
to be 1.50 (AOR = 1.50, 95% CI 1.02, 2.19) times more likely to have adequately iodized salt
than the rural dwellers (Table 4).
78
Table 4: Factors associated with availability of adequately Iodized Salt in urban and rural
households of Adama district, Eastern Shoa zone, Oromiya region, January 2014. (n=1064)
Variables
Iodine level (ppm)

15
<15
Crude OR
(95% CI)
Respondents education level

No formal education
81
259
1
Primary school
108
201
1.72 (1.22, 2.42)
High School and above 212
203
3.34 (2.44, 4.58)
Household income
1000
112
320
1
1001-2000
138
178
2.22 (1.63, 3.02)
2001-3000
75
85
2.52 (1.73, 3.68)
3001
76
80
2.71 (1.86, 3.97)
Household heads Education
No formal education
73
226
1
Primary school
73
184
1.23 (.84, 1.79)
Secondary and above
257
253
3.12 (2.28, 4.28)
Residence
Rural
87
342
1
Urban
314
321
3.87 (2.90, 5.10)
Knowledge
Poor
121
464
1
Good
280
199
5.40 (4.12, 7.07)
Have Iodized salt
No
165
547
1
Yes
236
116
6.75 (5.09, 8.95)
Type of salt
Coarse
199
604
1
Fine
202
59
10.39 (7.46, 14.47)
Exposure to sunlight
Yes
31
119
1
No
370
544
2.61 (1.72, 3.96)
Washing salt
Yes
11
50
1
No
390
613
2.89 (1.49, 5.62)
Duration of stay of salt
2 months
23
114
1
< 2 months
378
549
3.41 (2.14, 5.44)
(* p-value < 0.05, ** p-value < 0.01, *** p-value < 0.001)
79
Adjusted OR
(95% CI)
1
1.16 (0.76, 1.77)
1.18 (0.76, 1.82)
1
1.57 (1.08, 2.29)
1.40 (0.88, 2.23)
1.53 (0.96, 2.44)
1
0.65 (0.41, 1.04)
0.66 (0.41, 1.06)
1
1.50 (1.02, 2.19)*
1
1.85 (1.24, 2.78)**
1
1.92 (1.27, 2.89)**
1
5.14 (3.48, 7.59)***
1
1.07 (0.63, 1.80)
1
2.62 (1.21, 5.69)*
1
2.55 (1.50, 4.34)**
4. DISCUSSION
Iodization of salt remains the most effective and economical way of supplementing iodine for
populations. The present study revealed only 37.7% of the population in Adama district
consumes salt with adequate iodine. The gap between the urban and rural households in iodized
salt use still remained broad in favor of the urban households.
This study showed that availability of adequately iodized salt in urban area (49.4%) was higher
than in the rural areas (20.3%). This finding was higher for both the rural and urban households
as compared to EDHS 2011 report (CSA 2012). This finding was also higher than the finding
from the study in Gondar (28.9%) (Gebrearegawi, Edris et al. 2013). Difference in the coverage
of adequately iodized salt in these studies might be due to the difference in the time of the study,
and variation of the study area. Even though the coverage of adequately iodized salt appear
going in encouraging way, it lags behind the WHO recommendation which states greater than
90% households should use adequately iodized salt in order to sustainably eliminate IDD.
In this study using fine salt to be significantly associated with availability of adequately iodized
salt. At the iodization stage iodine may not be distributed homogeneously in coarse salt due to
particle size dynamics. In addition fine salts are commonly packed that are protected from
moisture and direct exposure to sunlight; where the coarse salt is unpacked and liable for
contamination that might also affect the content of iodine in salt.
Good knowledge about iodized salt and IDDs was found to be predictor of adequately iodized
salt use in the households. Similarly a study done in Gondar town revealed that Knowledge of
participants about iodized salt was significantly associated with availability of adequately
iodized salt (Gebrearegawi, Edris et al. 2013). A study done in Ghana unveiled that there have
been a remarkable improvement in knowledge about iodized salt and use of adequately iodized
salt due to the propagation of health education about the importance of iodized salt (Buxton and
Baguune 2012).
80
Respondents who reported to have iodized salt were found to be having adequately iodized salt
than those who said we do not have iodized salt. However, considerable number of households
responded as they have iodized salt but when the available household salt was tested by using
rapid test kits for iodine revealed that ordinary salt is being sold as iodized salt. Under-iodization
at the production Site, iodine losses during transportation, and during storage at retail and
household level, might also be responsible for the inadequate level of iodine in the iodized salt.
Concurrent to other studies done in different part of the world duration of salt storage at home
was found to be a determinant factor for availability of adequately iodized salt. As a volatile
element, iodine is sensitive to sunlight, humidity, and heat. As the salt stayed longer the content
may be diminished (Gebrearegawi, Edris et al. 2013).
This study also showed urban residence to be a determinant factor for availability of adequately
iodized salt. In the same way, the residential differences also found to be affecting different
parameters under study. Other studies done in Tanzania, Sudan and Pakistan also showed the
similar result (Assey, Peterson et al. 2009; Ahmad, Panthari1 et al. 2012; Khan, Hussain et al.
2012).
Using only rapid test kits to determine salt iodine content in all data sources was one of the study
limitations. This method needs to be supported by titration method.
5. Conclusion
Based on the finding of this study, we can conclude that availability of adequately iodized salt at
household level was far behind the WHO recommendation. Good knowledge of respondents
about iodized salt and IDD, stated use of iodized salt, using fine salt, not washing salt, shorter
storage of salt at household level, and being urban resident were identified as predictors of
availability of adequately iodized salt at household level. Therefore, health regulatory authorities
should work to ensure that iodized salt is the only salt available in the market and households
should be given health education about the importance of iodized salt and its proper handling at
the household level.
81
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would also like to take this opportunity to express my deepest appreciation to all individuals
who supported me during this research work.
My gratitude also goes to Adama district Health office for supplying me the salt test kits. I am
also grateful for kebele administrators and study participants for providing me with necessary
information pertinent for successful completion of this study.
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83
Assessment of Knowledge, Attitude and Practice about Oral Health among Rift Valley
University College of Health Faculty Students in Adama Town, Oromiya Region.
Meyrema Abdo (Lecture, Faculty of Health Science, Rift Valley University, Adama)
Abstract
Oral hygienes is the practice of keeping the mouth healthy and clean by brushing and flossing to
prevent teeth decay and gum disease. The oral disease are associated directly to people with
behavior of not practicing proper oral hygiene, also resulting into the bad breath many people
are not aware of proper tooth brushing being the good preventive measure of their oral disease.
The Objective of this study is to assess the Knowledge, Attitude and Practice about oral health
among Rift Valley University College Health Science students in Adama town. A quantitative
facility -based cross sectional study was employed among 422 students. Samples were selected
randomly from student registry proportionally to the size of the class. Quantitative data entry,
cleaning was performed using Epi Data version 3.1. Descriptive and Inferential analysis was
performed by using SPSS 16.
A total of 422 students were studied of whom 183 (43.4 %) were males and 239(56.6) were
females. The study showed that majority participants (93.1%) reported to have brush behaviours
of their teeth. Most of participants 294(69.7) brushed before breakfast with the majority using a
plastic tooth brush. Eighty three percent reported that as they experienced dental problems ,Of
those, gum bleeding was the most common problem experienced (43.8%) while tooth ache were
40.8.1% were tooth decay was 32.5.This study shown that Risk of dental caries was higher for
male 38 %( 95% CI=31, 45.7) than female 26 %( 95% CI=20.8, 32.4).Almost two thirds of the
students who had good knowledge of cause of dental problems had no dental caries. But for
those with no knowledge, 61.7% had dental caries. There was no significant difference in the
prevalence of caries between those who had little knowledge and those who had good
knowledge. Comparing mean for boys and girls, significantly girls had more positive attitude
towards dental health compared to boys.From The findings of this study we can conclude that
the participants had conducive oral health knowledge, positive attitude and held positive beliefs
regarding dental treatment, But this study groups have relatively high rate of dental caries and
84
relatively low practices about oral care. School oral health education will be important tools to
decrease the dental problems.
Key words:-Oral Health Knowledge, Attitude and Practice.
Introduction
Oral hygienes is the practice of keeping the mouth healthy and clean by brushing and flossing to
prevent teeth decay and gum disease. The purpose of oral hygiene is to prevent the building up of
plague, the sticky film of bacteria and food remains that form on the teeth and dorsum of the
tongue. Plague adheres to the device and fissures of the teeth and generates acids that, when not
removed on a regular basis, slowly eat away, or decay, the protective enamel surface of the teeth,
causing cavities to form(1). Plague also irritates gums and can lead to gum disease (Period
Dental Disease) which eventually lead to tooth loss. Tooth brushing and flossing remove plague
from teeth and Florid in tooth paste helps to protect teeth by binding with enamel to make it
stronger. In addition to such daily oral care, regular visits to the dentist promote oral health.
Preventive services that he or she can perform include Florida treatment, sealant application, and
scaling (scraping off the hardened plague, called calculus) (1).
The oral disease are associated directly to people with behavior of not practicing proper oral
hygiene, also resulting into the bad breath many people are not aware of proper tooth brushing
being the good preventive measure of their oral disease. Their attitude toward brushing is only
for cosmetic purpose. Further more people have no behavior of visiting dental clinics for general
checking up. They believe that the sign of dental disease is painful tooth/teeth, and treatment
available to dental clinic is only extraction (1).
Oral health as an essential aspect of general health can be defined as a standard of health of the
oral and related tissues which enables an individual to eat, speak and socialize without active
disease, discomfort or embarrassment and which contributes to general well being. Oral health
knowledge is considered to be an essential pre requisite for health related practice, and studies
have shown that there is an association between increase knowledge and better oral health (2)
85
Statement of the Problem: Promoting oral health of adolescents health has been prioritized by
the WHO for the improvement of oral health globally (3). Adolescent are in particular need for
oral health promoting program (4). Poor oral hygiene in terms of increasing accumulation of
plague and calculus with increasing age has been reported among children and adolescent in both
developed and developing countries. This situation might lead to periodontal problems later in
adult life (4).
Dental health has received limited attention in many countries in sub Sahara Africa. Despite the
paucity of data of dental health in most Africa countries, some reports were worth high lighting.
FolayanEtal has reported that DMFT was negatively associated with age but positively
associated with sugar intake in a sample of Nigerian children (6). In the study of South Africa
children, 52% of the children with early childhood caries were reported not to have been
supervised during tooth brushing (6).
Numbers of features namely: diet, smoking, alcohol, hygiene, stress and exercise are linked to a
wide range of important diseases forming the fundamental basis of common risk factor approach
(WHO2000) to prevent arrange of conditions including oral disease (7). Among these hygiene is
the single most significant factors when it comes to the prevention of oral diseases, little is
known about oral health attitudes and behavior of adolescent from developing countries as a
comparison with developed countries(8).These impacts lead in turn to reduce welfare and quality
of life. To minimize these negative, impacts of chronic oral disease, there is thus a clear need to
reduce harm full oral health habits (11).
This study will be conducted for assessing KAP of Rift Valley University College students about
oral health and supply the result to those who are responsible and concerned bodies for planning
to reduce harmful oral health.
Objective of the study
General Objective: To assess the knowledge, attitude and practice about oral health among Rift
Valley University College students in Adama town from April 1, 2014 to July 14, 2014.
Specific Objective
1. To determine the knowledge of students about oral health.
86
2. To assess attitude of students toward dental care.

3. To determine habit of oral hygiene of students.
Materials and Methods

1.1
Study are and period: The study was conducted in RVUC Adama town ,Oromiya Region.
1.2
Study period and design: A quantitative facility -based cross sectional study was
employed from April, 2014 to June 2014.
1.2.1
Population: source population were all health faculty students in Rift Valley University
College in Adama town and the study populations were all students selected at simple
random sampling method of each departments from registration logs of 2014 academic
years.
1.3
Sample Size Determination: Sample size was determined using a single proportion
formula with prevalence rate 0.5, with the level of precision (d) 0.05. An additional 5%
was added as a contingency to increase power and compensate for possible non response
rate and a total of 422Rift Valley University College students were involved in the study.
Using the formulas = Z2PQ

d2, Total of 422 students were involved in the study
Sampling technique: In order to select a fairly representative sample of students from the Rift
Valley University College, selection of the student was first be stratified by their academic year
of study as 1st, 2nd year, 3rd year based on their department of study. Then from each individual
section, a sample of participants was taken by sampling with probability proportional to the size
considering the total students in the section. The study participants were selected by simple
random sampling method from student list.
Dependent Variables: knowledge, attitude and practice of oral health
Independent Variables: Socio-demographic characteristics including: age, educational status,
students marital status, religion, ethnicity, family background including family income.
87
1.4
Data collection: data was collected by an anonymous self administered structured

