ABSTRACT

The automobile industry has shown increased interest in the

replacement of steel spring with fibre glass composite leaf spring due to
high strength to weight ratio. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to present
a low cost fabrication of complete mono composite leaf spring and mono
composite leaf spring with bonded end joints. Also, General study on the
analysis and design. A single leaf with variable thickness and width for
constant cross sectional area of unidirectional glass fibre reinforced
plastic (GFRP) with similar mechanical and geometrical properties to the
multi leaf spring, is to be designed. The results is to show that unsprung
width decreases hyperbolically and thickness increases linearly from the
spring eyes towards the axle seat. The finite element results using
ANSYS software showing stresses and deflections were to be verified
with analytical. The design constraints were stresses and displacement.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER
NO

TITLE

PAGE

ABSTRACT

iii

LIST OF THE TABLES

LIST OF CHARTS

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

vii

1. FEATURES OF LEAF SPRING

2. MATERIALS USED FOR MONO

COMPOSITE LEAF SPRING

13

3. DESIGN OF MONO COMPOSITE

LEAF SPRING

20

4. DESIGN OF LEAF SPRING

USING PRO-E

24

5. ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND

DISPLACEMENT USING ANSYS

32

6. GRAPH FOR STRESS AND

DEFLECTION

50

7. RESULTS

53

8. ADVANTAGES OF MONO
COMPOSITE LEAF SPRING

56

9. CONCLUSION

58

10. BIBLIOGRAPHY

60

LIST OF THE TABLES

TAB.NO.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

CONTENT
Properties of steel leaf

PAGENO
45

Properties of A-Glass Fiber, Generic.

Properties of C-Glass Fiber, Generic.

Properties of D-Glass Fiber, Generic

Properties of E-Glass Fiber, Generic
Comparison results of stresses
Comparison results of deflection

Comparison results of load, deflection and

stresses

46
47
48
49
51
52
55

LIST OF THE CHARTS

CH.NO.
1.
2.

CONTENT
Comparison chart for stress & materials
Comparison chart for deflection & materials

PAGENO
51
52

LIST OF THE FIGURES

FIG.NO.

1.
2.

CONTENT

Leaf spring

PAGENO

Molecular Structure of Glass

16

3.

Sketch of leaf.

30

4.

Part of leaf

30

5.

Sketch of steel leaf

31

6.

Part of steel leaf

31

7.

Pro E Model

35

8.

FEA Model

36

9.

FEA load set

40

10.

FEA Mesh

42

11.

Stress distribution for steel leaf

45

12.

Stress distribution for A-Glass Fiber leaf

46

spring
13.

Stress distribution for C-Glass Fiber leaf

47

spring
14.

Stress distribution for D-Glass Fiber leaf

48

spring
15.

Stress distribution for E-Glass Fiber leaf spring

49

CHAPTER-1
FEATURES OF LEAF SPRING

LEAF SPRING
INTRODUCTION:
Material becomes a major factor in designing the springs. In order
to conserve natural resources and economize energy, weight reduction
has been the main focus of automobile manufacturer in the present
scenario. Weight reduction can be achieved primarily by the introduction
of better material, design optimization and better manufacturing
processes. The suspension leaf spring is one of the potential items for
weight reduction in automobile as it accounts for ten to twenty percent of
the un sprung weight. This helps in achieving the vehicle with improved
riding qualities. It is well known that springs, are designed to absorb and
store energy and then release it. Hence, the strain energy of the
relationship of the specific strain energy can be expressed as
^2
U= -------E
Where is the strength, the density and E the Youngs
modulus of the spring material. It can be easily observed that material
having lower modulus and density will have a greater specific strain
energy capacity. The introduction of composite materials was made it
possible to reduce the weight of the leaf spring with out any reduction on
load carrying capacity and stiffness. Since; the composite materials have
more elastic strain energy storage capacity and high strength-to-weight
ratio as compared to those of steel.
Several papers were devoted to the application of composite
materials for automobiles. It studied the application of composite
structures for automobiles and design optimization of a composite leaf
8

spring. Great effort has been made by the automotive industries in the
application of leaf springs made from composite materials. It showed the
introduction of fiber reinforced plastics (FRP) made it possible to reduce
the weight of a machine element with out any reduction of the load
carrying capacity. Because of FRP materials high elastic strain energy
storage capacity and high strength-to-weight ratio compared with those of
steel, multi-leaf steel springs are being replaced by mono leaf FRP
springs. In every automobile, i.e. four wheelers and railways, the leaf
spring is one of the main components and it provides a good suspension
and it plays a vital role in automobile application. It carries lateral loads,
brake torque, driving torque in addition to shock absorbing. The
advantage of leaf spring over helical spring is that the ends of the spring
may be guided along a definite path as it deflects to act as a structural
member in addition to energy absorbing device.
The geometry of the Steel leaf spring is shown in Fig.1.

DEFINITION
Leaf springs are also called laminated, semi-elliptical, carriage
springs, cart spring, or helper spring. These are the simplest form of
spring, commonly used for the suspension in vehicles.
These are an example of one of the oldest forms of spring making,
dating back to medieval times. This type of spring is made from flat
spring steel of rectangular cross-section. The steel is formed into an arc.
The center of the arc provides the location for the axle, while tie
holes are provided at either end for attaching to the vehicle body. For
very heavy vehicles it is normal for several leaves to be stacked on top of
each other in several layers, often with systematically shorter leaves.
These springs were very common on automobiles up the mid
1970's. Now most designs of automobile manufacturers use coil springs,
gas springs, or air suspension instead.
They are still used in heavy commercial vehicles such as vans and
trucks, and rail cars. For heavy vehicles, they have the advantage of
spreading the load more widely over the vehicle's chassis, whereas coil
springs transfer it to a single point.
Unlike coil springs, these springs also locate the rear axle,
eliminating the need for trailing arms and a Pan hard rod, thereby saving
cost and weight in a simple live axle rear suspension.
Elliptical or full elliptical springs refer to two circular arcs linked
at their tips. These are joined to the frame at the top center of the upper
arc. The bottom center is joined to the suspension components, such as a
10

solid front axle. Additional suspension components, such as trailing arms,

are needed for this design.