questionnaire.
Data collectors: Data was collected by four data collectors who were grade 12 completed and
the overall activity was supervised by supervisors and the PI. One days of training was given.
1.5
Data quality control methods: To assure quality of the data, measures were undertaken. A
brief orientation session about the purpose of the research project was arranged for all
students. Pre-testing of the questionnaire was under taken in 10 percent of the sample size
by students who were not included in the actual study population before the actual data
collection takes place. Corrections of the instruments were completed accordingly. The
final version of the questionnaires was used for the data collection. A total of two days of
intensive training about how to facilitate the data collection process was given to all data
collectors and supervisors during the process of data collection. To improve quality during
the completion of the questionnaires and to increase return of questionnaires, the data
collection was undertaken in separate class rooms.
1.6
Data processing and analysis: Data was checked for completeness and consistency. Data
entry, cleaning and analyzes was performed by using Epi-info Version 6.04 and SPSS 16.
First, descriptive statistics of percentages and frequency distributions using tables and
figures was carried out to explore the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents.
Bivariate analysis and chi-squares was carried out to examine the relationship between the
outcome variables and selected determinant factors as appropriate. OR with 95%
confidence interval will be used to compare or see the effect of those determinant factors.
1.7
Ethical Consideration: Before starting of the data collection process, the study protocol
was approved by the Institutional Research Ethics Review Committee of the College.
Official letters of co-operation was written to all of the concerned bodies to obtain their cooperation in facilitating the study. Information on the study was explained to the
participants, including the objectives, procedures, potential risks and benefits of the study.
Informed written signed consent from each study participants prior to data collection was
obtained. Participants confidentiality of information was assured by excluding names and
identification in the questionnaire.
88
Result
A total of 422 students were studied of whom 183 (43.4 %) were males and 239(56.6) were
females and the response rate was 100%. The majority, 233(55.2) were Muslim. The ethnic
composition of the sample was 234 (55.5%) Oromo and followed by Amhara 100(23%).
Table1. Socio Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents among Rift Valley University
College Health Faculty Students in Adama town, Oromiya Region ,2014 .
variables
Age
Sex
Religion
Ethnicity
Departments
Academic years
Marital status
Monthly income of the students
Category
20-25
>25
Male
Female
Muslim
orthodox
protestant
others
Oromo
Amhara
Somale
Tigiray
Gurage
Others
Ho
Nurse
Mw
pharmacy
1styear
2ndyear
3rd year
4th year
Married
Single
Divorced
Others
Less than 500
500-1000
89
N
334
88
183
239
233
106
74
9
234
100
14
21
33
20
211
116
10
85
197
144
54
27
103
201
4
14
336
86
%
79.1
20.9
43.4
56.6
55.2
25.1
17.5
2.1
55.5
23.7
3.3
5
7.8
4.7
50
27.5
2.4
20.1
46.7
34.1
12.8
6.4
24.4
71.3
0.9
3.3
79.6
20.4
Remarks
Table 2.Awareness of Periodontal and Gingival Health among Rift Valley University
College Health Faculty Student in Adama town. Study population (n=422)
Gingival bleeding means: Swelling of the gum
Healthy gingivae
Gingival recession(bore)
Dont know
How to prevent gingivitis: Brushing and flossing
Soft food
Vitamin C
Dont know
What does plaque mean: Soft deposits on teeth
Heavy deposits on teeth
Tooth discoloration
Yes N(%)
NoN(%)
155
10
145
110
234
8
156
24
146(34.6)
169(40)
219(51.9)
36.9
2.4
34.5
26.7
55.5
1.9
37
5.7
276(65.4)
251(60)
203(48.1)
Those students with good and fair knowledge about causes of caries were 41.8% and 50.8%
respectively. Almost two thirds of the students who had very good knowledge of cause of dental
problems had no dental caries. But for those with no knowledge, only33.3% had dental caries.
There was no significant difference in the prevalence of caries between those who had little
knowledge and those who had good knowledge. 218(51.7),96(22.7) and 61(14.4) of
students have very good, good and, fair knowledge about oral health respectively.
The prevalence of dental caries increase as students with knowledge decrease from very good
and good, fair and poor, as 22% and 32% 46% 62% respectively.
Table 3.Level of Knowledge and Dental Cariesamong Rift Valley University College Health
Faculty Students in Adamatown, OromiyaRegion,2014.
Level of knowledge
Very good
Good
Fair
Poor
Dental caries
Yes N(%)
48(22)
31(32)
28(45.9)
29(61.7)
No N(%)
170(78)
65(67.7)
33(54.1)
18(38.3)
90
Total
218
96
61
47
%
51.7
22.7
14.5
11.1
Table 4.Knowledge and Awareness of Dental and General Health among Rift Valley
University College Health Faculty Students in Adama town, Oromiya Region ,2014.
Variables
Types of health teeth
Category
White and shiny
Strong and have no plague
Does caries affect dental aesthetics?
Yes
No
Do sweets affect dental health?
Yes
No
Chat chewing affect dental health?
Yes
No
Smoking affect tooth
Yes
No
Does the health of mouth and dentition impact Yes
the health of the body?
No
Frequency
422
422
390
32
364
58
381
41
352
70
359
63
%
100
100
92.4
7.6
86.3
13.7
90.3
9.7
83.4
16.6
85.1
14.9
Table 5.Attitude about Dental Care among Rift Valley University College Health Faculty
Students in Adama town, OromiyaRegion, 2014 .
Variables
Care of the tooth is important
Dental check-up is important
Care of oral bad smell is important
Care and follow up of tooth is important
Have you visiteddentist recently?
The management sought in your last visit(n=139)
Category
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes/agree
disagree
Yes/agree
No/disagree
Yes
No
Follow up
tooth
extraction
cleaning
Filling
others
Frequency
419
2
399
223
416
6
409
13
139
312
43
42
29
14
11
Participants self-reported Attitudes and satisfaction on their dental condition.
91
%
99.3
0.7
94.5
2.4
98.6
1.4
96.9
3.1
33
67
30.9
30.2
20.9
10
7.9
Of total majority 249(59%) was satisfied with their oral cleanness, 143(33.9%) was said as it
should be improved and few of them 30(7.1%) have low satisfaction about their oral health
cleanness. Majority of the respondents 219(51.9%) was happy with their tooth condition, while
few of them said it is not to bad and others 153(36.3%) said as their tooth condition need
improvement.
Table 6.Frequency distribution of participants by self-reported tooth brushing per day

among Rift Valley University College Health Faculty Students in Adama town, Oromiya
Region,2014.
Oral Hygiene methods used
Brushing Frequency(n=)
Time length of brushing tooth
Toothbrush and paste

Tooth pick
Wash with water
Once daily
Twice daily
More than two times a day
Not brush daily
One minute
Two minute
More than two minute
N
209
184
29
190
118
76
38
100
151
171
%
49.5
43.6
6.8
45
28
18
9
250
209
200
184
150
100
50
29
Figure 1: Frequency distribution of participants by self-reported tooth brushing per day among
92
Rift Valley University College Health Faculty Students in Adama town, Oromiya
Region, 2014.
350
300
294
250
200
179
150
90
100
88
70
50
0
Morning before breakfast
Before lunch
After dinner
Figure 2. participants oral hygiene behavior by time of tooth brushing among Rift Valley
University College Health Faculty Students in Adama town, Oromiya Region, 2014.
Table7. Frequency distribution of participants by self-reported Dental health problems among

Rift Valley University College Health Faculty Students in Adama town, Oromiya Region, 2014.
Perceived problems
Experienced dental problems
Bad breath
Tooth ache
Experience gum bleeding
Do you have decayed teeth
Yes
No
Number of deciduous teeth(N=133)
1
2-5
>=6
93
Yes
N%
351
92
172
185
%
83.2
21.8
40.8
43.8
133
289
32.5
68.5
82
41
10
61.7
30.8
7.5
Table 8.Tooth Care and Perceived Oral Health conditions by Sexamong Rift Valley
University College Health Faculty Students in Adamatown, OromiyaRegion, 2014.
Tooth brushing materials (n=422)
Brush and paste
Pick
water
Brushing Frequency in a day (n=422)
One times
more than one times
Perception
about
their
oral
cleanness(n=422)
Satisfied
Should be improve/low
Feeling about their tooth condition
(n=422)
Very happy
Not happy
Experienced dental problems(n=143)
Tooth plague (n=131)
Bad breath(n=137)
Tooth ache(n=172)
Experience gum bleeding(n=185)
Number of deciduous teeth(N=133)
1
2-5
>=6
Male
Female
74(17.5)
96(22.7)
13(3)
135(32)
88(20.8)
16(3.7)
86(20.4)
97(23)
104(24.6)
135(32)
110(26)
73(17)
139(32)
100(23.7)
100(23.7)
83(19.6)
119(28.2)
120(28.4)
75(52.4)
55(42)
55(40)
82(47.7)
90(48.6)
68(47.5)
76(62)
82(60)
90(52.3)
95(51.4)
43(32)
25(19)
2(1.5)
36(25.1)
16(12)
8(6)
Discussion
The findings of the study showed that more than 50% of the students had dental caries with
varying degrees of tooth decay. Although the prevalence rate was relatively low this trend has
been reported in the region with the prevalence of 50% and 49% in students who were in the age
group of 15-19 year (3, 11). In our setting, the majority of those with the dental caries who had
94
1-3 teeth affected and about 7.5% had 7 or more teeth affected. This indicates that it is not only
the prevalence of dental caries that was high but the severity of the disease was also high.
Most of students had satisfactory knowledge on tooth brushing practices. It was encouraging to
note that all participants reported to brush their teeth at least once a day although they didnt
know how to brush systematically. Similar results have also been demonstrated, revealing that
many people brushed their teeth at least once a day but lack the knowledge of proper tooth
brushing(2) and in Uganda and Tanzania revealed that most students reported to practice daily
tooth brushing(1)
Most of participants brushed before breakfast with the majority using a plastic tooth brush.Most
people brush before breakfast because it is cultural acceptance of the society and they also intend
to remove bad breath after waking up. Most students knew that tooth paste helped to control
tooth decay and reported to use tooth paste on brushing. Very few participants reported to brush
before bed time because most people are not aware if they are supposed to brush twice a day.
The awareness of participants towards dental check up was reasonably Low and most of them
thought that the dental check-ups should be done during tooth ache.The majority of participants
reported to have experienced dental problems and the leading problem being tooth ache followed
by gum bleeding although very few reported to have visited the dentist which means that many
people suffer from dental diseases but do not seek treatment. This finding was very low
compared to different studies in Africa (6-9). This may be due to socioeconomic and
demographic variations.
Conclusion
The findings of this study have shown that the participants had conducive oral health knowledge,
positive attitude and held positive beliefs regarding dental treatment. But relatively low practices
about oral care.
Recommendation
95
All teaching institution should provide for student oral health education to increase their
oral health.
I recommend for student to visit dental clinic and dentist for preventive advice and
treatment.
Acknowledgements
First of all I would like to thank RVUC for giving me such chance and sponsoring this research.
Also, I wish to express my sincere gratitude to all who have contributed directly or indirectly to
the success of this thesis without whose constant support and help, the study would never have
been accomplished. Those data collectors and managers, who have participated in this research
sacrificing their invaluable time, are on the frontline to receive my appreciation.
References
1. thanase Emmanual and Elizabeth changes Ado, oral health related behavior, knowledge,
attitudes and beliefs among secondary school students in Iringo Municipality, the Dareselam
medical Journal-DMSJ September 2010.
2. Oral health knowledge and practices of secondary school students, Tango, Tanzania;
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3. Petersen PE. Global policy for improvement of oral health in the 21 st century implication to
oral health research of World health assembly 2007 WHO.
4.Saied Moallemi Z, Vitanen, JI Vehkalahi mm, Tehranch A, MurtoMaaH; school-based
intervention to promote preadolescent gingival health; a community trial oral epidemiology
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5. FelayanM. Sawole A, Kola-Jebatu A: Risk factor for caries in children from South-Western
Nigeria. JclinPediatr.Dent 2008, 32:171-5.
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7. Sheiham A, Watt R. the common risk factor approach: a rational Basis for promotional oral
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8.Al. Omiri MK, Board J,Al-Wahadni AM, Saeed KN, Oral health attitudes, knowledge and
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10. Dr.ManojHumagainM.Evaluation of KAP about oral health among secondary level students
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11. Kwan Sy,Petersen PE, Pine CM, Borutta A, Health-promoting schools: an oppo
The Impact of Credit Risk on the Financial Performance of Microfinance

Institutions in Ethiopia
Yonas Asfaw (Lecture, Faculty of Business and Social Science, Rift Valley University, Adama)
Abstract
The main aim of this paper is to assess the impact of credit risk on the performance of
Microfinance Institutions in Ethiopia (MFI from now on). In order to fulfill the stated objective
an exploratory research design with a quantitative data approach was used. To this end, the
researcher took ten years financial statement data of ten selected MFIs using a purposive
sampling method (namely ACSI, DECSI, Omo, ADCSI, OCSSCO, SFPI, Wassassa, Wisdom,
PEACE, Buussa Gonofa) for the period 2003 2012. The study employed a multivariate
regression model using Return on Asset (ROA) as a dependent variable for measuring the
financial performance of the selected MFIs and five independent variables including three
explanatory variables used as a proxy for credit risk measure; PAR>90 (Portfolio at Risk more
than 90 days), LPR (Loan Loss Provision Ratio) and RCR (Risk Coverage Ratio) and the
97
researcher also controlled for the effects of leverage ( measured by Debt Equity Ratio) and
MFIs size (measured by log of total assets). Based on a balanced panel constructed ordinary
least squares (OLS) and random effects, the study finds that LPR and DER have a significant
and negative impact on the financial performance of MFIs which was consistent with the
researchers expectation. While RCR was found to have a positive and significant impact. The
remaining two variables, PAR and SIZE had negative and positive effect respectively on
profitability of MFIs, but this effect was found to be insignificant. The overall results revealed
that credit risk have a significant impact on the financial performance of MFIs. Hence, based on
the findings of the study the researcher suggests that MFIs should maintain higher levels of loan
loss reserves in order to have better cushion against credit risk arising from poor loan portfolio
quality. Moreover, the Micro Finance Institutions Supervision Directorate (MFISD) should
enforce the level of loan loss reserves that should be maintained by MFIs as per the Directive
No. MFI/17/2002. Finally, the researcher suggests that MFIs that are keen on making high
profits should concentrate on other factors than focusing on the quality of their loan portfolio
Key words: Microfinance institutions, Credit risk, Ordinary least squares, Loan Loss Provision
Ratio, Risk Coverage Ratio, Debt Equity Ratio.
1. Introduction
1
Back ground of the Study
Even if one of the reasons for the establishment of a MFI is for fulfilling its social objective
(outreach to the poor and the excluded, adaption of services and products to the target clients,
improvement of clients social capital), as a financial intermediary it also needs to fulfill its
financial objective which may include; portfolio quality, efficiency and productivity, financial
management and profitability maintenance. In a walk to fulfill this objective there are plenty of
hindrances that the MFI may have to face, the major one being risk. Risk is inherent to any
business and microfinance institutions are no exception. As a financial institution MFIs face
plenty of risks including, credit risk, interest rate risk, liquidity risk, operational risk, to mention
just a few. The biggest risk facing microfinance institutions is the risk of customers or counter
party default (Ravi & Sharma, 2012). What makes this type of risk big in MFIs is because it is
the risk on the loan portfolio of MFIs. The loan portfolio is one of the most important account
balances in any lending institution. This portfolio usually accounts for most of the MFIs assets,
and the potential for misstatement is great. Moreover, it generates the largest share of an MFIs
98
operating income and its an MFIs most important revenue earning asset (Laura, Natalia, &
Sergey, 2002). Unlike the practice in banks credit risk in MFIs is somewhat different.
One of the major elements that make credit risk in microfinance special is absence or near
absence of traditional risk mitigation mechanisms like collaterals and guarantees. Management
of Credit Risk, therefore, becomes extremely important for microfinance institutions (MFIs)
(MicroSave, 2008). (Basu & Woller, 2004)have defined credit risk which is the most common
and often the most serious vulnerability in a microfinance institution, as the deterioration in
loan portfolio quality that results in loan losses and high delinquency management costs. Also
known as default risk, credit risk relates to client failure to meet the terms of a loan contract.
As it was indicated above, besides the social objective MFIs are established with the aim of
sustaining financial objectives. Hence, in order to be able to fulfill this objective, MFIs need to
understand the impact of some of the important determinants of profitability. To this end, there
are some research works that have taken place concerning one of the significant determinants,
credit risk. Accordingly, previous studies conducted on the same topic but in the banking
industry have showed that the result on the impact of credit risk on profitability is mixed. Some
argued that credit risk have a positive and significant impact on the financial performance of
MFIs, while others insist on credit risk being inversely related to the profitability of MFIs.
However, these studies were based on data from banks hence the findings may not be applicable
to the MFI sector. The researchers motivation for this piece of research emanates from this
knowledge gap.
2
Statement of the Problem
(Anne-Lucie, Jennifer, Patricia, & Matthew, 2005), on their research on overview
of the
outreach and financial performance of microfinance institutions in Africa, suggested that MFIs in
Africa tend to report lower levels of profitability, as measured by return on assets, than MFIs
in other global regions.
One of the reasons for such lower levels of profitability is risk. MFIs need to take consideration
of the biggest risk facing one of their major assets, loan portfolio. Because by ignoring this major
risk there is no way that they would be able to achieve their financial goal. Hence, this paper tries
99
to measure the impact level of this major risk on the profitability of MFIs, so that MFIs would
not only establish a credit policy that would minimize credit risk, but also one that would
increase their profitability. That is, by measuring the impact level of credit risk on the
performance of MFIs, these institutions would be able to know whether it is reasonable to invest
high level of their assets on managing this risk, or whether they should direct this investment
towards other factors that would add to the profitability of these institutions.
But why is it important for MFIs to be profitable? Profitability is an appropriate mechanism for
achieving long term viability and sustainability of the microfinance industry. At the micro level,
profitability is a prerequisite to a competitive microfinance industry and the cheapest source of
capital, without which no firm would attract external capital (Gonzalez, 2007).MFIs profits are
also an important source of equity, if profits are reinvested and this may promote financial
stability. Moreover, market sources of funding are accessible only to MFIs that have
demonstrated that they can turn a profit. By minimizing the probability of financial crisis,
impressive profits are vital in reassuring MFIs stakeholders, including investors, borrowers,
suppliers and regulators. At the macro level, a profitable microfinance industry is better placed to
overcome negative shocks and contribute meaningfully to the stability of the overall financial
system (Peter, 2011).
As it was stated in the previous section there are some important studies conducted aimed at
finding the impact of credit risk on profitability of banks. Due to some unique features of MFIs
this findings for banks may not apply to MFIs. Some of this features include; clients come from
the low-income and poor sectors, lack assets for collateral, usually self-employed in the informal
sector, and engaged in economic livelihood activities; micro financing may be on a group or
individual lending basis; loan sizes are typically small; loans are typically short-term and
amortizations are either on a daily, weekly, semi-monthly or monthly basis(Pananalaping &
Bansang, 2007).
Most of the existing studies in the microfinance area focus on studying the performance,
the determinants of loan portfolio quality and issues related to the social performance, efficiency
and sustainability of the MFIs((Alemayehu, 2008),(Anne-Lucie, Jennifer, Patricia, & Matthew,
2005),(Ayayi & Sene, 2010), (Ben B. S., 2012)). Hence, the central question to be addressed in
this study is, how significant is the impact of credit risk on profitability of MFIs?
100
Objectives of the study
The general objective of this paper is to examine and measure the impact level of credit risk on
the financial performance of selected microfinance institutions in Ethiopia.
1
Specific Objectives:
The specific objectives of the study were as follows:

To understand and measure the impact level of portfolio at risk on the profitability of
selected MFIs
To identify and assess the impact level of loan provision ratio on the profitability of
selected MFIs
To describe and measure the impact level of risk coverage ratio on the profitability of
selected MFIs
To describe and measure the impact of leverage on the profitability of selected MFIs
To identify and measure the impact of MFIs size on the profitability of selected MFIs
2
Methodology
Research Design
The impact level of credit risk on performance can be measured by assessing important variables
between two or more points at a time. This can be accomplished by collecting data at more than
one point in time and study the relationships between dependent & independent variables
(Saundra, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2007). Hence, the design that best fits this study was found to be
an explanatory design and was used by the researcher.
2
Data Type
In order to achieve the objective of the study, this research paper has used quantitative data type.
Quantitative research involves counting and measuring of events and performing the
statistical analysis of a body of numerical data. The main concerns of the quantitative
paradigm are that measurement is reliable, valid, and generalizable in its clear prediction of
cause and effect (Cassel & Symon, 1994). And hence, the data type used in this study is of
quantitative one.
101
Data Source
The study was conducted based on secondary data. The paper used a dataset that was assembled
from four different sources the principal being the audited financial statements of the selected
MFIs. The rest of the data sources are specific and sector level data from the portfolio report and
other financial statements of MFIs from NBE, from a web based data base Microfinance
Information Exchange (MIX) and from the Association of Ethiopian Microfinance Institutions
(AEMFI). A ten year data ranging from 2003 to 2012 was collected and used from the
aforementioned data sources.
The commencing year 2003 as the first data collection year was selected based on the enactment
of National Bank of Ethiopia Directive No. MFI/17/2002, which came into force as of the 1 st day
of May 2002. Directive No. MFI/17/2002 is aimed at standardizing the loan loss provision for
MFIs under the supervision of NBE. As was shown in Table-2.1, NBE requires MFIs to
categorize their non-performing loans into three classes and to hold the minimum provisions
against each category.
Non-performing loans for the purpose of this directive is defined as outstanding loans and
advances of micro-financing institutions that are past due for more than 90 days (same as used in
this study, PAR >90 days) (NBE, 2002).
4
Sample Design
The population in this study included all microfinance institutions registered by NBE. Currently,
as per NBE (2013) publication No. 114 of Birritu magazine there are 33 microfinance
institutions. But according to further analysis made by the researcher four of those reported on
the magazine have ceased operation and one (Ghion MFI) has been taken over by Harbu MFI,
making the number of MFIs currently in operation only 28.
A purposive sampling method was employed to select the top ten microfinance institutions by
taking the amount of gross loan portfolio in the year 2012 as a selection criterion. To this end,
ten years data (2003-2012) were considered in this study. NBE classifies MFIs into three levels
based on their gross loan portfolio as High, medium and low level MFIs. Accordingly, a total of
ten MFIs five high level (ACSI, DECSI, OCSSCO, Omo and ADCSI) and five medium level
MFIs (SFPI, Wisdom, Buussa Gonofa, PEACE and Wassassa) were selected in order to construct
102
a balanced panel model. Hence, as the objective of the study revolves around the loan portfolio
of MFIs, the researcher have selected the top ten MFIs that have reported the highest gross loan
portfolio in the year 2012. Accordingly, based on the researchers analysis of the data obtained,
the selected MFIs take 94% of the total number of active borrowers, 95.6% of the total gross
loan portfolio and 95.3% of the total asset of the microfinance industry in Ethiopia. Hence, there
is no doubt that the selected MFIs do take the lion share of the microfinance industry in Ethiopia.
As was indicated in the scope and limitation section of the study, this research is limited and
confined to only the high and middle level MFIs designated by NBE, hence the lower level MFIs
were not included in the study.
In addition to the aforementioned reason the MFIs taken under the study were made to cover
major and representative geographical concentrations in the country including; Amhara, Tigray
region, Southern region, Oromia and Addis Ababa; besides the selected MFIs are of the same
affiliations i.e. all of them are non-bank financial institutions which are regulated by the National
Bank of Ethiopia. Taking all samples from the same affiliation ensures that the research result is
not misrepresented by differing affiliations.
5
Data Analysis and Model
In order to achieve the objective of the paper, the study was conducted primarily based on panel
data obtained through structured document review. A random effect method of panel multiple
linear regression model and t-static was used to determine the significance level of each
independent and control variable in influencing profitability. The multiple linear regressions
model was run using OLS through EViews 6 econometric software package, to test the
casual relationship between the firms profitability and credit risk and to determine the
most significant and influential credit risk indicators and other control variables affecting the
financial performance of Ethiopian MFIs. According to (Petra, 2007), OLS outperforms the
other estimators when the following holds; the cross section is small and the time
dimension is short. Therefore, as far as both the above facts hold true in this study it
was found reasonable to use OLS in this study.
The balanced panel data constructed by taking 10 MFIs was analyzed by using the following
multivariate regression model.
103
ROA i ,t= 0+ 1 ( PAR i , t ) + 2 ( LPR i, t )+ 3 ( RCR i, t )+ 4 ( DER i, t )+ 5 ( , t ) +

Where:
ROA = Annualized Net Income/Average Asset
PAR = Outstanding balance, Portfolio overdue >90 days/Gross loan portfolio
LPR = loan loss provision / Gross loan portfolio
RCR = loan loss reserves/ Outstanding balance, Portfolio overdue >90 days
DER =Total Liabilities/Total Equity
SIZE =log {Total assets}
is an error term
3
Data Analysis and Discussion
1
Regression results
Accordingly, the result obtained by the random effect model is reported in Table 4.8 below
which shows
regression
results
between
the
dependent
variable
(profitability)
and
explanatory variables. The R-squared value measures how well the regression model explains
the actual variations in the dependent variable (Brooks, 2008). Thus, the R-squared value in
Table 4.8 below indicates that 47.92 percent variation in profitability (ROA) of the selected
microfinance institutions was explained by the three independent variables (PAR, LPR & DER)
and the two control variables (DER & SIZE). The rest 52 percent variation in ROA was
explained by residuals or other variables other than the five variables (for instance, liquidity and
other risks, growth, macroeconomic variables and other factors not included here in the study,
since these are beyond the scope of the study). The regression F-statistic (6.52) and the p-value
of zero attached to the test statistic reveal that the null hypothesis that all of the coefficients
are jointly zero should be rejected. Thus, it implies that the independent variables in the
model were able to explain variations in the dependent variable.
Table 3.1 Regression result- Random Effect Model
104
Variable
Coefficient Std. Error
t-Statistic
Prob.
C
PAR
LPR
RCR
DER
SIZE
ROA(-1)
PAR(-1)
LPR(-1)
RCR(-1)
DER(-1)
SIZE(-1)
-0.003651
-0.034854
-0.371677
0.014723
-0.005400
0.004582
0.449527
-0.041478
0.343599
-0.024160
0.002998
0.001035
-0.114776
-0.424915
-1.953676
2.341313
-2.305373
0.323523
5.386319
-0.872616
2.414068
-3.694246
1.414949
0.075527
0.9089
0.6721
0.0543*
0.0218**
0.0238**
0.7472
0.0000
0.3856
0.0181
0.0004
0.1611
0.9400
R-squared
Adjusted R-squared
S.E. of regression
F-statistic
Prob(F-statistic)
0.479203
0.405757
0.021230
6.524586
0.000000
Mean dependent var

S.D. dependent var
Sum squared resid
Durbin-Watson stat
0.036079
0.027540
0.035156
1.895226
0.031807
0.082027
0.190245
0.006288
0.002342
0.014163
0.083457
0.047533
0.142332
0.006540
0.002118
0.013709
**, * indicates significant at 5%, and 10% significance level respectively

Source: Output of EViews 6
The regression model arising from the above data is of the form;
ROA = -0.0036 - 0.0348PAR - 0.3716LPR + 0.0147RCR - 0.0053DER + 0.00452SIZE +
The model above can be interpreted starting from the constant variable; it shows that if any
microfinance fails to extend credit it will lose some amount (-0.0036). The coefficient of PAR is
-0.0348 indicating that the amount of credit at risk (overdue for more than 90 days) have a
negative relationship with the profit level of a specific microfinance institution, even if this
relationship is not significant.
Additionally, the magnitude of the LPR coefficient suggests that
a percentage change (increase) in loan provision decreases ROA of selected MFIs by 0.37
percent. The regression result also shows the existence of direct and significant relationship
between one of the credit risk indicators, risk coverage ratio and profitability of selected
microfinance institutions. In addition, the result suggests that the capital structure of an MFI have
a significant impact on the level of profitability. The magnitude of the debt equity ratio
105
coefficient suggests that a highly levered MFI capital structure will have a negative impact on its
profitability. A percentage change in DER will result in a decrease on the level of profitability by
0.053%. Another astonishing finding of the regression result is that the even if the coefficient of
the size variable suggests the existence of positive relations ship between the size of MFIs and
profitability (0.00452), the relationship is not found to be significant.
The random effect result in Table 4.8 indicates that the risk coverage ratio indicator of credit risk
was statistically significant (p-value=0.021) at 5 percent level of significance and had positive
relation with profitability.
Similarly, the loan provision ratio indicator of credit risk was
statistically significant (p-value = 0.054) at 10 percent level of significance and had negative
relation with profitability. In the same way, one of the control variables, debt equity ratio was
statistically significant (p-value = 0.023) at 5 percent level of significant and had a negative
relation with profitability. The above regression result has an astonishing result on PAR (believed
to be the best indicator of credit risk). It shows that event if it has a negative impact on
profitability, the p-value (0.672) shows that it is not statistically significant. Finally, the level of
microfinance size do not have statistically significant relationship with profitability (p-value =
0.747).
4
1
Conclusions and Recommendations
Conclusion
The overall result obtained from the regression model indicates that credit risk as a determinant
defines profitability of MFIs to an important extent. This shows that higher level of credit risk
results in lower level of profitability for the MFIs. The independent variables used in order to
achieve the objectives stated were; Portfolio at Risk (PAR), Loan Loss Provision Ratio (LPR),
Risk Coverage Ratio (RCR), Debt to Equity Ratio (DER) and MFIs size. Among this three were
found to have a significant impact on profitability of MFIs. Among the three credit risk
indicators used in the study, risk coverage ratio appears to be adding the most significant weight
followed by loan provision ratio. On the other hand, among the two control variables the debt
equity ratio, showing the leverage level of MFIs was found to have a significant and negative
impact on the financial performance of MFIs.
106
Nonetheless, reasonable but not significant impact on profitability of MFIs was found on the
remaining two independent variables, portfolio at risk (PAR) and MFIs Size. The result on what
was believed to be the major predictor of credit risk, PAR showed that the level of loan portfolio
which is past due for more than 90 days have an inverse effect on MFIs profitability, but this
effect was not found to be significant. This result even if surprising, could be fairly validated by
relevant previous studies including; (Bourke, 1989) and (Angela, 2010), who found out similar
negative but insignificant result of PAR taken as a credit risk indicator. On the other hand the
size of MFIs was found to have positive impact but this was not found to be an important
predictor.
The coefficient and significance level of RCR indicated that the amount of loan loss reserve used
as a cushion against credit risk of MFIs in Ethiopia have a positive and a very significant impact
on the financial performance of this financial institutions. This indicates that as the level of
provision against risky loans increases, the microfinance institution will be able to operate
smoothly and hence in the long-run be able to generate a positive profit. Therefore this indicates
that MFIs should increase the level of loan loss reserve so as to decrease the level of credit risk
and hence increase the long-term profitability of the firm.
The coefficient of loan provision ratio (LPR) was found to be relatively high as compared to
other variables, showing that an increase in loan provision ratio will result in a significantly
lower profitability of MFIs. This is in line with the researchers expectation as an MFI with
higher level of credit risk will suffer from poor portfolio quality which will create hindrances to
the smooth operation, resulting in a lower level of profitability. Portfolio at risk (PAR) measure
of credit risk thought to be a major factor for and to be used by many as a standard measure of
credit risk for microfinance institutions appears to negligibly affect the profitability of MFIs.
The result on one of the control variables used, MFIs size indicated that the size of the MFIs is
not an important predictor of profitability. Debt Equity Ratio on the other hand, was used as the
other control variable used to measure the impact of leverage on profitability. Accordingly, the
coefficient and significance level of this variable showed that the level of leverage in MFIs
affects the profitability of these institutions negatively and significantly. Hence, this shows that
debt financing affects the financial performance of MFIs in Ethiopia. Thus MFIs found in
107
Ethiopia are better off if with other funding options than debt. MFIs have two broad funding
options beyond debt which include deposits (Both Voluntary and mandatory) and equity.
2
Recommendation
Based on the findings of this study and the conclusions made above the researcher passed the
following recommendations:
Even if the results of the two indicators of credit risk used in this study (i.e. LPR and RCR)
showed that the impact of credit risk on the profitability of MFIs is significant, the result of the
major predictor of MFIs credit risk (i.e. portfolio at risk) and the result of the R-square revealed
that the major portion of profitability is determined by factors other than credit risk. Therefore,
even if the loan portfolio is the major asset in generating MFIs income and even if credit risk is
considered to be the most significant risks of all that an MFI has to face, by taking into granted
the results of this study the researcher recommends that MFIs that are keen on making high
profits should concentrate on other factors other than focusing more on the quality of their loan
portfolio. That is, they should limit their investment on the process of credit risk management
and direct this towards other elements expected to increase the profitability and be of more
importance to the microfinance institution. Other recommendations made include:
MFIs should maintain higher levels of loan loss reserves in order to be protected against
credit risk arising from poor level of loan portfolio quality.