Semi-elliptical springs use a lower arc. Therefore, they don't need

the additional suspension components.
Quarter-elliptical springs have the thickest part of the stack of
leaves stuck into the rear end of the side pieces of a ladder type frame.
The free end is attached to the differential.
An example of non-elliptical springs of this type is the Ford Model
T. It had multiple springs over its differential that were curved in the
shape of a yoke. As a substitute for dampers (shock absorbers), some
manufacturers laid wood sheets in between the metal leaves.
A newer design is the parabolic leaf spring. This design uses
fewer leaves. The thickness of the leaves vary from center to end
following a parabolic curve. Friction between the leaves is not wanted. So
there is only contact between the springs at the ends and at the center
where the axle is connected. Spacers prevent contact at other points.
The advantages of this type design are weight saving and greater
flexibility. They can come very close to the same performance of coil
springs.

11

Motion of a transverse leaf spring

The following images show the movements of an independent
suspension using a transverse leaf spring. For all images:

The suspension arms are green

The chassis is blue

The uprights are gray

Leaf springs are dark gray

Pivot links connecting the ends of the springs to the suspension

arms are red

1 - A transverse leaf spring

suspension at rest, with separate
right and left springs.

2 - The same split-spring

configuration with the left wheel in
compression.

Illustrations #1 and #2 show independent left and right leaf springs

mounted rigidly to a chassis. In the first illustration, the suspension is at
rest. As a left wheel moves up in the second illustration, the left spring
flexes upward, but the right spring remains unaffected. Because the two
springs are not connected, the movement of one wheel has no effect on
the spring rate of the opposite wheel. While the C2, C3 andC4 Corvettes
used a continuous spring instead of the split spring of the illustration, left
and right spring rates remained independent because the spring was
rigidly mounted at its center to the chassis.

12

3 - A single transverse leaf spring

suspension similar to that used on the
C5 and C6 Corvette.

4 - The same single-leaf

suspension with both wheels
compressed upward.

Illustrations #3 and #4 show an independent suspension with a

single transverse leaf spring, an arrangement similar to that used on the
C5 and C6 Corvettes and the front of the C4 Corvette. While at rest in
illustration #3, the leaf forms a symmetric arc between the left and right
sides of the suspension with equal force applied to each. Under the
compression of both wheels in illustration #4, the widely-spaced chassis
mounts allow the spring to pivot; the ends of the spring flex upward and
the center moves down. Spring force remains even between both sides.

At static ride height the leaf spring

applies the same 300lb to each side
of the suspension.

In compression the spring force has

increased to 500lb but is still even
between both sides

The leaf spring as an anti-roll bar

The extent to which a leaf spring acts as an anti-roll bar is
determined by the way it is mounted. A single, loose center mount would
cause the spring to pivot about the center axis, pushing one wheel down
as the other was compressed upward. This is exactly opposite of an antiroll bar and has not been used on any generation of the Corvette.
A single, perfectly rigid center mount that held a small center
section of the spring flat against the frame would isolate one side of the
spring from the other. No roll or anti-roll effect would appear. The rear
13

spring of the C2, C3, and C4 has this type of mount, which effectively
divides the spring in two. It becomes a quarter-elliptic spring.

A single transverse
spring with a
flexible center
mount. When one
side is pushed up the
other side moves
down.

A transverse leaf
spring with a semirigid mount. When
one side is pushed
up the other side
moves down
significantly less
than in the flexible
mount case.

A transverse leaf
spring with a central
rigid mount. The two
spring halves are
effectively isolated.
Movements of one half
of the spring do not
affect the other half.

Beginning with the C4 model, the Corvette has had widely-spaced

double mounts on the front. The rear spring has had double mounts since
the C5. The spring is allowed to pivot about these two points. When only
one wheel is compressed as in illustration #5, the portion of the spring
between the mounts assumes a horizontal "S" shape. An impact that
compresses the left wheel will tighten the bend radius of the right half of
the spring, thereby lowering the spring rate for the right wheel like an
anti-roll bar. The caster, camber, toe-in, and general orientation of the left
wheel remain unchanged.

5 - The single-leaf suspension with the

left side in compression.

14

5a - The same suspension

in rear profile.

This multi exposure

image shows an
exaggerated view
of the leaf spring
flex when the
wheels are
compressed, in
droop and in roll.
The S-bent spring
is shown in blue.

Left side shown in

compression, right
side shown at static
height. The left side
spring force has
increased from
500lbs to 600lbs
while the right side
has decreased from
300lb to 200lb.

Approximate FEA
model of a leaf spring
under load. The
initial, unbent shape
of the spring is shown
as a silhouette box.
An upward deflection
on the right side of
the spring results in a
smaller upward
movement on the left
side.

With the Corvette's suspension configuration, the effects of the

anti-roll bar and leaf spring add together at the wheels. This additive
property allows Corvette engineers to use a smaller, lighter anti-roll bar
than the car would otherwise require if it used conventional coil springs.
From Dave McClellan, chief engineer on the C4 Corvette program:
We planned to use a massive front [roll] bar to achieve the roll
stiffness we were after. We found, however, that by spreading the body
attachment of the front suspension fiberglass spring into two separate
attachments 18 inches apart, we could achieve a major portion of the roll
stiffness contribution of the front roll bar for free. We still used a massive
front bar, but it would have been even bigger and heavier if it had not
been supplemented by the leaf spring.
15

Advantages:

Less unsprung weight. Coil springs contribute to unsprung weight;

the less there is, the more quickly the wheel can respond at a given
spring rate.