The NBE microfinance supervision directorate should enforce the level of loan loss
reserves that should be maintained by MFIs as per the Directive No. MFI/17/2002.
To curb the impact of credit risk results Ethiopian MFIs should improve their
inspection techniques of identifying potential borrowers and strive to have better
screening processes which may enable them to mitigate adverse selection problems.
Even if microfinance in Ethiopia is a recent phenomenon the establishment of credit
reference bureaus tailored to the operations of the MFIs should be considered.

Finally, based on the result from one of the control variables DER, the researcher
recommends a capital structure with less debt and that MFIs should use other funding
options other than debt like capital and deposits mobilized.
108
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Assessment of Teaching - Learning Practices:

In Order to Improve the Quality and Relevance of Business Educations
(Case of Rift Valley University collage
Mekonnen Soboka (Lecture, Faculty of Business and Social Science, Rift Valley University,
Adama)
Abstract
This study was conducted on the assessment of teaching - learning practices: in order to improve
the quality and relevance of business education at Rift Valley University collage. Related to this
issues there were many studies which questioning the effectiveness of business educations at
higher educational institutions and training centers that prepare the students for different types
of business skills and activities related to Business management, Accountancy, Marketing,
Banking, Insurance, Entrepreneurship, Instructors, paid employment and self-employment and
also other. This basic knowledge of business activities can be obtained through formal education
at colleges and universities through different types of teaching - learning methods that affect the
professional skill of accountants, marketers, managers, bankers and also entrepreneurs. These
professional skills, knowledge, professional values, ethics and attitudes to perform all necessary
tasks which expected from the particular profession in business world can be acquired from the
total effect of the overall educational program, specific courses, practical experience and
continuing professional education as per the demand of market conditions and technology.
Based on the above facts this study aimed to assess & evaluate the application of teaching
learning practice variables and their effect in order to improve the quality & relevance of
business education and competencies of business students in Rift valley university collage. The
result of collected and analyzed data from 120 sample students and 10 sample instructors from
business faculty by questionnaire and discussion indicated that, the commonly adopted teaching
learning methods in the University Collage are lecture & group discussion, and also few
instructors used professional practice, practical exercises, and case studies based on the nature
of the courses and availability of teaching facilities. Moreover the study uncovered the major
113
factors which affect the quality of teaching - learning process (active learning) of business
educations and also the competencies of business students in the University Collage.
1.1. Introduction
Business educations are an integral part of vocational and technical educations, which are
directed toward developing of the learner to become productive in
different types of business
skills and activities related to Business management, accountancy, marketing, banking,

insurance, entrepreneurship, teaching, paid employment and self-employment and others.
Besides, business educations play a significant role in the economic development by providing
knowledge and skills to the learners thereby enabling them to adequately impart knowledge into
others, and handle sophisticated office business activities, technologies and information systems.
In general the primary goal of business educations is to produce competent, skillful and dynamic
entrepreneurs, office administrators and businessmen and women that will effectively compete in
the world of business works. At present, the caliber of students that graduate from business
education departments, especially Business management & accounting have the problem of
inadequate exposure to fast changes in technologies, information systems and different business
activities. Amoor (2008) stressed that the lack of competent teachers and method of delivery of
education in higher education are the major factors which are responsible for this unfortunate
trends and quality education.
1.2.
Statement of the problem
Basically business educations play a significant role in the economic development of the world
by providing knowledge and skills to the learners thereby enabling them to run business
activities related to Business management, accountancy, marketing, banking, insurance,
entrepreneurship, teaching, paid employment and self-employment and also others by using the
modern technologies. This basic knowledge for business activities can be obtained through
formal education at colleges and universities through different types of teaching methods that
affect the professional skill of accountants, marketers, managers, bankers and also entrepreneurs.
114
On the other hand, there are many studies which questioning the effectiveness of teaching
learning practices of business educations at higher educational institutions and training centers
that prepare the students for different types of business skills.
In general the teaching learning practices of business educations in collages & higher educational
institutions can determine the business skills and capabilities of students which include:
knowledge, professional values, ethics and attitudes to perform all necessary tasks expected from
the particular profession in business world. These skills can be acquired from the total effect of
the overall educational program, specific courses, practical experience and continuing
professional education as per the market conditions.
Thus, this study mainly focused on the assessment and evaluation of the application and effects
of different types of teaching & learning methodologies, evaluations methods and availability of
educational facilities on the skill and competencies of business students in order to improve the
quality of and business educations at facility of business & social science in Rift Valley
University Collage.
1.3.
Research questions
1. What are the major commonly used teaching learning methods of business educations in the
college?
2. Do the currently applicable teaching- learning practices are relevant to improve the quality
of business educations and also the competencies of business students?
3. Which factors may affect the application of proper types of teaching learning practices &
quality of business educations in the college?
1.4.
Objective of the Research
1.4.1.
General objective the study
115
The main objective of the study is to assess and evaluate the application of different types
teaching learning practices and their effect in order to improve the quality & relevance of
business educations & also the competencies of business students.
1.4.2.
Specific objectives of the study
1. To assess and identify the major commonly used teaching methods of business educations
in the collage.
2. To evaluate the relevance of applicable teaching learning methods in order to improve the
quality and relevance of business educations.
3. To identify factors that may affect the application of proper types of teaching learning
practices & quality of business educations in the University Collage.
1.5.
Significance of the study
This study is very important for academician and other stakeholders to identify some factor that
may affect the quality of teaching and learning practice of business educations in collage & other
higher educational centers. Besides it provides some input that help to improve the quality &
relevance of business educations and professional competencies as per the demand of the market.
1.6.
Scope and Delimitation of the study
The study mainly focused on the assessment & evaluation of the quality of teaching learning
practices of business educations in Rift Valley University Collage, faculty of business & social
science. The study designed to collect necessary data from graduating class students &
instructors in the faculty to achieve the research objective.
1.7.
Research methods and methodology
The study focused on graduating class students from Business & social Science Faculty students
in Rift Valley University College as the total population and instructors in the same faculty.
From total population the researcher selected 120 graduating class students from degree program
and 10 instructors by simple random probability method. The study mainly used primary data
that collected by questionnaire and focus group discussion. Additionally, the research conducted
116
an interview with purposely selected students & instructors to strengthen the relevance of
collected data
The analysis of the data was conducted by tabulation of data, table, percentage and other
statistical tools that supported by description of variables and explanation of meaning of the data
interpretation.
Literature Review
Types of teaching methods & necessary improvements
Depending on the nature of subject, number of students, and the facilities available, there are
different methods teachers are using in the classroom. Below are given various methods and
certain tips and techniques for improving these methods. (Sajjad, S.1997)
Lecture Method: A lecture is a talk or verbal presentation given by a lecturer, trainer or

speaker to an audience. With all the advancement of training systems and computer
technology, lecture method is still a backbone widely used in teaching and training at higher
level of education. This method is economical, can be used for a large number of students,
material can be covered in a structured manner and the teacher has a great control of time and
material.
Discussion: It is a free verbal exchange of ideas between group members or teacher and
students. For effective discussion the students should have prior knowledge and information
about the topic to be discussed. McCarthy, P. (1992) stated strengths of class discussion as;
pools ideas and experiences from group, and allows everyone to participate in an active
process.
Role Play: Role play occurs when participants take on differentiated roles in a simulation.
These may be highly prescribed, including biographical details, and even personality,
attitudes and beliefs; or loosely indicated by an outline of the function or task. these
techniques have already demonstrated their applicability to a wide range of learners, subjects
and levels.
Case Study: Primarily developed in business and law contexts, case method teaching can be
productively used in liberal arts, engineering, and education. This method is basically used
to develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills, as well as to present students with
117
real-life situations. The students are presented with a record set of circumstances based on
actual event or an imaginary situation and they are asked:
Brainstorming: It is a loosely structured form of discussion for generating ideas without

participants embroiled in unproductive analysis. It is a very useful technique for problem
solving, decision making, creative thinking and team building. It develops listening skills.
Professional Practice- It is a practical application of necessary steps & activities by
students in the class room, laboratories, and educational tours, apparent-ships in different
organizations.
Concept of Teachers and Educational Quality
Quinton (2002) noted that a teacher is more than someone who passes on knowledge but also
provides the interaction, relationship, understanding and encouragement to enable a person or
child to reach the full potential. She said further that, a teacher provides opportunities that allow
the learners to learn by themselves since learners do not learn by being told but by finding out for
themselves active learning methods, by using appropriate learning facilities, just like as a
researcher doing independent research. Webster (2003) defined a teacher as one that teaches,
especially the one whose occupation is to instruct. In a nutshell, a teacher is a person who
teaches guides, instructs trains or helps another in the appropriate teaching learning process &
conditions to support the students in the classroom in order to improve the quality of education
at higher educational institutions.
3.1. Discussion & Result of the study

The collected data analysis designed to assess and evaluate the application of different types
teaching learning methodologies, evaluations methods and availability of educational facilities
and their effect in order to improve the quality & relevance of business educations & also the
competencies of business students in Rift Valley University Collage. As per the result of the data
118
analysis: 77% of students & 70% instructors justified that the commonly applied teaching
learning method in the Collage is the combination of lecture & Group discussion.
On the other hand 88% of the students and 80% the instructors selected the combination of the
top four preferable teaching learning methods such as: group discussion & presentation,
professional practices, case study and instructors lecture. But, practically around 50% the
instructors couldnt apply all those preferable teaching & learning methods in proper way
because of the following some reasons:
Large number students per class room
Lack of necessary teaching facilities (lab, demonstration room)
Lack of students motivation
Common trend in the collage, lack of reward
Back ground of the students
Lack of on job training
Factors affecting teaching learning practices quality of business educations
As per collected data, around 50% of sample students couldnt acquire the necessary business
educations professional skill & competencies during the last three years studies because of the
following factors/reasons:
Lack adequate practice centers, demonstration rooms, lab
Linkage with industries for professional practices
Inappropriate /inactive teaching learning methods
Lack of instructors commitment
Background of the students/personal problem
Lack of adequate reference books
Dependence of the students on shot hand out given by instructors
Types of evaluation methods
Lack reward to instructors to do more
Lack of on job trainings for instructors
119
The above conditions are major factors which affect the quality of teaching learning practices of
business educations & competencies of the students in the collage.
3.2. Conclusion
The analysis of research data indicated that, the most dominant and commonly used teaching and
learning method in the university collage is lecture which sometimes supported by group
discussion and presentation of students, but the preferable teaching learning methods for active
learning practices include the combination group discussion & presentation, professional
practices, case study, role player and brain storming which can be supported by instructors
lecture. This result directly indicated that, there is a gap in between preferable teaching learning
methods and the practically applicable methods in the collage to ensure the quality of business
educations in Collage.
Besides, there are a lack of consistent application of all active teaching learning methods, lack of
adequate practice centers, demonstration room/lab, references books in the library lack of linkage
with industries for professional practices and also lack of commitment of instructors to help
students creativity are the major factors which affect the quality of teaching learning process &
and also the competencies of business faculty students.
3.3. Recommendation
The researcher provided the following possible and very important ideas that help to improve the
quality of business educations and also the competencies of graduating business students.
The collage should have to facilitate all necessary teaching learning facilities which are very
important for student centered teaching learning practices.
Such as: Adequate
demonstration rooms, lab, and reference materials/books in library.

The collage should have to arrange coordination with industries for practical attachment
works, professional practices & educational visits.
The collage must be provide on job refreshment trainings & appropriate supervision
supports for instructors to implement the selectable teaching & learning practices.
120
As much as possible it is advisable to instructors to use the combination of preferable

teaching & learning methods by using the available educational facilities for better result.
Organizing of students to help each other as study group (active learner with slow learner
students)
Enhancing of students reading habit/ using of the library by using continuous evaluation
techniques & student focus teaching methods.
References
1. Amoor, S.S. (2003), the need to improve teacher quality in business education programme in
nigerian universities, International Journal of Educational Research, Vol 11 (1) 2010,
amoorsev2003@yahoo.com
2. Idialu, E.E. (2007). Quality Assurance in the Teaching and Examination of Vocational and
Technical Education in Nigeria. College Students
Journal.
http://findarticles.com/p.articles
3. Ramsden, P. 1991. A performance indicator of teaching quality in higher education: The course
experience questionnaire. Studies in Higher Education
4. Merriam WebstersCollegiate Dictionary (2003). Eleventh Edition. Springfield, Massachusetts,
United States of America.
5. 5Quinton
(2002).
The
definition
of
Teacher.
Helim
Home
Education
http://www.helium.com/items, retrieved on 18th May, 2010.

6. Shahida Sajjad, (1997), effective teaching methods at higher education level, University of
Karachi. Pakistan , Department of Special Education
121
CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT AND STUDENTS PERFORMANCE IN

RIFT VALLEY UNVERSTIY COLLEGE IN ADAMA CAMPUS
WUBETU MESELE (Lecture, Faculty of Business and Social Science, Rift Valley
University, Adama)
ABSTRACT
The study was carried out to explore the assessment practice in rift valley University College
with the major focus on Continuous Assessment Strategies. The study specifically sought to find
out the different assessment strategies and their contribution to students performance. It was
conducted in Adama campus involving 135 students, 30 instructors. The study was guided by the
following questions:
1) What continuous assessment strategies were being used in rift valley University College
Adama campus?
2) What is the relationship between the continuous assessment strategies used and students
performance in rift valley University College Adama campus?
3) What are the instructors perceptions about whether students exposed to various continuous
assessment strategies performed better?
This study used qualitative descriptive survey research design to collect and analyze the data.
Data was collected through questionnaires, interviews and focused group discussions. All these
were applied to elicit opinion of all instructors and Deans. The information from the
questionnaires was presented in figures and percentages in tables while the information obtained
from interviews and focused group discussions were analyzed using qualitative techniques. The
findings of the study revealed that:
1) Numerous Continuous Assessment Strategies (i.e. the written tests, exercises, assignments,
check lists, observation, presentations and projects) were being used in in rift valley University
College adama campus.
2) Findings of the study also showed a positive relationship between some of the continuous
assessment strategies used and students performance. Many instructors of in rift valley
University College adama campus utilized various continuous assessment strategies to enhance
their students performance. The researcher concluded that continuous assessment strategies
positively contribute to the performance of students. It was recommended that regulations and
policies should be put in place so that all schools can benefit from the practice and a uniform
policy should be emphasized. Also training for instructors should be encouraged especially in
the use of continuous assessment strategies.
1 Introduction
This chapter highlights the background of the study, problem of the study, purpose of the study,
objectives and research questions. The scope of the study and significance of the study are also
explained in this chapter.
122
1.1 Background to the study

This section presents theoretical, conceptual and contextual backgrounds of the study.
1.1.1. Theoretical Background
Ivan Pavlov (1929-1936) in his conditioning theory of Classical Conditioning concluded that a
dog learnt to salivate whenever a bell was rung. He undertook many trials and each time the bell
was sounded the dog salivated and food was simultaneously presented. The conditioning theory
has therefore been adopted to inform this research because it was assumed that students obtained
good grades whenever subject matter/content was taught, followed by many continuous
assessment (trials) exercises. Pavlov suggested a Conditioned Response (CR) that refers to
students reactions that develop as result of training/teaching in this study. A Conditioned
Stimulus (CS) refers to incentives that evoke CR through training/teaching. In this study, it was
assumed that students attainment of good grades was the Conditioned Response (CR),
continuous assessment was the Conditioned Stimulus (CS), and teaching was the Unconditioned
Stimulus (US).
1.1.2. Conceptual Background
Greaney (2001) defines assessment as any procedure or activity that is designed to collect
information about the knowledge, attitude, or skills of the learner or group of learners.
Assessment is therefore a process through which the quality of an individuals work or
performance is judged. When carried out as an on-going process, assessment is known as
Continuous Assessment (CA). CA is a formative evaluation procedure concerned with finding
out, in a systematic manner, the over-all gains that a student has made in terms of knowledge,
attitudes and skills after a given set of learning experience (Ogunnyi, 1984). According to
Aggarwal (1999), CA is not simply continuous testing. Continuous assessment does not solely
depend on formal tests. CA is more than giving a test; it involves every decision made by the
teacher in class to improve students achievement. CA may take different forms such as formal
questions given to students during class, take-home assignments/exercises and recapitulation
exercises. Assessment is either internal or external. Internal assessment refers to
school-based assessment, which includes class assignments, teacher-made tests,
exercises, projects, field studies and all these tools form part of the classroom
continuous assessment strategies. A continuous assessment strategy refers to the
different tools/procedures used in the classroom to understand the academic
achievement levels of learners in terms of their knowledge, attitudes and values.
Also a strategy in assessment is a purposefully conceived and determined plan of
action. It is a pattern of assessment that seems to attain certain outcomes and to
guard against others (Aggarwal, 1999).
1.2 Statement of the Problem

The urgent need to promote learning and improve performance in higher education resulted into
a range of related but different developments in continuous assessment at classroom levels. The
resultant feature has been inconsistent performance of students in COC and other external exit
exam and performance still varies from school to school. This undermines the future of many
students that persistently perform poorly. What therefore remains disturbing is whether a
relationship between continuous assessment strategies adopted by instructors in rift valley
university college Adama campus with students performance in final examinations.
123
1.3. Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to establish whether a relationship existed between continuous
assessment strategies used by instructors with students performance in rift valley university
college Adama campus.
1.4. Objectives of the Study
1. To find out the continuous assessment strategies used by instructors in rift valley university
college Adama campus.
2. To find out whether there was a relationship between continuous assessments strategies (CAS)
used and students performance in the final examinations rift valley university college Adama
campus.
3. To find out the instructors perception of whether students exposed to various continuous
assessment strategies perform better in the final examination than their counterparts.
1.5 Research Questions
1. What Continuous Assessment strategies were being used by instructors in rift valley university
college Adama campus?
2. What was the relationship between the Continuous Assessment strategies being used and
students performance in rift valley university college Adama campus?
3. What were the teachers perceptions on whether students exposed to various continuous
assessment strategies performed better in the final examination than their counterparts?
1.6. Scope of the Study
The study covered rift valley university college Adama campus. The major emphasis was put on
instructors and students. The study also revolved around continuous assessment strategies being
used by the instructors and students performance at rift valley university college Adama
campus.
1.7 Significance of the Study
The findings of this study might contribute in the following ways:
I. The research results would inform the teacher trainers of the numerous CASs being utilized in
rift valley university college Adama campus that these strategies should be emphasized during
the course of teacher training.
II. The research would provide relevant knowledge and information to the Department about the
performance of students in higher education that result from the classroom practice.
III. Teachers would be informed of the alternative CASs that could be used to enhance students
performance.
IV. This research will act as a foundation for further research that will benefit researchers.
2. Literature Review
2.0 Introduction
124
This chapter presents a review of relevant literature of this study. It also presents the theoretical
review particularly Pavlovs Classical Conditioning Theory. It also highlights the conceptual
framework, and related literature on continuous assessment, continuous assessment strategies
and students performance.
2.1 Theoretical Review
The Classical Conditioning Theory by Ivan Pavlov (1929-1936) guided this study. Pavlov
performed an experiment on dogs and discovered that dogs learnt to salivate in response to a
bell. Many trials had been given in each of which the bell was sounded and food was
simultaneously (slightly later) presented. It was thought therefore that students in A level
classes would get good grades whenever the teacher taught and students were exposed to many
trials of continuous assessment activities. According to Pavlov, Conditioned Response (CR) was
the response developed during training and Conditioned Stimulus (CS) was the stimulus, which
included training/teaching activities intended to evoke the CR (i.e. good grades in the final
examination). Unconditioned Response (UR) was the same or almost the same response as the
CR but it existed prior to training, normally being given whenever a certain stimulus; the
Unconditioned Stimulus (US) was presented.
In this study, the Conditioned Response (CR) was the attainment of good grades, which was
evoked by the Conditioned Stimulus (CS), which was continuous assessment, and Unconditioned
Stimulus was the teaching. To Pavlov, pairing food and the sound of the bell made the dog
salivate and in this study, pairing of teaching and continuous assessment activities could make
students perform better in terms of good grades in the final examinations. The theory of Pavlov
that suggested conditioned stimulus and conditioned response was an important aspect to this
study in helping us to understand the relationship between continuous assessment strategies
being used (i.e. assignments, teacher-made tests, recap exercises and projects) as the stimuli and
academic performance of students.
2.3 Review of Related Literature
2.3.1 Continuous Assessment
Webb and Briars (1990) argued that assessment must be an interaction between the teacher and
students, with the teacher continually seeking to understand, what a student can do and how a
student is able to do it. Yoloye (1991) also pointed out that continuous assessment is only a part
of the field of educational evaluation. He further argues that continuous assessment is a method
of evaluating the progress and achievement of students in educational institutions (Yoloye
1999). This means that continuous assessment could be used to predict future students
performance in the final examinations and the possible success at the work place or on a
particular job.
According to Obanya (1985), assessment involves the systematic collection of data on all aspects
of an educational endeavor. This means that the data collected about students academic
achievement is used on a continuous basis in a systematic way, to take meaningful decisions on
what should happen. Graume and Naidoo (2004) have also indicated that, in a global economy,
assessment of students achievement is changing mainly because in an ever-changing knowledge
based society, students would not only be required to learn and understand the basics but also to
think critically, to analyze, and to make inference for making decisions. It is therefore critical
that CAs could utilize strategies that are able to measure the changing students abilities and
125
attitudes, and this is why this study was undertaken to find out the different continuous
assessment strategies.
According to Farrant (1997), continuous assessment is being used increasingly as a strategy to
prepare students for terminal examinations. For instance, the results obtained from continuous
assessment can be used to identify the students weak areas so that teachers can give them
special support in those areas. Continuous assessment results can also inform decision-making in
terms of determining as to whether students should be promoted from one class to another.
Continuous [assessment] or schools-based assessment should test the total growth of the pupils
in the non-scholastic areas and therefore [should] be built into the teaching-learning process
(Graume&Naidoo, 2004:103). This implies that helping students acquire the needed knowledge
and skills would require changes in the public examination system and assessment techniques at
the schools and classroom levels.
2.3.4 Continuous Assessment Strategies and Students Performance
According to Omoifo (2006), what is termed assessment in many schools today is summative,
final, administrative, rigorous and content-driven rather than formative, diagnostic, private,
suggestive and goal oriented, as such can be regarded as grading. Summative assessment entails
the focus on final examinations by teachers, parents and students. Surprisingly, formative
assessment is geared towards the consolidation of students performance in the final
examinations rather than inculcating students with problem solving, critical thinking, and life
skills.
American Association for the Advancement of Science (1998) has categorized the purpose of
assessment into internal and external purposes. The internal purposes for assessment include
conveying to students expectations about what is important to learn, providing information to
students and parents about students progress, helping students to judge their own learning,
guiding and improving instruction, classifying and selecting students. The external purpose was
to inform the education donors including parents, education departments and ministry about what
happened in schools.
Performance is defined in terms of results (Madaus 2000:98). In addition, Kellaghan and Greany
(2003:16) noted that, when continuous assessment has important consequences attached to
performance, they are likely to impact directly on teaching and learning and so merit
consideration as a mechanism for improving student achievements. Onuka (2006:11) also found
out that in Nigeria there was a comprehensive implementation of continuous assessment and
feedback for the improvement of the education system for the accomplishment of learning
objectives effectively according to students. This concurred with the finding of Onuka and
Oludipe (2005) that there was a significant remediation for poor performance as a result of the
application of the feedback mechanism resulting from formative evaluation of learners.
Furthermore, Etienne (2007:2) contended that, the protest against final examinations by students
in France in May 1968 was the perfect opportunity for students to point at the unfair and risky
final assessment in their schools. They made it clear that such examinations merely represented
the performance of the moment and not the efforts made throughout the year. Students insisted
on the risk that even the best-prepared student could have a problem on the day of the
examination and came out in favor of continuous assessment in order to reduce the risks though
some difficulties are likely to occur during implementation of the recap exercises as well.
Graume and Naidoo (2004:) also noted that up to high school level, the assessment of students is
done through terminal, half yearly and annual examinations at the schools. Carnoy (1999)
126
contends that, when continuous assessment tools are applied over a period of time, they give an
indication whether improvement is taking place or not. Furthermore, Ogunnyi (1984) noted that
CA is cumulative in that any decision made at any time about any student takes cognizance of
the previous decision made about him. Continuous assessment also provides the student with
maximum opportunities to learn and to demonstrate from time to time the knowledge, the skills
and the attitudes that they have during the teaching-learning process.
The chapter has presented the relevant literature particularly on continuous assessment strategies
and students performance. The next chapter discusses the methodology utilized in this study.
METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the research design, sample selection procedures, how validity and
reliability was maintained. This chapter also highlights the procedures used for carrying out the
field study and data analysis.
3.1 Research Design
This study used a descriptive survey research design utilizing both qualitative research methods
and quantitative approaches. This research design was seen to be the most desirable because the
study sought to describe the current situation in classrooms in terms of continuous assessment
strategies being used and their relationship to students academic performance. Surveys are wellknown instruments that can be used to gather a lot of information in a short period of time. Given
the time constraints and the financial resources available, the researchers decided to use the
survey research design. Qualitative research methods in this study were also appropriate in order
to explain how the teachers in schools conducted CA strategies. Straus (1998) noted that research
projects where members are open to helpful criticism, can enjoy the play of ideas, and can
appreciate the give and take that occurs in group discussions.
The data was guided by the following questions:
1) What were the continuous assessment strategies being used in rift valley university college?
2) What was the relationship between Continuous Assessment strategies being used and
students academic performance on final examinations in in Rift Valley University College?
3) What were the instructors perceptions about whether students exposed to various continuous
assessment strategies performed better than their peers?
3.2. Sample Selection
The study targeted instructors and students in Rift Valley University College adama campus.
Instructors were selected because they taught and executed testing and examination of students.
Students were also selected because they were the beneficiaries of continuous assessment
strategies being used by the teachers in their class and it was also the students that sat for the
final examinations.
3.2.2 Population Selection
30 Instructors were randomly selected three faculties such as business and social science,
technology and health to participate in the study, 45 students from each faculty and 3faculty
deans were also randomly selected in the study. Therefore, total populations of 168 were selected
to participate in the study. The reason for this small sample was due to the limited resources and
127
time constraints that the researcher experienced. A smaller manageable sample offered the
researcher the ideal information needed and at the same time enabled him to complete this
research project in a timely manner.
3.3 Data Collection Methods
Three instruments were used in the study, namely: questionnaires, structured interviews, and
Focused Group Discussion (FGD).
Questionnaires
Two sets of questionnaires were used. One set of questionnaires was administered to instructors
and the second one was administered to students. Although 135 questionnaires had been
distributed to students, only 125 were returned. Out of the 30 questionnaires distributed to
teachers, only 25 were returned. This made it possible to collect adequate information and
opinions from the respondents within a short period of time.
Interviews
Face to face interviews were given to the Faculty dean in 3 participating higher education. The
interviews were used because of their advantages over questionnaires especially to allow the
researchers to probe for particular responses, clarifications and confirmations of information
from the respondents.
Focused Group Discussion (FGD)
Different groups of teachers were met at their respective schools for discussions. They were
asked questions designed to draw their attention and response on topics related to this study.
Respondents were allowed to answer in their own words rather than having to choose from
predetermined options, as it is usually the case for survey techniques. Although it was intended
that all the 30 teachers participate in the FGD, only 10 teachers did actually participate in the
FGD and the rest of teachers were not available for the discussion. The information from the
groups helped to supplement data that was collected using interviews and questionnaires, which
enhanced the possibilities for triangulation.
3.5 Data Analysis
All the information from the questionnaires was entered into Microsoft excel spreadsheets. The
Microsoft excel program was used to generate descriptive statistics, graphics, tables and charts.
The interpretation of the descriptive statistics made it possible to make appropriate inferences in
terms of determining the influence of continuous assessment strategies to students performance.
The qualitative data was analyzed into themes and concepts. Based on the grounded theory
plausible relationships among themes and concepts were identified (Strauss &Carbin, 1998). The
Grounded Theory was very ideal for this study as it involves inductive data analysis, which
according to Ary et al (2002) type of data, analysis could lead to formation of a new theory.
3.6 Limitation of the Study
Different limitations hindered the progress of this research, for instance; some respondents
declined from participating in the study information while others continued to postpone the
interview and focus group discussions. This slowed down the process of data collection.
In summary, this chapter has presented the methodology utilized in this study. The next chapter
will provide the data presentation and analysis of the findings of this study.
128
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
4. Introduction
In this chapter, findings of this study are presented based on the research questions. These
findings are based on 25 questionnaires from the teachers, 125 questionnaires from the students
and 3 questionnaires filled by faculty dean.
Teachers Background
Table 4:1. Teachers' Background information
Items
Gender
Highest qualification
Experience
Counts
Male
Female
First degree
Masters
PhD degree
0-2
3-5
Above 6years
Percentage
92%
8%
24%
75%
1%
41%
46%
13%
The table 4.1 indicates that the largest percentages of teachers (92 %) were male instructors
compared to 8% who were female instructors. Whether this imbalance between male and female
teachers has a significant influence on students performance, it is yet to be known. Given that
usually female instructors serve as role models to students than male instructors, this might have
an implication on students performance. The findings showed that the instructors who are
masters degree holders dominated the teaching staff; most of the instructors were first degree
holders. Many instructors were relatively new in their workstations and most of them had spent
3-5 years, which was a short period. This implied that most instructors were inexperienced and
less likely to carry out effective assessment of students.
Students Background
Table 4:2. Students' Background Information
Items
Gender
Class year
No of students
Male
Female
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
129
Percentag
e
Table 4.2 shows the number of female students in rift valley University College is proportional
with male students sample population because girls were outnumbering boys in classroom
enrollment. This is quite unusual especially at higher education enrollments to surpass that of
boys.
4.1. Research Question One: The continuous assessment strategies used in rift valley university
college adama campus
In response to research question one, instructors as well as students were probed and their
responses are presented in figures 4.1 and 4.2 respectively.
Figure 4:1 Teachers Response on How They Assessed Students.
teachers response
45%
42%
40%
31%
35%
25%
30%
teachers response
25%
20%
15%
10%
3%
5%
0%
written test
exercise
Assignments presentation
The finding in Fig 4.1 indicates that written tests were the most commonly used
Continuous assessment strategy by teachers in Rift valley University College followed by
Assignment and exercise. Presentation strategy was the less utilized strategy by the teachers.
130
Figure 4:2 Students Response on How Teachers Assessed their Work Daily
30%
30%
students response
23%
25%
21%
20%
15%
students response
10%
3%
2%
5%
0%
Figure 4.2 indicates that students concurred with their teachers response in figure 4.1 of the
teachers response about the same thing.
The table shows that written tests, assignments and exercises dominated the teachers
continuous assessment strategies. Checklist was the less used strategy. The researcher found out
that teachers had gained very little training in the use of checklists.
This was more evidence by the failure of any teachers to present any form of checklist to the
researcher.
4.2.2 Frequency of the Use of Continuous Assessment Strategies
Findings regarding the frequency in use of continuous assessment strategies as gathered from
teachers and students are presented in table 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, and 4.6 respectively.
Table 4:3. Shows the Teachers Responses on the Number of Times Different CA Strategies
Were Used
Items
Very often Often
Not Often
Never
Oral tests
Written Tests
0
12
0
4
0
0
0
8
131
Total
Response
0
22
Total
Sample
25
25
Assignments 9
10
Project
10
6
exercise
9
12
Checklist
1
3
Observation 6
10
Zero (0) means no response.
2
4
2
4
2
0
0
0
6
4
21
22
23
14
22
25
25
25
25
25
Table 4.3 indicates that written tests were the most frequently used CA strategy i.e. (with 12
respondents out of 22), followed by project with 10 out of 23 respondents. This study revealed
that teachers did not use oral tests.
Table 4:4. Shows the Teachers Response on When They Used the Different CA Strategies
Items
Daily
Weekly
Monthly
Half-term
Termly
Total
Reponses
Total
Sample
Oral test
0
0
0
0
0
0
25
0
0
10
17
7
24
25
Assignment
0
2
12
12
0
24
25
Projects
0
0
4
4
5
13
25
Exercises
0
3
14
0
0
17
25
Checklists
0
2
0
2
0
4
25
Observation
2
4
0
0
0
6
25
Findings in Table 4.4 indicates that 10 out of 24 respondents used written tests on a monthly
basis throughout the term, 12of the 24 respondents used assignment also on a monthly basis and
while exercises were given on a weekly basis. Table 4.4 also shows that a few teachers used
projects, checklists and observations.
Written tests
Table 4.5: Students' Responses on the Number of Times their Teachers Used Different CA
Strategies
Items
Oral tests
Written tests
Assignments
Projects
Exercise
Checklists
Observation
Questionnair
e
Very
Often
0
54
60
41
10
0
18
0
Often
Not often
Never
0
30
61
42
15
13
33
0
0
12
10
21
70
14
31
0
0
0
0
0
20
47
17
0
132
Total
Responses
0
108
131
104
115
74
99
0
Total
Sample
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
The findings in table 4.5 illustrate that students were frequently given Assignmentsand written
tests while Exercise andobservationwere less frequent. Checklists were rarely used. Oral tests
and questionnaires were never used according to students. This is in agreement with the
responses given by their teachers.
The responses to when the teachers carried out the different continuous assessment strategies to
assess students work are summarized in table 4.6.
Table 4:6 Students Responses on When Their Teachers Used Different CA Strategies
Items
Daily
Weekly
Monthly Half-Termly Termly
Total
0
0
0
0
0
0
Oral tests
Written tests 0
21
30
65
19
135
Assignments 0
11
21
72
22
126
Projects
0
5
24
48
27
101
Exercise
0
10
16
10
0
36
Checklists
0
13
14
5
4
36
Observation
0
4
26
12
8
50
Questionnair 0
0
0
0
0
0
e
In Table 4.6 students responses concurred with those of their teachers mainly in the use of
written tests, assignments and projects. The three strategies were more used than the rest of the
assessment strategies. Furthermore, oral tests were not used by teachers according to students
and in fact none of them responded about oral tests.
4.2 Research Question Two: The relationship between CA strategies and students performance
in rift valley university college Adama campus.
The findings of the teachers and students responses about this question are presented in Table
4.7 and 4.8 respectively.
Table 4:7. Teachers Responses on the Relation of CA to Students' Performance
Contributions
SA
Build the whole mind of the student