Less weight. The C4 Corvette's composite front leaf weighed 1/3 as

much as the pair of conventional coil springs it would replace.
Volvo reported that the single composite leaf spring used in the
rear suspension of the 960 Wagon had the same mass as just one of
the two springs it replaced.

Weight is positioned lower. Coil springs and the associated chassis

hard mounts raise the centre of gravity of the car.

Superior wear characteristics. The Corvette's composite leaf

springs last longer than coils, though in a car as light as the
Corvette, the difference is not especially significant. No composite
Corvette leaf has ever been replaced due to fatigue failure, though
steel leafs from 1963 to 1983 have been. As of 1980, the composite
spring was an option on the C3.

As used on the Corvette, ride height can be adjusted by changing

the length of the end links connecting the leaf to the suspension
arms. This allows small changes in ride height with minimal effects
on the spring rate.
16

Also as used on the C4 front suspension, C5, and C6 Corvettes, the

leaf spring acts as an anti-roll bar, allowing for smaller and lighter
bars than if the car were equipped with coil springs. As
implemented on the C3 and C4 rear suspensions with a rigid
central mount, the anti-roll effect does not occur.

Packaging. As used on the C5 and later Corvettes the use of OEM

coil over damper springs would have forced the chassis engineers
to either vertically raise the shock towers or move them inward. In
the rear this would have reduced trunk space. In the front this
would have interfered with engine packaging. The use of the leaf
spring allowed the spring to be placed out of the way under the
chassis and while keeping the diameter of the shock absorber
assembly to that of just the damper rather than damper and spring.

17

Disadvantages:

Packaging can be problematic; the leaf must span from one side of
the car to the other. This can limit applications where the drive
train, or another part, is in the way.

Materials expense. Steel coils are commodity items; a single

composite leaf spring costs more than two of them.

Design complexity. Composite monoleafs allow for considerable

variety in shape, thickness, and materials. They are inherently more
expensive to design, particularly in performance applications.

Cost of modification. As a result of specialized design and

packaging, changing spring rates often requires a custom unit. Coil
springs in various sizes and rates are available inexpensively.

Susceptibility to damage. Engine fluids and exhaust modifications

like cat-back removal might weaken or destroy composite springs
over time. The leaf spring is more susceptible to heat related
damage than conventional steel springs.

Perception. Due to its association with spring-located solid axles,

the leaf spring has a stigma unrelated to the spring itself.

18

CHAPTER-2
MATERIALS USED FOR MONO
COMPOSITE LEAF SPRING

19

MATERIALS USED FOR MONO COMPOSITE LEAF

SPRING
Fiberglass
Fiberglass, (also called fiberglass and glass fiber), is material made
from extremely fine fibers of glass. It is used as a reinforcing agent for
many polymer products; the resulting composite material, properly
known as fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) or glass-reinforced plastic
(GRP), is called "fiberglass" in popular usage. Glassmakers throughout
history have experimented with glass fibers, but mass manufacture of
fiberglass was only made possible with the invention of finer machine
tooling. In 1893, Edward Drummond Libbey exhibited a dress at the
World's Columbian Exposition incorporating glass fibers with the
diameter and texture of silk fibers. This was first worn by the popular
stage actress of the time Georgia Cayvan.
What is commonly known as "fiberglass" today, however, was
invented in 1938 by Russell Games Slayers of Owens-Corning as a
material to be used as insulation. It is marketed under the trade name
Fiberglas, which has become a generic zed trademark. A somewhat
similar, but more expensive technology used for applications requiring
very high strength and low weight is the use of carbon fiber.

Fiber formation
Glass fiber is formed when thin strands of silica-based or other
formulation glass is extruded into many fibers with small diameters
suitable for textile processing. The technique of heating and drawing
glass into fine fibers has been known for millennia; however, the use of
20

these fibers for textile applications is more recent. Until this time all
fiberglass had been manufactured as staple (a term used to describe
naturally formed clusters or locks of wool fibers). The first commercial
production of fiberglass was in 1936. In 1938 Owens-Illinois Glass
Company and Corning Glass Works joined to form the Owens-Corning
Fiberglas Corporation. When the two companies joined to produce and
promote fiberglass, they introduced continuous filament glass fibers.
Owens-Corning is still the major fiberglass producer in the market today.
The types of fiberglass most commonly used are mainly E-glass
(alumino-borosilicate glass with less than 1 wt% alkali oxides, mainly
used for glass-reinforced plastics), but also A-glass (alkali-lime glass with
little or no boron oxide), E-CR-glass (alumino-lime silicate with less than
1 wt% alkali oxides, has high acid resistance), C-glass (alkali-lime glass
with high boron oxide content, used for example for glass staple fibers),
D-glass (borosilicate glass with high dielectric constant), R-glass
(alumino silicate glass without MgO and CaO with high mechanical
requirements), and S-glass (alumino silicate glass without CaO but with
high MgO content with high tensile strength).

Chemistry
The basis of textile-grade glass fibers is silica, SiO2. In its pure
form it exists as a polymer, (SiO2)n. It has no true melting point but
softens at 2,000 C (3,630 F), where it starts to degrade. At 1,713 C
(3,115 F), most of the molecules can move about freely. If the glass is
then cooled quickly, they will be unable to form an ordered structure. In
the polymer, it forms SiO4 groups which are configured as a tetrahedron
with the silicon atom at the center and four oxygen atoms at the corners.
21

These atoms then form a network bonded at the corners by sharing the
oxygen atoms.
The vitreous and crystalline states of silica (glass and quartz) have
similar energy levels on a molecular basis, also implying that the glassy
form is extremely stable. In order to induce crystallization, it must be
heated to temperatures above 1,200 C (2,190 F) for long periods of time

fig.2: Molecular Structure of Glass

Although pure silica is a perfectly viable glass and glass fiber, it
must be worked with at very high temperatures, which is a drawback
unless its specific chemical properties are needed. It is usual to introduce
impurities into the glass in the form of other materials to lower its
working temperature. These materials also impart various other properties
to the glass which may be beneficial in different applications. The first
type of glass used for fiber was soda lime glass or A-glass. It was not
very resistant to alkali. A new type, E-glass, was formed; this is an
alumino-borosilicate glass that is alkali free (<2%). This was the first
glass formulation used for continuous filament formation. E-glass still
makes up most of the fiberglass production in the world. Its particular
components may differ slightly in percentage, but must fall within a
specific range. The letter E is used because it was originally for electrical
applications. S-glass is a high-strength formulation for use when tensile
22

strength is the most important property. C-glass was developed to resist

attack from chemicals, mostly acids which destroy E-glass. T-glass is a
North American variant of C-glass. A-glass is an industry term for cullet
glass, often bottles, made into fiber. AR-glass is alkali-resistant glass.
Most glass fibers have limited solubility in water but are very dependent
on pH. Chloride ions will also attack and dissolve E-glass surfaces.
Since E-glass does not really melt, but soften, the softening point is
defined as "the temperature at which a 0.550.77 mm diameter fiber 235
mm long, elongates under its own weight at 1 mm/min when suspended
vertically and heated at the rate of 5C per minute". The strain point is
reached when the glass has a viscosity of 1014.5 poise. The annealing
point, which is the temperature where the internal stresses are reduced to
an acceptable commercial limit in 15 minutes, is marked by a viscosity of
1013 poise.

Properties:
Glass fibers are useful because of their high ratio of surface area to
weight. However, the increased surface area makes them much more
susceptible to chemical attack. By trapping air within them, blocks of
glass fiber make good thermal insulation, with a thermal conductivity of
the order of 0.05 W/(mK).
The strength of glass is usually tested and reported for "virgin" or
pristine fibersthose which have just been manufactured. The freshest,
thinnest fibers are the strongest because the thinner fibers are more
ductile. The more the surface is scratched, the less the resulting tenacity.
Because glass has an amorphous structure, its properties are the same
along the fiber and across the fiber. Humidity is an important factor in the
23

tensile strength. Moisture is easily adsorbed, and can worsen microscopic

cracks and surface defects, and lessen tenacity.
In contrast to carbon fiber, glass can undergo more elongation
before it breaks. There is a correlation between bending diameter of the
filament and the filament diameter. The viscosity of the molten glass is
very important for manufacturing success. During drawing (pulling of the
glass to reduce fiber circumference), the viscosity should be relatively
low. If it is too high, the fiber will break during drawing. However, if it is
too low, the glass will form droplets rather than drawing out into fiber.

Glass-reinforced plastic:
Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) is a composite material or fiberreinforced plastic made of a plastic reinforced by fine glass fibers. Like
graphite-reinforced plastic, the composite material is commonly referred
to by the name of its reinforcing fibers (fiberglass). Thermosetting
plastics are normally used for GRP productionmost often unsaturated
polyester (using 2-butanone peroxide aka MEK peroxide as a catalyst),
but vinyl ester or epoxy are also used. Traditionally, styrene monomer
was used as reactive diluents in the resin formulation giving the resin a
characteristic odor. More recently alternatives have been developed. The
glass can be in the form of a chopped strand mat (CSM) or a woven
fabric.
As with many other composite materials (such as reinforced
concrete), the two materials act together, each overcoming the deficits of
the other. Whereas the plastic resins are strong in compressive loading
and relatively weak in tensile strength, the glass fibers are very strong in
tension but have no strength against compression. By combining the two
24

materials, GRP becomes a material that resists both compressive and

tensile forces well. The two materials may be used uniformly or the glass
may be specifically placed in those portions of the structure that will
experience tensile loads.

Uses:
Uses for regular fiberglass include mats, thermal insulation,
electrical insulation, reinforcement of various materials, tent poles, sound
absorption, heat- and corrosion-resistant fabrics, high-strength fabrics,
pole vault poles, arrows, bows and crossbows, translucent roofing panels,
automobile bodies, hockey sticks, surfboards, boat hulls, and paper
honeycomb. It has been used for medical purposes in casts. Fiberglass is
extensively used for making FRP tanks and vessels. Fiberglass is also
used in the design of Irish step dance shoes.
In the 1986 - 1987 America's Cup, New Zealand, with the help of
Rene Felcher, Bruce Farr, and Michael Fay, entered a boat whose hull
was made of the lighter fiberglass, nicknamed the Plastic Fantastic ",
and given the call sign KZ7. This caused a similar controversy and
protests as those generated four years earlier by Australia's used of
winged keels as designed by the now late Ben Lexcen. United States
sailor Dennis Conner was particularly critical of both new innovations in
their time. The boats proved fast on occasion, being much lighter than the
standard models, even those with winged keels, but the experience of
Conner allowed him to return the World's oldest sporting trophy to the
United States.