Improves teaching-learning process
Help Identify weak students
Students develop a revising habit
Help students master the contents
Students perform better in final examination
Arouses students desire for attention in class
The more the CA, the more confident and ready
students become for final exam.
10
16
14
15
16
12
14
12
15
9
11
10
9
13
11
13
0
0
0
0
0
2
6
0
133
SD Total
respons
e
0
25
0
25
0
25
0
25
0
25
0
25
0
25
0
25
Total
Sampl
e
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
Closes the gap between the students and teachers.

16
25
25
From the table 4.7, out of 25 Teachers that participated in this study, 16 strongly agreed that CA
improved the teaching-learning process, 14 teachers strongly agreed that CA helped to identify
weak students and that students easily mastered the subject content. A large number of teachers
also strongly agreed that, the more CA strategies used and exposed to students, the more
confident and ready the students became for the final exam.
Table 4.8: Students Responses on the Relationship of CA Strategies to Their Performance

Contributions
SA
SA
Total
Sample
0
0
0
0
0
Total
Respons
e
25
25
23
23
25
Help me to revise
I become more confident and ready for final exams
Teacher gives me quick feedback
Improves my understanding
I learn answering techniques and question
approach
Helps to master the notes
Arouses my desire to attention and concentrate in
class
Helps me to interact with the teacher.
16
15
10
14
12
9
10
13
9
13
0
0
0
0
0
16
11
7
14
2
0
0
0
23
25
25
25
12
13
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
From table 4:8, it was clearly observed that majority of the students felt that CAs contributed to
their good performance. CA helped them to revise more effectively and to also gain confidence
and become ready for the final examinations. Many students also indicated that when their
teachers gave them quick feedback, they were able to identify their weaknesses and therefore
they made efforts to improve. It was very clear from the findings that CA strategies arouse
students desire to pay attention and concentrate because they were expecting to be assessed most
of the time.
DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0. Introduction
This study was conducted to find out from teachers and students perceptions on whether CA
strategies were related to students performance in rift valley university college Adama campus.
In this chapter, the results obtained are discussed systematically, question by question.
Thereafter, conclusions, recommendations and areas for further research are given.
5.1. Continuous assessment strategies used in Rift Valley University College Adama campus.
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The study revealed that a variety of CA strategies were being used in rift valley university
college Adama campus. Written tests (i.e. teacher made tests) were the most commonly used.
Arranged items and multiple-choice questions were also used in all subject matters. In addition,
tests also consisted of short answer questions, Essay type questions problems.
This study through teachers discussions also revealed that teachers used questions at the end of
every chapter in the textbooks to enrich their written tests. Teachers in a focused group
discussion explained why written tests were dominating their continuous assessment practice.
They revealed that:
Teacher 1: I can set many questions in one test picked from many topics
Teacher 2: A lot more subject content can be examined in a single test than in a classroom
Exercise and many times students respect tests especially the examinations
Teacher 3: because a lot of subject content can be asked in a single test, I can know what my
students did or did not understand from a wide range
These teachers responses coincided with those of dean. They all looked at tests as being
relevant in assessing students and that they contributed to their overall academic performance.
This implies that as far as teachers are concerned, CA carried out by a carefully planned testing
provided them with the feedback on their own teaching and the learning of their students. This
means that every aspect of performance of a student on a CA strategy is challenging to the
teacher to seek ways of improving the performance of their students. When teachers were asked
how often tests were administered, most of the teachers responded that tests were administered
on a monthly basis. This meant that teachers attached a lot of meaning/value to tests.
Findings from a focused group discussion and interviews held with teachers and Deans indicated
that CAs through tests were cumbersome and time consuming because enormous amounts of
time went into setting questions doing corrections. In some schools, where classes were larger, it
made it difficult to implement CA. Deans complained that there was a problem of part-time
teaching on the side of the teachers that also hindered the implementation of tests. Though
teachers only thought that tests were teacher-made and only designed for individual students or
schools, they forget that tests could be administered in groups. Students could even test
themselves if well oriented and this could solve many of the problems involved in administering
tests.
When Deans were asked why they encouraged the use of assignments as a strategy of continuous
assessment to students, they responded that:
Dean1: students can consult more texts in the library or elsewhere to supplement on what the
teachers give them.
Dean2: students learn to answer questions using their own words, ideas while improving their
reasoning
The researcher realized that teachers and Deans wanted their students to be given opportunity to
demonstrate their ability to organize ideas, views, and points and to express themselves freely
after doing some research.
However this has many limitations. It was difficult to make objective and reliable judgment of an
essay from assignment where students often present different ideas expressed in different ways.
Essay questions also took excessively long time for a teacher to grade. The researcher noted that,
a student with good hand writing and language skills passed with distinctions while those who
have internalized details of the subject but did not have the language skills to explain their views
135
were permanently disadvantaged. As an alternative, the researcher would suggest short answer
items as they allow a wide range of test techniques and possibilities, provided more thorough
coverage of the syllabus, they give opportunities for details, they allow for accurate and precise
feedback and discourage students from concentrating their efforts on selected areas which are
thought to be examinable.
In Figure 4.1, teachers responded that presentation was another CA strategy used to assess
students. According to teachers, the presentations were carried out either in a group or as
individual students. What was identified in this study was that, teachers gave a question, theme,
item or a topic to students so that they could research about it and present their findings in class.
In commenting about assessing work in the social sciences, Ross et al (1993) contended that talk
was the most natural and the most productive way of evaluating pupils creative process and
their critical appreciation of their own achievement. Teachers revealed in an interview that,
presentations helped them identify many other aspects of students performance, which receives
little attention such as interpersonal skills, disposition skills, reaction to criticisms and good
oratory skills. However, respondents lamented that they usually found some difficulties mainly
when a dialogue after presentation is begun. For instance, the teachers were required to allow a
student ample time to think about a question before responding and must listen sensitively in
order to understand a student thinking which might need to be followed.
The study discovered that projects and observation were other continuous assessment strategies.
According to students, teachers awarded those marks by observing what they were doing through
demonstrations, role-plays, presentations, recitations and modeling. These were commonly used
in laboratories, technical drawing. For students, the results from these observations helped them
to change their way of acting and presenting information which always improved their
performance. However the efforts of the researchers to get any example of the projects from the
teachers and Deans were in vain. Therefore the researchers wondered whether the students
differentiated the marking guide from the projects.
Also to note, the other continuous assessment strategies that were used by the teacher were
questionnaires and checklists. The results indicated that, the two strategies are rarely used and
most teachers had never used checklists and questionnaire to assess students. The findings from
the interview with deans and teachers revealed that, there was limited time for the two strategies.
They stated that:
Teacher 1: if I use checklists, will I ever complete the syllabus? I do not even have time to set
questionnaires.
Teacher 2: its difficult to monitor checklists due to limited time available during the term.
Even the Deans do not recommend it because it wastes a lot of students time. The responses
showed that, teachers are always teaching to complete the syllabus and anything beyond that is
useless to them. This meant that, the limited time available in schools does not allow the
diversity of CA strategies available for use. Therefore teachers opted for strategies that would
work within the limited time frame. The downside of this is that little exploration and creativity
of students in other areas is experienced. To the researcher, if teachers carried out the projects in
a well-planned manner, the same checklists would yield good results. Checklists require enough
time for planning and implementation, which requires teachers dedication. To manage the
efficiency within the implementation of check lists as a continuous assessment strategy. This
helps to minimize the problems associated with time and classroom numbers.
136
Continuous assessment requires the use of a diverse set of data for a purpose. That purpose is the
modification of the learning work to adapt to the need that is revealed by the feedback from the
student. The reaction of teachers to students feedback range from the immediate classroom
objectives, lesson plan and the teaching, through to a comprehensive review of a variety of
appropriate continuous assessment strategy in order to appraise progress over a whole topic or
theme covered.
5.2 The relationship between Continuous Assessment strategies being used and students
performance in rift valley university college Adama campus.
The findings obtained through the use of questionnaires, interviews and focused group
discussions with students, teachers and Deans revealed a lot of important insights. The most
salient insights and discussions are presented below.
The following questions were asked:
Teachers strongly agreed that CA strategies improved the teaching and the learning processes.
The argument was that through frequent use of CAs teachers realized the best ways of delivering
their subject content so that students could easily learn and understand it. Teachers also argued
that CA helped them to assess their own performance and effectiveness of their teaching. This is
supported by the findings of Onuka (2005) about CA that; if consistently applied in the
university system, it would result into an enhanced performance of students and of course of the
teachers, as both of these groups would strive to perform better. This is because the teacher
would discover his own areas of weakness and strive to ameliorate them. This is in line with
what Black et al (2000) noted that, all collection of formative evidence must be guided by a
strategy for ensuring action
Most of the teachers indicated that CA strategies strongly helped them to identify weak students.
Teachers contended that written tests were the best strategy in revealing the students weakest
points. According to Yoloye (1991), scores from CA help the teacher to identify the students
difficulties and help them thereby to master those things they are yet to master. When
interviewed, one of the Dean argued that, through the frequent use of CAs, teachers were
informed of how students were progressing and the teachers would give more time to the weaker
students to assist them improve.
According to this study, the findings implied that CA provided a framework in which classroom
objectives were set and students progress chartered and expressed. It yielded a basis for
planning the next topic or sub-topic in response to student needs. When questions were asked,
whether assignments, exercises, and written tests facilitated development of high order thinking,
the research found out that 81.8 percent of students agreed that they learnt answering techniques
and question approaches through CA. Students explained that when words like explain, identify,
describe, state, compare and contrast, to what extent, were used in continuous assessment
strategies, they got familiar with their interpretation. They argued that they learnt how to
approach a question with such terms, how to organize their answers which helped them to
perform better when they sat for an exam.
The Dean commented that, these CAs encouraged teachers to always to use terms that were also
commonly used by the examiners in the final examinations. To them, this gave enough practice
to students as they got exposed to such questions that enabled them to give a good presentation
during the final exam. When interviewed, the Dean revealed that, oral presentation and group
work helped students to develop communication and interpersonal skills they allowed in
achieving course expectation.
137
The Deans stated that:

Because the students are afraid of being looked at (observed) and graded as weak students by
the teachers and fellow students, students will make an equal and worthwhile contribution in the
planning, researching and presenting of the subject.
This statement shows that students involved themselves in self-work, personal research and
innovation so that they could meet the required standards in the class. This improved their
retention capacity and ability making continuous assessment to have an impact on their
performance.
While commenting about observation, Cavendish et al (1990) noted that some teachers found it
surprisingly useful if they suspended their active teaching interventional for a time making clear
to a class what they were doing and why to concentrate only on looking and listening. In this
study however, the research found out through a focused discussion with students that some
teachers behave differently towards boys and girls and towards pupils from the different social
classes. In each of these cases, students complained that some teachers would rate a particular
piece of work more highly if it came from one type of student rather than the other. The
researcher suggests use of checklists whenever observation is done. Checklists can be used to
record the presence or absence of knowledge, particular skills, learning process, or attitudes.
They may be used to record such information in relation to written assignments, presentations,
classroom performances, and test-taking behaviors.
5.3 Teachers perception on whether students exposed to numerous continuous assessment
strategies perform better than their peers.
According to teachers, the Focused Group Discussions as a kind of continuous assessment is a
good practice especially for improving the performance of students and in monitoring their
progress. Teachers contended that every aspect of performance of a student on a CA strategy is
challenging to the teacher to seek ways of improving it. Teachers also commented that,
continuous assessment is not a physical thing, but rather the interaction they also have with their
students, material and knowledge while in classroom. To the researcher, this meant that
continuous assessment is what actually happens in the classroom and what teachers and students
do to measure how much learning is taking place.
It was found out that in continuous assessment, learners are not objects to be acted
upon/assessed. They have a clear voice in the way that the continuous assessment sessions
evolve. The teachers perception here was more on interactions. This means that attention shifts
from teaching to learning and assessment to learning itself. The idea of a teacher having a prespecified assessment plan or program tends to direct attention to teaching. Teachers have to put
learners first in continuous assessment which is also termed as student-centered approach.
However, when we come to think about this way of approaching continuous assessment in
practice, a number of possible challenges do arise. The first is a problem for those teachers and
educators who want some greater degree of uniformity in what is taught and assessed. Secondly,
because we are considering a learner-centered assessment approach, this can lead to variations in
continuous assessment strategies being employed in classrooms. A teacher might need to try out
and evaluate each continuous assessment strategy on individual students due to the uniqueness
each student possesses.
138
All in all, this study found out that, if properly, professionally and honestly carried out, CA
strategies have a great positive potential relationship with the students performance.
5.2 Conclusion
Drawing on teachers and students perceptions, there were very many continuous assessment
strategies used and these were found to have a positive relationship to students performance in
the final examinations. This is because through CA, teachers tend to realize their own
weaknesses in teaching and those of their students and strive to ameliorate them. Good
application of CA using different strategies would help in moving towards accomplishing
learning objectives and restoring greater confidence in the class and education systems.
Enhanced performance of students would culminate in the reduction of the incidences of
examination malpractices, as students would have been well prepared for the external
examinations through CA. However, the contribution should not only be looked at as improving
student performance but also as determining students current level of knowledge, skills, or
understanding of content.
5.3 Recommendations
1. The Ministry of Education should put in place regulations, checks and balances to ensure that
different CA strategies are used both in government funded and privately owned institutions. A
uniform policy on this practice should be emphasized so that all institutions benefit from it.
2. Higher institutions of learning should train teachers on how to use CA strategies for their
implementation in higher educations. It was found out through the interviews and focused group
discussions that teachers complained of the many problems they found as they attempted to
implement Continuous Assessments. Therefore the training should focus on how teachers can
carry out continuous assessment in the different teaching and learning stations with ease.
3. Given the complexity of classroom assessment and evidence relating to teachers skills and
practice in this area, there is an obvious need for development of an infrastructure to support
improvement of its quality. Therefore, regular training seminars/workshops should be constantly
organized for teachers to update their knowledge of the process involved in the implementation
of continuous assessment to further boost the realization of learning objectives as room still
exists for improvement.
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1.Airasian, P. W. (1991): Classroom Assessment. New York, Mc Grant Hill. Ary, D., Cheser, L,
azavieh, A. (2002): Introduction to Research in Education. Wadsworth. Thomson
Learning. SA.
2. Black, P. (1993): Formative and Summative Assessment Teacher studies in Service education.
139
3. Black, P., & William, D. (2005): Lessons from around the World. How Policies, Politics and
Cultures Constrain and afford Assessment Practices. The Curriculum Journal 16(2) 249261 Canvendish, S., Galton, M., Hargreaves, L., &Harlen, W (1990): Observing
Activities. London, Paul Champman.
4. Etienne, P. (2007): Mauritia; Continuous Assessment Still only on Paper. Port Louis, L
express. Education Policy Review Commission (1989); Education for National and
Development Report of Education Policy Review Commission, Kampala, Ministry of
Education.
5. Ezeudu, S.A. (2005): Continuous Assessment in Nigeria Senior Secondary School
Geography: problems and implementation strategies. A Paper Presented at the Annua
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Conference of the International Association for educational Assessment at the NCONHilton Hotel Abuja Nigeria Sept 4-8, 2005
6.Farrant, J. H and Lioudmila, M. (1997). Strategic Planning At Afrcian Universities: How
Relevant are Nothern Models? Higher Education Policy.
7.
Greaney, V. (2001).Using Assessment to improve the quality of Education Paris:
UNESCO International Institute for Education Planning.
Assessment of Academic Staff Motivation in Private Higher Education

Institutions: A Case Study of Selected Private Higher Education Institutions
Found in Adama Town.
Messele Kumilachew Aga (Lecture, Faculty of Business and Social Science, Rift Valley
University, Adama)
Abstract
The academic staffs are a key resource to higher education institutions. Even though motivation
of academic staff in higher education institutions is as important as the blood for sustaining
human life, private higher education institutions are not giving attention to motivate their
academic staffs. This is why the study aimed at assessment of academic staff motivation in
private higher education institutions and its implication for qualityeducation. Academic staffs in
140
private higher education institutions found in Adama Town were taken as target population for
this study. Of sevenprivate higher education institutions found in Adama Town three were
selected purposively because of their long term experience in the industry. Of the total
permanent academic staff 70 were taken as a sample size and simple random sampling was used
in order to select sample respondents for the study. The findings of this study revealed that
majority of the academic staffs were not motivated. Amount of salary paid to them was low as
compared to other industries; there was no effective performance appraisal system that fosters
promotional opportunities and recognition. As a result, their motivational level to perform what
have been expected from them in teaching-learning process was low. The researcher
recommended for the owners (management) of private higher education institutions to inculcate
factors motivating academic staffs to strengthen the quality of education.
Key Words:Motivation, Academic staff, Private Higher Education Institutions
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the Study
Motivation refers to the forces within a person that affect his or her direction, intensity, and
persistence of voluntary behavior. Motivated employees are willing to exert a particular level of
effort (intensity), for certain amount of time (persistence), toward a particular goal (direction).
Even when people have clear objectives, the right skills, and a supportive work environment,
they must have sufficient motivation to achieve work objectives (Mcshane and Mary Ann Von,
2003). "Motivation is the force that makes people chooses a particular job, stay with that job and
work hard in that job" (Lin, 2007). Work motivation refers to the psychological processes that
influence individual behavior with respect to the attainment of workplace goals and tasks. The
received wisdom among occupational psychologists is that pay on its own does not increase
motivation. However, pecuniary motives are likely to be dominant among teachers in those
developing countries where pay and other material benefits are too low for individual and
household survival needs to be met. Only when these basic needs have been met is it possible for
higher-order needs, which are the basis of true job satisfaction, to be realized. A keyempirical
issue is therefore to establish the extent of this problem (Bennell, 2004). According to
141
Michaelowa (2002), teacher motivation is defined as the willingness, derive or desire to engage
in good teaching.
The current Ethiopian government recognizes the importance of education for national
development. Policy is mainly aimed at expanding the education sector, improving quality and
ensuring that educational content is harmonized with the country's economic needs. The number
of higher education institutions are increasing and the intake capacity of these institutions are
also increasing. Private higher education has also increased as part of a general liberalization of
parts of the economy; there are now approximately 66 private institutions offering undergraduate
degree programs in Ethiopia and the private sector accounts for approximately 25 percent of the
countrys undergraduate enrolments. Although the government recognizes that it needs the
private sector if it is to meet its targets for the expansion of higher education, there is a noticeable
sense of distrust amongst civil servants and ministers who sometimes categorize private
universities and colleges as diploma mills. And different scholars forwarded the severe problem
of quality education in PHEIs of Ethiopia. According to Tenna (2011), Quality of education has
become a recurrent topic of discussions and researchers. Therefore, the motivation of academic
staffs of the PHEIs is the foremost stakeholder for ensuring quality of education.
The academic staffs of higher education institution are a key resource to institutions success.
Academic staff, in particular, accounts for a significant component of the budget of higher
education institutions and has a major role to play in achieving the objectives of the institution.
The performance of academic staff, both as teachers and researchers and also as managers,
determines, to a large extent, the quality of the students experience of higher education and has a
significant impact on students learning and thereby on the contribution that such institutions can
make to society (Werkneh and Shimelis, 2010). If academic staffs of PHEIs are motivated, they
will not only feels satisfied with his or her job, but also they are empowered to strive for
excellence and quality of education for their institution. The issue of teacher motivation is
important because of its correlation with the quality of education (Javaid, 2009). There are many
motivational factors that induce academic staff in PHEIs. These might be working environment,
supervisor relations, company itself, recognition, opportunity for development and growth, and
pay and benefits.Therefore, this study will attempt to identify factors that motivate academic
staff and examine current motivational level of academic staff inPrivate Higher Education
Institutions (PHEIs)found in Adama Town.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
142
Education is the backbone of any government. Cognizant with this, Ethiopian PHEIs are making
significant contribution towards increasing access to higher education and creating employment
opportunities for citizens (Wossenu and Mulu, 2012). There are concerns among different
stakeholders on the quality of education provided by Ethiopian PHEIs. Quality education for all
is the motto towards which the government of Ethiopia is currently working. Although there are
number of factors that affect the quality of education the role of academic staff is placed in the
front line.
According to ShaheenImrab et al. (2013) competent and knowledgeable academicians are

considered an important strength of any educational institutions. Teaching is very scared
profession and teachers have a great role in their students intellectual, personal, and social
development, there by influencing the future nations development. Given the importance of
academic staff in higher education institutions, this problem has potentially significant
ramifications for the nations future development. Therefore, knowing how academic staff are
paid, valued and treated is very important to consider the quality of education in PHEIs.
According to Grayling (2002), although teaching is an honorable engagement, it has never been a
highly paid profession. The current study on the motivational level of PHEIs in Ethiopia is low
as compared to its counterpart of government higher education institutions and other industries.
Recent studies have shown that low morale and job dissatisfaction are significant problems
identified in academic staffs who teach in PHEIs in Ethiopia.
A review of empirical studies on teacher motivation in developing countries indicates widespread

low or decreasing levels of motivation, resulting in lower quality of education (Guajardo, 2011).
Research indicates that higher teacher motivation is significantly linked to improved student
learning outcomes. This reveals thatmotivated academic staff has a direct impact on assuring the
quality of education. Only the motivated, skilled and knowledgeable academic staff can give
glorious position to the institution and the countrys development. Many outstanding teachers in
the private higher education institutions leave teaching in the first three years because of lack of
motivational factors (Frase, 1992). Motivation of university teachers is as important as the blood
for sustaining human life. Even though, the problem is known that there is low academic staff
motivation in Ethiopian private higher education institutions, there has been limited research to
understand the causes for low motivation and factors motivating academic staff in Ethiopian
private higher education institutions. Therefore, this research will identify factors affecting
motivational level of instructors who teach in PHEIs and its impact on quality education, taking
academic staff of PHEIs found in Adama Town as case study.
143
1.3. Research Questions
In this research the following research questions were answered;
To what extent academic staffs of Private Higher Education Institutions are motivated to
their job?
What are the important factors affecting academic staff motivation in Private Higher
Education Institutions found in Adama Town?
What is the motivation level of academic staff to perform activities that ensure education
quality in Private Higher Education Institutions?
1.4. Objectives of the Study
The general objective of this study is to asses motivational level of academic staff in Private
Higher Education Institutions found in Adama Town.
Specific objectives of the study were:
In order to examine the motivational level of academic staff of Private Higher Education
Institutions
To identify important factors affecting academic staff motivation in Private Higher

Education Institutions
To examine the synergies between motivation level and educational quality in Private
Higher Education Institutions
1.5. Significance of the Study
Motivation of academic staff in higher education is as important as the blood for sustaining
human life. If academic staff of PHEIs are motivated and work with dedication they can produce
competent, skillful graduates that can help the nations development. Therefore, this study will
allow the owner of PHEIs in Adama to consider and revise the current motivational systems used
for their academic staff and to recognize and realize the significance of motivational factors for
promoting and enhancing motivational level of their academicians. PHEIs can improve the
quality of education by maintaining experienced teaching staff if they provide good motivational
factors and it could be possible to retain outstanding academic staff and assure quality of
144
education delivered via motivated academic staffs. It could also be relevant to the future
researchers to use the findings of this study as the secondary sources and may encourage other
researchers to undertake an in-depth investigation related with academic staff motivation in
Ethiopian PHEIs.
2. METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
This study is aimed to find out factors that motivate the academic staff members of private
higher education institutions (PHEIs) and the current motivational level of academic staff in
PHEIs found in Adama Town. This study was conducted in the private educational sector found
in Oromia Regional State of Adama Town, Ethiopia. There are a total of seven PHEIs currently
operating in Adama Town. Out of which three PHEIs; namely Unity University, Rift Valley
University College, and Royal University College were selected purposively because of their
relative long term experience in education. There are total of 100 permanent academic staffs in
the three selected PHEIs found in Adama Town. From tabulated values of different sample sizes,
a population of 100 individuals requires a minimum sample size of 80 for a 95% confidence
level at 5% margin of error (Saunders,et.al 2009). Therefore, a simple random sampling
technique was used to select 80 respondents for the study. Self-administered questionnaire was
used as the primary data collection technique for the academic staff selected as sample
respondents and focused group discussion was conducted with senior academic staffs who have
been serving in PHEIs for more five years. From the 80 distributed questionnaires 70 of them
were returned back and feasible for analysis (that is 87.5% response rate). The analysis was done
both descriptively and inferentially using statistically software called SPSS version 16. Finally,
the summaries will be presented in the form of tables, bar graph, pie chart, frequency counts, and
percentage and interpreted in line with the objectives of the study.
3. MAJOR FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

This section describes the major findings of the research and discussions of the
major findings are followed.
Table 1.1: Profile of Academic Staff(Respondents)
145
S/N
o
Variables
Options
Frequency
Percentage
66
94.3
5.7
Total
70
100
20-25
13
18.6
26-30
42
60
31-35
11
15.7
5.7
Total
70
100
Married
33
47.10
Single
36
51.40
Divorce
1.40
Windowed
Total
70
100
TVET/Diploma
12
17.14
Degree
32
45.70
Masters
24
34.30
PhD
2.86
Total
70
100
Laboratory Assistant
4.30
Graduate Assistant I
8.60
Graduate Assistant II
11.40
14
20
Male
1
Sex
Age in years
Female
Above 35
Marital Status
Educational
Level
5
Academic Status
Assistant Lecture
146
Lecturer
Year of Service
36
51.40
Assistant Professor
2.90
Associate Professor
1.40
Total
70
100
Less than 1 year
14
20
1-5 years
34
48.60
6-10 years
16
22.90
8.60
70
100
Above 10 years
Total
Source: Authors Survey, 2014