25

CHAPTER-3
DESIGN OF MONO COMPOSITE LEAF
SPRING

26

DESIGN OF LEAF SPRING

DESIGNS OF COMPOSITE MONO LEAF SPRING:

Considering several types of vehicles that have leaf springs and
different loading on them, various kinds of composite leaf spring have
been developed. In multi-leaf composite leaf spring, the interleaf spring
friction plays a spoil spot in damage tolerance. It has to be studied
carefully.

The following cross-sections of mono-leaf composite leaf spring

for manufacturing easiness are considered.
1. Constant thickness, constant width design.
2. Constant thickness, varying width design.
3. Varying width, varying thickness design.

PROCEDURE:
Width of the leaf spring, b
Thickness of the leaf, t
Length of the cantilever beam (spring), L
No. of leaves in the spring, n
Bending stress, b

6PL
nbt3

Deflection of spring, y

6PL3
E nbt3

27

Load of the spring, P in N.

Youngs Modulus, E in N/mm2.

CALCULATION:
Width of the leaf spring, b

= 50mm

Thickness of the leaf, t

= 20mm

Length of the cantilever beam (spring), L

= 520mm

No. of leaves in the spring, n

=1

Let us consider a load, P

= 4000N

(6*4000*520) / (1*50*203)

624 MPa

YA-Glass=
=

YC-Glass=
=

YD-Glass=
=

(6*4000*5203) / (68.9*103*1*50*203)
122.4 N/mm2

(6*4000*5203) / (68.9*103*1*50*203)
122.4 N/mm2

(6*4000*5203) / (51.7*103*1*50*203)
163.18 N/mm2

28

YE-Glass=
=

(6*4000*5203) / (72.4*103*1*50*203)
116.5 N/mm2

SPECIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM:

The objectives of the present work is to design, analyze,
fabricate and testing of Unidirectional Glass Fiber/Epoxy complete mono
composite leaf spring without end joints and composite leaf spring using
bonded end joints using hand-lay up technique. This is an alternative,
efficient and economical method over wet filament-winding techniques.

Varying width, varying thickness design:

Parameters (mm)

At centre

At end

Breadth

45

69

Thickness

15

21

29

CHAPTER-4
DESIGN OF LEAF SPRING USING
PRO-E

30

DESIGN OF LEAF SPRING USING PRO-E:INTRODUCTION TO PRO-E:

Pro-ENGINEER is the worlds leading 3D product development
solution,

which

is

developed

by

PTC-Parametric

Technology

Corporation- a US based company. This software enables designers and

engineers to bring better product market faster. It takes care of enter
product development process, from creative concept through detailed
product definition to serviceability. Pro-EINGINEER delivers measurable
value to manufacturing companies of all sizes and in all industries.
Pro/ENGINEER is used in a vast range of industries, from
manufacturing of rockets to computer peripherals. With more than
100,000 seats install worldwide, many CAD users are exposed to
Pro/ENGINEER and enjoy using Pro/ENGINEER for its power and
capability.
The major elements involved in the design of leaf spring are the
laboring we have designed using pro-e wildfire4.0. The size and
dimensions of the leaf spring may be designed from the above table.
MODELING:
Modeling is a art of abstracting or representing phenomenon and
geometric modeling is no exception. A geometric model is defined as the
graphical information. Objects can be classified into three types from a
geometric construction point of view. These are two and half
dimensional, three dimensional or a combination of both. In this project,
the parts designed in the design module were transformed into solid
31

models through the principles of geometric modeling, by taking as a

reference using the software Pro/ENGINEER.
Why Pro/ENGINEER
Pro/ENGINEER is a powerful application. It is ideal for capturing
the design intent of our models because at its foundation is a practical
philosophy. Pro is a solid modeler. It develops models as solids allowing
to work in 3D environment.
In Pro-E
1. The solid models have volumes and surface areas.
2. We can calculate mass properties directly from the geometry we
create.
While we can manipulate a solid models display on the screen, the
model itself remains a solid.
GETTING STARTED:
The chapter introduces the various function of Pro/ENGINEER
user interface. In addition model, tree, viewing commands and file
management of Pro-E are discussed.
The Pro-E setup utility will automatically create a program group
with an icon. So accessing Pro-E becomes very easily.

32

COMMANDS FOR DESIGNING:-

Sketcher basic:
1.Line:
Line command allows to draw a line by specifying the
end points. We can right click on the sketcher window
to invoke line command.
Once the command is invoked, we can click at the
location, at which we want to start the line.
After clicking the start point a rubber band line
appears attached to the cursor. Now we can click at the
location where we want the line to end.
Parallel
Draws a line parallel to a selected linear entity. In this
option you have to select an existing entity for the
direction of the line and then pick the start points and
end points.
Perpendicular
Draws a line perpendicular to a selected linear entity.
Select

an

existing

entity

for

the

direction

(perpendicular) of the line and then pick the start points

and end points.

33

 Tangent
This option facilitates to draw a line tangent from an
entity to the next point. The selected entity should be
an arc, ellipse, conic, and spline. It prompts for end
point, and then the line will be generated tangential to
those entities.
Horizontal
Using this option we can generate horizontal lines. The
end point of the line is taken as the start point of the
chained vertical line.
Vertical
Using this option we can generate vertical lines. The
end point of the line is taken as the start point of the
chained vertical line.

2.Arc-3- point / Tangent End:

3 point
Creates a 3-point arc by picking its end points and a points
on the circumference of the arc.
Tangent end
To create a tangent arc, pick an endpoint of an existing entity
to determine tangency, and then pick a location for the other
end point of the arc.

34

3.Arc concentric:
Creates a concentric arc. Select an arc to use its centre,
rubber band to the desired radius and sketch the arc.

4.Arc center/ Ends:

Creates an arc by picking its end points and a point on the
circumference of the arc.
Tangent

Creates an arc tangent to be selected three reference

entities.
Fillet

Creates an arc tangent to be selected two reference entities.

5. Trim-Delete segment:
When we use this command, we click and drag the cursor.
As we drag, sketcher creates a spline attached to the cursor.
Sketcher deletes any portion of any entity that intersects the
spline.

6.Trim-corner:
We can click any two entities on the portion of the entity that
we want to keep. Pro-E trims the two entities together.
Length
Using this option we can trim the entity to the specific
length. When we invoke this option Pro-E prompts for the
length value. After giving the length value it prompts to

35

select the entity to trim. Now the entity will be trimmed to

the specific length.

Fig.3:Sketchofleaf

36

Fig.4: Part of leaf

Fig5: Sketch of steel leaf

37

Fig6: Part of steel leaf

38

CHAPTER-5
ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND
DISPLACEMENT USING ANSYS

39

ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND DEFLECTION USING

ANSYS
Introduction
ANSYS is a general purpose finite element modeling package for
numerically solving a wide variety of mechanical problems. These
problems include: static/dynamic structural analysis (both linear and nonlinear), heat transfer and fluid problems, as well as acoustic and electromagnetic problems.
In general, a finite element solution may be broken into the
following three stages. This is a general guideline that can be used for
setting up any finite element analysis.
Preprocessing: defining the problem; the major steps in
preprocessing are given below:
Define key points/lines/areas/volumes
Define element type and material/geometric properties
Mesh lines/areas/volumes as required
The amount of detail required will depend on the dimensionality of
the analysis (i.e. 1D, 2D, axi-symmetric, 3D).
Solution: assigning loads, constraints and solving; here we specify
the loads (point or pressure), constraints (translational and rotational) and
finally solve the resulting set of equations.

40

Post processing: further processing and viewing of the results; in

this stage one may wish to see:
Lists of nodal displacements
Element forces and moments
Deflection plots
Stress contour diagrams

Finite Element Method using Pro/ENGINEER and ANSYS:

The transfer of a model from Pro/ENGINEER to ANSYS will be
demonstrated here for a simple solid model. Model idealizations such as
shells and beams will not be treated. Also, many modeling options for
constraints, loads, mesh control, analysis types will not be covered. These
are fairly easy to figure out once you know the general procedures
presented here.

Step 1. Make the part

Use Pro/E to make the part. Things to note are: be aware of your
model units note the orientation of the model (default coordinate system
in ANSYS will be the same as in Pro/E)
IMPORTANT: remove all unnecessary and/or cosmetic features like
rounds, chamfers, holes, etc., by suppressing them in Pro/E. Too much
small geometry will cause the mesh generator to create a very fine mesh
with many elements which will greatly increase your solver time. Of
course, if the feature is critical to your design, you will want to leave it.
You must compromise between accuracy and available CPU resources.

41

Fig7: ProE Model

The figure above shows the original model for this demonstration.
This is a model of a short cantilevered bracket that bolts to the wall via
the thick plate on the left end. Model units are inches. A load is applied at
the hole in the right end. Some cosmetic features are located on the top
surface and the two sides. Several edges are rounded. For this model, the
interest is in the stress distribution around the vertical slot. So, the plate
and the loading hole are removed, as are the cosmetic features and rounds
resulting in the "de-featured" geometry shown below. The model will be
constrained on the left face and a uniform load will be applied to the right
face.

42

Fig.8: FEA Model

Step 2. Create the FEA model
In the pull-down menu at the top of the Pro/E window, select
Applications > Mechanica
An information window opens up to remind you about the units
you are using. Press Continue
In the MECHANICA menu at the right, check the box beside FEM
Mode and select the command Structure.
A new toolbar appears on the right of the screen that contains icons
for creating all the common modeling entities (constraints, loads,
idealizations). All these commands are also available using the command
43

windows that will open on the right side of the screen or in dialog
windows that will open when appropriate.
Notice that a small green coordinate system WCS has appeared.
This is how you will specify the directions of constraints and forces.
Other coordinate systems (e.g. cylindrical) can be created as required and
used for the same purpose.
The MEC STRUCT menu appears on the right. Basically, to define
the model we proceed down this menu in a top-down manner. Model is
already selected for you which opens the STRC MODEL menu. This is
where we specify modeling information. We proceed in a top-down
manner. The Features command allows you to create additional
simulation features like datum points, curves, surface regions, and so on.
Idealizations let you create special modeling entities like shells and
beams. The Current CSYS command lets you create or select an alternate
coordinate system for specifying directions of constraints and loads.
Defining Constraints
For our simple model, all we need are constraints, loads, and a
specified material. Select Constraints > New
We can specify constraints on four entity types (basically points,
edges, and surfaces). Constraints are organized into constraint sets. Each
constraint set has a unique name (default of the first one is
ConstraintSet1) and can contain any number of individual constraints of
different types. Each individual constraint also has a unique name
(default of the first one is Constraint1). In the final computed model, only
one set can be included, but this can contain numerous individual
constraints.
44

Select Surface. We are going to fully constrain the left face of the
cantilever. A dialog window opens as shown above. Here you can give a
name to the constraint and identify which constraint set it belongs to.
Since we elected to create a surface constraint, we now select the surface
we want constrained (push the Surface selection button in the window
and then click on the desired surface of the model). The constraints to be
applied are selected using the buttons at the bottom of the window. In
general we specify constraints on translation and rotation for any mesh
node that will appear on the selected entity. For each direction X, Y, and
Z, we can select one of the four buttons (Free, Fixed, Prescribed, and
Function of Coordinates). For our solid model, the rotation constraints are
irrelevant (since nodes of solid elements do not have this degree of
freedom anyway). For beams and shells, rotational constraints are active
if specified.