The above table (Table 1.1) shows the profile of academic staff participated in responding the
questionnaire distributed. Sex, age, marital status, educational level, academic status, and year of
service are respectively elaborated on the table. Accordingly, from the total numberacademic
staffs, 94.3% of them were males and only 5.7% were females; majority of the respondents
(60%) were categorized under the age group of 26-30 years old. And the next age group in which
the respondents categorized was 20-25 years. And only 5.7% of the respondents were above 35
years old. From this it is possible to conclude that majority of the academic staff in private higher
education institutions found in Adama Town were youngsters.
Besides, the above table revealed that 51.4% of the respondents were single and 47.10% were
married and only 1.40% was divorced. Educational status of the academic staffs revealed that
45.70% were first degree holders, 34.30% were masters holders, 17.14% TVET/Diploma
holders, and only 2.86% were PhD holders. This figure depict that majority of the academic
staffs in private higher education in Adama Town were first degree holder and second degree
holder respectively. And only few of the academic staff possesses PhD. Consequently, their
academic status is lecturer (51.4%) and assistant lecturer (20%). Finally, years of service
disclosed that majority of the respondents served their institution 1-5 years (48.60%), followed
by 6-10 years (22.90%), below 1 year (20%), and only 8.60% served above 10 years .
147
In net shell, majority of the academic staffs in private higher education found in Adama Town
were males (94.3%), categorized in the age group of youngster (26-30 years), their marital status
were single (51.40%), educational status first degree holder (45.70%), academic rank lecturer
(51.4%), and served the institution from 1-5 years (48.60%).
Table 1.2: Respondents Monthly Salary and Its Comparison with other industries
Monthly salary in
Ethiopian Birr
Total
Comparison of Salary with other Industries

Very low
Low
Medium
High
Total
Very High
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Below 1000
1.43
1000-3000
12
17.14 16 22.86 6
8.57
34 48.57
3001-5000
4.29 11 15.71 11 15.71
25 35.71
5001-7000
4.29
2.86
4.29
1 1.43 0
12.86
above 7000
1 1.43 0
1.43
27.15 29 41.43 20 28.57 2 2.86 0
70
100
19
% Fr. %
Fr. %
1.43
Table 1.2 indicates monthly salary earned by the academic staffs in private higher education
institutions found in Adama Town and how they viewed their salary in comparison to other
industries. Accordingly, majority of them paid 1000-3000 birr (48.57%), followed by 3001-5000
birr 35.71% of respondents earned. Only 1.43% of the academic staff earned above 7000 birr and
below 1000 birr. The respondents compared their salary as it was low (41.43%), very low
(27.15%), and medium (28.57%). Only 2 respondents (2.86%) replied as their salary was high
and no respondents replied the salary paid to him/her was very high compared to other industries.
From the above table (table 1.2) it is possible to conclude that even though majority of the
academic staff (48.57%) paid 1000-3000 birr, they compared their salary as it was low and very
low (68.58%). This indicates that academic staffs are not satisfied with their salary which
directly influences their motivational level.
148
Table 1.3: Position Holder and their Level of Satisfaction to Position Allowance
Fr.
27
%
38.57
Yes
Position
Holder vs
No 43 61.43
non-holder
Total
70 100
Whether theysatisfied with

position allowance or not
Yes
No
Fr. %
Fr.
%
4
14.8 23
85.19
1
Total
Fr.
27
%
100
Table 1.3 depicts that whether the position holder satisfied or not with the position allowance
paid to them. As shown above only 27 (38.57%) of respondents were position holder from the
total respondents. From the total position holder only 4 (14.81%) respondents were satisfied with
the position allowance paid to them, but the remaining 23 (85.19%) were not satisfied with the
position allowance. Therefore, from this table it is possible to conclude that majority of academic
staffs who holds position in private higher education institutions found in Adama Town were not
satisfied with their position allowance.
Figure 1.1: Motivation Level of Academic Staff
149
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
41.40%
25.70%
10.00%
11.40%
150
11.40%
Figure 1.1.above shows the motivation level of academic staff in private higher education
institutions found in Adama Town. The figure depicted that majority of the respondents
(41.40%) were demotivated and 11.4% were highly demotivated with their current
job.This means about 52.8% of the respondnets replied that they are not motivated in
teaching in private higher education institutions. And the remaining 25.70%, 11.40%, and
10% of the respondnets said they are motivated, neutral, and highly motivated with their
job respectively. From this we can conclude that majority of academic staffs in private
higher education institutions found in Adama Town have less motivational level in their
job.
Figure 1.2: Types of Incentives Motivates Academic Staff
24%
40%
Monetary incentive
Academic rank promoton
Appreciation letters
7%
Scholarship
29%

Figure 1.2. above revealed that the types of incetives motivates more the private higher
education institutions found in Adama Town. Accordingly, majority of the respondnets
(40%) were motivated with monetary incentives, followed by academic rank promotion
151
Figure 1.3: Existence of Recognition for Outstanding Employees
1%
41%
57%
Always
Sometimes
Never
Figure 1.3 requested whether private higher education institutions recognize outstanding
academic staff or not. Accordingly, majority of the respondents (57.10%) replied that they have
never seen when outstanding academic staffs were recognized. Followed by 41.40% said
sometimes there is recognition of outstanding employees, but only 1.4% replied as always
outstanding employees recognized in their institution. From this one can conclude that private
higher education institutions in Adama Town have not create atmosphere competition among
academic staffs by recognizing outstanding employees.
152
Figure 1.4: Factors Influencing Motivation level of Academic Staff (% of academic staffs
who were responded as the factors are Important and Very important for their
motivational level).
Students' performance
84.30%
Schoalrship for career development
85.70%
78.60%
Work schedule
85.70%
Payment for over load
92.90%
Good working conditions
88.60%
Promotion
Academic freedom
85.80%
Recognition for the job well done
87.20%
Monetary incentives for the job well done
85.70%
81.40%
Amount of salary
70.00%
Job security
82.90%
Participatory decision making

0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Source: Authors Survey

The above figure (Figure 1.4) revealed factors affecting motivational level of academic staff in
private higher education institutions. The above factors asked the respondents to rate the impact
of aforementioned factors on their motivational level by five point likerts scale (i.e. Very
unimportant, unimportant, Neutral, Important, Very important). Accordingly, figure 1.4 reveals
percentage respondents who replied as the factors are very important and important to their
motivational level. The findings of the above graph shows above average respondents witnessed
that all factors are important for their motivational level. As depicted on the figure good working
condition ranked first by majority of respondents (92.90%), followed by academic rank
promotion (88.60%), and then recognition for the job well done (87.20%). Relatively job
security (70.00%), work schedule (78.60%0, and amount salary (81.40) respectively responded
by a few respondents. From this one can conclude that good working conditions, academic rank
promotion, and recognition for the job well done are the most influential factors of motivation in
private higher education institutions found in Adama Town.
153
Figure 4.5: Level of Academic Staff Motivation to Perform Different Activities

Contributing to Quality Education
70.00%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
58.50%
61.40%
51.40%
41.50%
40.00%
40.00%
38.60%
37.20%
37%
34%
32.90% 31%
33% 33% 34.30%
30.00%
28.60%
28.60%
28.60%
28.60%
26%
24.30%
22.80%
21.50%
21%
20%
20%
17.20%
17.10%
13%
39%
38.50%
Low
10%
Medium
High
0%
The above figure (Figure 4.5) depicts the level of academic staff motivation towards performing
different activities in their institutions. Eleven performance activities of academic staff were
identified and asked whether they possessed high motivation, medium, or low. Accordingly
majority of the respondents replied that their motivation level to all performing activities shown
on the figure was low. Except for four performing activities (regularly attaining class, preparing
teaching material, commitment for industries linkage, and promoting good will of the institution
to stake holders) the response of the respondents were revealed that they have medium
154
motivational level.The aforementioned activities are factors determining quality of education.

But as shown in the figure in all the performance activities the motivation level of academic staff
in private higher education institutions were low. From this it is possible to conclude that the
quality of education given in private higher education institutions found in Adama Town was
questionable since the academic staff motivation was low to perform performance activities
those influence the quality of education. .
Table 4.5: Level of Agreement of Respondents for Existence of Motivational Factors

Strongly
disagree
Fr. %
Level of Agreement
Disagree
Neutral
Motivational
Fr.
Factors
Existence
of
reasonable
periodical
27 38.6 22
increase in salary
Existence
of
effective
performance
14
20
21
appraisal system
Existence
of
effective
promotional
16 22.9 24
opportunities
Existence
of
equal pay for 20 28.6 14
equal work
Agree
Fr.
Fr.
Strongly
agree
Fr. %
31.4
10
11.4
30
13
18.6
13
18.6
34.3
12
17.1
11
15.7
10
70
100
20
12
17.1
14
20
10
14.3
70
100
Total
Fr.
8.6
70
100
12.8
70
100
Table 4.5 reveals the level of agreement of academic staff in private higher education found in
Adama Town regarding the existence of motivational factors. Accordingly, majority of the
respondents (70%) disagree with the existence of reasonable periodical increase in salary, 10% of
the respondents were neutral for the statement and only 20% of them agree with its existence.
Regarding the existence of effective performance appraisal system 50% of the respondents were
disagreeing, 18.6% neutral, and 31.4% agree. Besides, the table also disclosed whether effective
promotional opportunities existed or not. Accordingly, 57.2% of respondents disagree with its
existence, 17.1% neutral, and 34.3% agree with the existence of effective promotional
opportunities. Finally, 48.6% of the respondents replied as they disagree with the existence of
155
equal pay for equal work, 17.1% neutral, and 34.3% agree with it.From this it is possible to
conclude that majority of the respondents disagree with the existence of reasonable periodical
increase in salary, effective performance appraisal system, effective promotional opportunities,
and existence of equal pay for equal work. Even though they are important motivational factors,
they were missed in private higher education institutions found in Adama Town as the majority
responded.
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.1. Conclusion
The study was conducted on assessment of academic staff motivation in private higher
education institutions found in Adama Town. Seventy (70) academic staffs were returned
the questionnaire from Unity University, Rift Valley University College, and Royal
University College by simple random sampling. In this regard the finding revealed that
majority of the respondents were males (94.30%), categorized in age group of 26-30
years (60%), single in their marital status (51..40%), first degree holder (45.70%),
academic status of lecturer (51.40%), served the organization for 1-5 years (48.60%).
Most of the academic staff in private higher education institutions found in Adama Town
was paid monthly salary of 1000-3000 birr (48.57%). And majority of the respondents
replied the salary was very low and low as compared to other industries.
From the total respondents 27 (38.57%) of them hold position in their institution but of
the total position holder only 4 (14.81%) respondents satisfied with the position
allowance paid to them, the rest23 (85.19%) were not satisfied with position allowance
paid to them.
Most of the academicians in private higher education institutions found in Adama Town
were not motivated with their current job. For improvement of their motivation level they
need monetary incentive, academic rank promotion, scholarship, and appreciation letters
respectively as they replied.
Most of the academicians witnessed that there was no recognition for outstanding
employees in their institutions.
Students performance, scholarship for career development, work schedule, payment for
over load, good working condition, promotion, academic freedom, recognition for the job
well done, monetary incentive, amount of salary, job security, participatory decision
making are the factors influencing motivational level of academic staff in private higher
education institutions.
The motivational level of academic staff to regularly attaining class, preparing teaching
material, conducting research, taking continuous assessment, participating in community
services, initiating ideas that benefits their institution, participating in seminar and
conferences, voluntarily in taking position to serve the institution, participating in
different committee, commitment to link the institution to industries, and promoting good
will of the institution were low as majority of them replied.
156
Finally more than 50% of the academicians disagree with existence of reasonable
periodical increase in salary, effective performance appraisal, effective promotional
opportunities, and equal pay for equal work in PHEIs found in Adama Town.
4.2. Recommendations
In light of the finding the following recommendations were drawn:
It is impossible to insure the quality of education without motivating academic staff of

private higher education institutions. The finding shows that the amount of salary paid to
academicians in PHEIs was low as compared to other industries. Therefore, the
management of private higher education institutions found in Adama Town should
improve the amount of salary currently paid and also there should be reasonable
increment in salary periodically.
Academicians are not willing to take position in their institution and those who hold
position were also not satisfied with the position allowance. Therefore, the position
allowance paid to position holder should be significant so as it create competition among
academic staff to hold position.
Private higher education institutions should design effective performance appraisal
system and based on the result there should be recognition for outstanding employees.
This maintains the sense of competition among staffs and they motivated to exert their
maximum effort for the incentives package available.
The factors that motivate academic staff should get attention by the owners of private
higher education institutions so as to ensure the quality of education.
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knowledge and Skills for development, Brighton, England
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Save the Children Country Offices, and Recommended Strategies, Information about
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RIFT VALLEY UNIVERSITY

Proceedings of the 6th National Research Conference

RVU CONFERENCE (NFYD) HALL, ADAMA, ETHIOPIA

Adama, June 14, 2014

Plenary Session: .Venue: RVUC/NFYD Conference Hall

Assessment Of Knowledge, Practice And Related

Assessment Of Use Of Traditional Medicine For

AFTERNOON SESSION June 14, 2014

Assessment of Teaching - Learning Practices In

Continuous Assessment And Students

Ladies and gentlemen,

INAUGURAL ADDRESS AT RVUCS 6TH NATIONAL RESEARCH CONFERENCE

Ladies and Gentlemen,

ASSESMENT OF KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICE LEVEL TOWARDS SAFTY

(h ttp://www.riskman.unsw.edu.au/ohs/sign s.sh tml).

(http ://www.campus.manch ester.ac.uk/healthandsafety, J.M. Stellman, Fred A.)

[http://www.safeandhealthyworking.com/main- sec tion/wo rkp lace topics/safety signs.cfm].

intervention programme needs a thorough assessment of the knowledge and practice

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

p = workers knowledge proportion (50%)

was distributed in the two

Five percent of the questionnaires

Table 1 Distribution of socio-demographic characteristic of the respondents, Adama

Read and write only

11. High voltage/ electrical risk

Table 3.workers knowledge on fire classes

Material or machine producer or

3.3. Personal protective device usage practice of workers

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

ed. 1999, USA.

8. W. O. Phoon, World Health Forum, Occupational hazard exposure of workers, an

14. Occupational Injuries and Diseases.[http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubn s/indg184.htm].2003

[http://www.safeandhealthyworking.com/main- sec tion/wo rkp lace topics/safety-signs.cfm], 2002.

Lack of accessibility of electronic learning resources.

2. Key Words: ICT, Youth, Digital Divide

Information/knowledge is also a base in human aspect of development.

Improving the quality of life by eliminating repetitive works.

5. Statement of the Problem

6. Purpose of the study

8. Significance of the Study

Data collection Instrument

Self-administered Questionnaire having a total of four major questions were

Data Collection procedure;

Data analysis and procedure

Statistical summary of the findings

Modern ICT tools

TV with Satellite dish

Modern ICT tools

Place of ICT use

Microsoft office publisher

Microsoft power point

Valid N (list wise)

in class room teaching by 160

the development and use of 160

ICT have great impact on

ICT accelerate learning process

motivated when ICT is used in 160

Grand mean = 3.93

ICT have a great impact on learning, 4.33 (Favourable attitude)

ICT use improves learners GPA, 3.70 (Gap in attitude)

from ICT is much faster than using the print material,

Research Question 3: To what extent do students utilize internet services?