45

For our model, leave all the translation constraints as FIXED, and
select the OK button. You should now see some orange symbols on the
left face of the model, along with some text labels that summarize the
constraint settings.

Defining Loads
In the STRC MODEL menu select Loads > New > Surface. The
FORCE/MOMENT window opens as shown above. Loads are also
organized into named load sets. A load set can contain any number of
individual loads of different types. A FEM model can contain any number
of different load sets. For example, in the analysis of a pressurized tank
on a support system with a number of nozzle connections to other pipes,
one load set might contain only the internal pressure, another might
contain the support forces, another a temperature load, and more might
contain the forces applied at each nozzle location. These can be solved at
the same time, and the principle of superposition used to combine them in
numerous ways. Create a load called "end load" in the default load set
(LoadSet1)
Click on the Surfaces button, and then select the right face of the
model and middle click to return to this dialog. Leave the defaults for the
load distribution. Enter the force components at the bottom. Note these
are relative to the WCS. Then select OK. The load should be displayed
symbolically as shown in the figure below.

46

Fig.9: FEA load set

Note that constraint and load sets appear in the model tree. You can
select and edit these in the usual way using the right mouse button.

Assigning Materials
Our last job to define the model is to specify the part material. In
the STRC MODEL menu, select Materials > Whole Part
In the library dialog window, select a material and move it to the
right pane using the triple arrow button in the center of the window. In an
assembly, you could now assign this material to individual parts. If you
select the Edit button, you will see the properties of the chosen material.
At this point, our model has the necessary information for solution
(constraints, loads, material).
47

Step 3. Define the analysis

Select Analyses > New

Specify a name for the analysis, like "ansys test". Select the type
(Structural or Modal). Enter a short description. Now select the Add
buttons beside the Constraints and Loads panes to add ConstraintSet1 and
LoadSet1 to the analysis. Now select OK.

Step 4. Creating the mesh

We are going to use defaults for all operations here. The MEC
STRUCT window, select Mesh > Create > Solid > Start
Accept the default for the global minimum. The mesh is created
and another dialog window opens (Element Quality Checks).This
indicates some aspects of mesh quality that may be specified and then, by
selecting the Check button at the bottom, evaluated for the model. The
results are indicated in columns on the right. If the mesh does not pass
these quality checks, you may want to go back to specify mesh controls
(discussed below). Select Close. Here is an image of the default mesh,
shown in wire frame.
48

Fig.10: FEA Mesh

Improving the Mesh
In the mesh command, you can select the Controls option. This will
allow you to select points, edges, and surfaces where you want to specify
mesh geometry such as hard points, maximum mesh size, and so on.
Beware that excessively tight mesh controls can result in meshes with
many elements.
For example, setting a maximum mesh size along the curved ends
of the slot results in the following mesh. Notice the better representation
of the curved edges than in the previous figure. This is at the expense of
more than double the number of elements. Note that mesh controls are
also added to the model tree.

49

Step 5. Creating the Output file

All necessary aspects of the model are now created (constraints,
loads, materials, mesh). In the MEC STRUCT menu, select Run

This opens the Run FEM Analysis dialog window shown here. In
the Solver pull-down list at the top, select ANSYS. In the Analysis list,
select Structural. You pick either Linear or Parabolic elements. The
analysis we defined (containing constraints, loads, mesh, and material) is
listed. Select the Output to File radio button at the bottom and specify the
output file name (default is the analysis name with extension .ans). Select
OK and read the message window. We are now finished with Pro/E. Go
to the top pull-down menus and select Applications > Standard Save the
model file and leave the program. Copy the .ans file from your Pro/E
working directory to the directory you will use for running ANSYS.
50

Step 6. Importing into ANSYS

Launch ANSYS Interactive and select File > Read Input From...
Select the .ans file you created previously. This will read in the entire
model. You can display the model using (in the pull down menus) Plot >
Elements.

Step 7. Running the ANSYS solver

In the ANSYS Main Menu on the left, select Solution > Solve >
Current LS > OK. After a few seconds, you will be informed that the
solution is complete.

Step 8. Viewing the results

There are myriad possibilities for viewing FEM results. A common
one is the following:
General Postprocessor > Plot Results > Contour Plot > Nodal Solution.
Pick the Von Mises stress values, and select Apply. You should
now have a color fringe plot of the Von Mises stress displayed on the
model.

51

Fig11: Stress distribution for steel leaf

Properties of steel leaf:

Properties

Value

Tensile Strength

1962 N/mm2

Modulus of Elasticity

2.1*105 N/mm2

Poissons Ratio

0.2

52

Fig.12: Stress distribution for A-Glass Fiber leaf spring

Tab.1: Properties of A-Glass Fiber, Generic

Properties

Value

Density

2.44 g/cc

Tensile Strength

3310 MPa

Modulus of Elasticity

68.9 GPa

Poissons Ratio

0.183

Shear Modulus

29.1 GPa

Specific Heat Capacity

0.796 J/g-C

53

Fig.13: Stress distribution for C-Glass Fiber leaf spring

Tab.2: Properties of C-Glass Fiber, Generic

Properties

Value

Density

2.52 - 2.56 g/cc

Tensile Strength

3310 MPa

Modulus of Elasticity

68.9 GPa

Poissons Ratio

0.276

Shear Modulus

27.0 GPa

54

Fig.14: Stress distribution for D-Glass Fiber leaf spring

Tab.3: Properties of D-Glass Fiber, Generic

Properties

Value

Density

2.11 g/cc

Tensile Strength

2415 MPa

Modulus of Elasticity

51.7 GPa

Poissons Ratio

0.2

Shear Modulus

51.7 GPa

55

Fig.15: Stress distribution for E-Glass Fiber leaf spring

Tab.4: Properties of E-Glass Fiber, Generic

Properties

Value

Density

2.54 - 2.60 g/cc

Tensile Strength

3448 MPa

Modulus of Elasticity

72.4 GPa

Poissons Ratio

0.2

Shear Modulus

30.0 GPa

56

CHAPTER-6
GRAPH FOR STRESS AND
DEFLECTION

57

STRESS Vs MATERIAL
500
450
400
350
300
250
stress in MPa
200
150
100
50
0
A-Glass

Tab.5: Comparison

C-Glass

D-Glass

E-Glass

results of stresses

MATERIAL OF MONO COMPOSITE

MAXIMUM STRESS
(MPa)

A-Glass Fiber, Generic

462.002

C-Glass Fiber, Generic

341.474

D-Glass Fiber, Generic

433.089

E-Glass Fiber, Generic

217.217

58

DEFLECTION Vs MATERIAL
180
160
140
120
100
173.3

80
60
40
20
0

C-Glass

Tab.6: Comparison

D-Glass

E-Glass

results of deflection

MATERIAL OF MONO COMPOSITE

MAXIMUM
DEFLECTION (mm)

A-Glass Fiber, Generic

173.3

C-Glass Fiber, Generic

129.7

D-Glass Fiber, Generic

161.7

E-Glass Fiber, Generic

82.2

59

CHAPTER-7
RESULTS

60

RESULTS:
Experimental results from testing the leaf springs under static
loading containing the stresses and deflection are listed in the Table.
These results are also compared with FEA in Table. Testing has been
done for unidirectional mono composite leaf spring only. Since the
composite leaf spring is able to withstand the static load, it is concluded
that there is no objection from strength point of view also, in the process
of replacing the conventional leaf spring by composite leaf spring. The
major disadvantages of composite leaf spring are chipping resistance. The
matrix material is likely to chip off when it is subjected to a poor road
environments (that is, if some stone hit the composite leaf spring then it
may produce chipping) which may break some fibers in the lower portion
of the spring. This may result in a loss of capability to share flexural
stiffness. But this depends on the condition of the road. In normal road
condition, this type of problem will not be there. Composite leaf springs
made of polymer matrix composites have high strength retention on
ageing at severe environments. The steel leaf spring was replaced with an
composite one. The objective was to obtain a spring with minimum
weight which is capable of carrying given static external forces by
constraints limiting stresses and displacements. The weight of the leaf
spring is reduced. Thus, the objective of the unsprung mass is achieved to
a larger extent. The stresses in the composite leaf spring are much lower
than that of the steel spring.

61

Tab.7: Comparison results of load, deflection and stresses:

Material

Static load

Maximum

Maximum

(N)

deflection

stress (MPa)

(mm)
Steel

4000

210.2

534.02

Fiber Generic

4000

173.3

462.002

4000

129.7

341.474

4000

161.7

433.089

4000

82.2

217.217

A-Glass
Fiber Generic
C-Glass
Fiber Generic
D-Glass
Fiber Generic
E-Glass

62

CHAPTER-8
ADVANTAGES OF MONO COMPOSITE
LEAF SPRING

63

ADVANTAGES:
1. To prevent the road shocks from being transmitted to the
vehicles components.
2. To preserve the stability of the vehicles in pitching or
rolling, while in motion.
3. The weight of the mono composite leaf spring is low.
4. The mono composite leaf spring deflection and stress is
high.
5. The noise will be reduced in this leaf spring.
6. No corrosive resistance of this leaf spring.
7. The mono composite leaf spring flexibility is higher than
the steel.
8. The life of the material is more than the steel.
9. The high efficiency of the leaf spring.

64

CHAPTER-9
CONCLUSION

65

CONCLUDING REMARKS:
The development of a composite mono leaf spring having constant
cross sectional area, where the stress level at any station in the leaf
spring is considered constant due to the parabolic type of the
thickness of the spring, has proved to be very effective.
The study demonstrated that composites can be used for leaf
springs for light weight vehicles and meet the requirements,
together with substantial weight savings.
The 3-D modeling of both steel and composite leaf spring is done
and analyzed using ANSYS.
A comparative study has been made between composite and steel
leaf spring with respect to weight, cost and strength.
The analytical results were compared with FEA and the results
show good agreement with test results.
From the results, it is observed that the composite leaf spring is
lighter and more economical than the conventional steel spring
with similar design specifications.
Adhesively bonded end joints enhance the performance of
composite leaf spring for delamination and stress concentration at
the end in compare with bolted joints.
66

CHAPTER-10
BIBLIOGRAPHY

67

REFERENCES:

1. Rajendran, I., Vijayarangan, S. Design and Analysis of a

Composite Leaf Spring Journal of Institute of Engineers India 82
2002: pp. 180 187..
2. Dharam, C. K. Composite Materials Design and Processes for
Automotive Applications. The ASME Winter Annual Meeting, San
Francisco, December 10-15, 1978.
3. Vijayarangan, S., Ganesan, N. Static Stress Analysis of a
Composite Bevel Gear using a Three-dimensional Finite Element
Method Computer Structures 51 (6) 1994.
4. Tanabe, K., Seino, T., Kajio, Y. Characteristics of Carbon/Glass
Fiber Reinforced Plastic Leaf Spring,.
5. Jones, R. M. Mechanics of Composite Materials. 2e, Mc GrawHill Book Company, 1990.
6.

ANSYS Inc: ANSYS Users Manual, Rev. 1995, 5.2-Vol. I

Houston, PA.

WEB ADDRESS:
www.matweb.com.
www.wikipedia.org.

68