SOLUTIONS

LATERAL LOADING

Problem 1
Free edge

Simple supports
h

Determine the required thickness of a single leaf wall supported as shown above using the
following criteria:
Characteristic wind load

= 0.45 kN/m2

Height of wall to free edge

= 4.5 m

Length of wall between restraints

= 4.5 m

Concrete blocks (solid) strength

= 7.3 N/mm2

Normal category construction control )

)
Category I or I I masonry units
)

m = 3.0

Panel not providing stability to structure

f = 1.2

Flexural Design
The design bending moment per unit height of the wall is given by the following expression for a
2 way panel assumed to crack vertically
m = W k f L2

The bending moment coefficient depends on

(i)

orthogonal ratio (but including self weight)

(ii)

aspect ratio h/L

(iii)

support conditions

(i)

Try thickness of 190 mm, 7.3 N/mm2 block

Determine fkx
for 7.3 N/mm2 at 100 (fkb)
for 7.3 N/mm2 at 250

= 0.25
= 0.15

Therefore by linear interpolation at 190 mm (fkb) = 0.19

for 7.3 N/mm2 at 100(fkp)
for 7.3 N/mm2 at 250
Therefore at 190 mm (fkp)

= 0.6
= 0.35
= 0.45

. Orthogonal ratio to include allowance for self weight. According to clause 32.4.2,
fkb = fkx + mgd, where gd is determined half way down the wall
gd = 0.5 x 4.5 x 1200 x 9.81 x 10-6 x 0.9 = 0.024
nb - f for max criteria = 0.9

f
f

kb
kp

0.19 0.024 x3.0

= 0.58
0.45

(ii) Aspect ratio

h
4.5
=
= 1.0
L
4.5

(iii) Support conditions-simple

From BS 5628 : Part 1, Table 8A
for h = 1.0
L
= 0.083 with = 0.5
= 0.080 with = 0.6
Therefore by linear interpolation
= 0.080 + (0.06 0.058)/(0.06 0.05)[0.083 0.080] 0.0806 when = 0.58
Since Wk = 0.45 kN/m2 ,

f = 1.2,

then applied design moment per unit height

L=4.5

m = 0.0806 x 0.45 x 1.2 x 4.52

= 0.881 kNm/m
The design moment of resistance is given as (Clause 32.4.3)
M=

f kx
m

For a panel bending in two directions

M=

kp

Now, since fkp = 0.45 and t = 190

then

M =
=

0.45 x 1902 x 10-3

3.0 x 6
0.903 kNm/m (> 0.881kNm/m) thre fore OK

Maximum characteristic wind for this thickness

m=M
0.0806 Wk x 1.2 x 4.52 = 0903
Wk =

0.903
0.0806 x 1.2 x 4.52

= 0.46 kN/m2 > 0.45kN/m2

Slenderness Limits
Panel simply supported on more than one side, therefore from clause 32.3
h x L 1350 tef2
since wall is single leaf tef = t

hx1 4.5x4.5x 106

t
123mm
1350 1350
therefore

In addition no dimension shall exceed 50 tef. since h and L both = 4.5 then
t

4.5x 1033
90 mm
50

Design for Shear

Consider the wind load to be distributed to the supports as shown below

4.5m
45o

4.5m

Then total load to support

= f Wk loaded area
Thus the total shear along base
= 1.2 x 0.45 x (4.5 x 2.25) = 2.734 kN
2
Assuming that this load is uniformly distributed along base, representing the design shear force
per metre run:
=

2.734
= 0.608 kN / m
4.5

The design shear stress (vh) is therefore

= 0.608 x 103 = 0.0028 N/mm2
215 x 1000
The characteristic shear strength (fv) from clause 25
= fvko + 0.6 gA
Where fvko is characteristic initial sheer strength in N/mm2 generally taken as 0.35N/mm2
gA design vertical load per unit area at base of wall

= 4.5 x 1200 x 9.81 x 10-6 x 0.9 = 0.048kN/m2

So including self weight along the base characteristic strength fv
= 0.35 + 0.048 = 0.0398N/mm2
The design shear stress (vh) must be limited so that
vh

fv
mv

In this case vh = 0.0025 N/mm2 and

fv

mv

0.398
= 0.16 N/ mm 2
2.5

Therefore shear resistance is adequate along base,

Total shear to each vertical support
= 1.2 x 0.45 x 2.25(2.25 + 4.5) = 4.10 kN
2
Again, considering load to be uniformly distributed along support, then design shear
force per metre run
= 4.10 = 0.91 kN
4.5
Using 2 mm thick anchors into dovetail slots in column.
Characteristic strength of each tie = 4.5 kN
Placing ties at 900 mm centres and taking the partial safety factor for material as 3.5. The design
load resistance per metre run of wall
= 4.5x1000 = 1.43 kN
3.5 900
This is greater than the design shear force and therefore adequate.
No enhancement due to self weight exists.

Solution - Problem 2
1. = 0.3/0.9 = 0.33. Assuming worst flexural strength s for clay units.
2. Aspect ratio h/L = 5.625/4.5 = 1.25
3. Support conditions Simple
Using BS5628:Part 1, Table 8A, for h/L = 1.25, = 0.095 + 2/5(0.097 0.095) = 0.0958
And using the transformation technique, {enhance moment coefficient by window ht/ panel ht}
Window ht hw = 1.0m, panel ht hp = 5.625
Therefore, hw/hp = 1.0/5.625 = 0.18
Modification to moment coefficients due to line loads = 1 + 0.18 = 1.18
Hence modified = 0.095 x 1.18 = 0.113
Now Wk = 0.7kN/m2,

f = 1.2,

L = 4.5m

Then applied design moment per unit height

m = 0.113 x 0.7 x 1.2 x 4.52 = 1.92kNm
Design moment of resistance M = (fkpZ)/m = (0.9 x 1000 x t2)/6
Therefore required thickness [(1.92 x 3.0 x 6 x 106)/(0.9 x 1000)]0.5 196mm
Since some strength will be obtained from window surround, use 215mm wall.
This example may be continued by considering what thickness would be required for the basic
wall panel without the window and what thickness would be required had the panes been taken as
the full height of 6.625m.
For the basic wall panel, 5.625 x 4.5m, bending moment coefficient, as determined previously is
0.0958 which gives a required thickness of :
196 x 0.0958/0.113 = 166.2mm {i.e. Neglecting the impact of the line load from the window}
Had the panel been 6.625 x 4.5m then the aspect ratio is 6.625/4.5 = 1.47
And from BS5628 Table 8A, for h/L = 1.5 (very close), = 0.1004 by interpolation.
Hence required thickness = 196 x 0.1004/0.113 = 174mm
This latter value is useful in comparing to the original case with window opening since both
panels are subject to a similar total wind load but in the case of the panel with openings, the total
length of yield line isles and hence a slightly greater panel thickness. A 215 is justified.
Alternative design.
The loading from the window could be considered to be simply carried by a strip of masonry
running parallel to the opening. Had this method been adopted, them an additional loading as
shown hatched in the figure below could be assumed to be carried by the top 1.125m of the wall.

(i.e. 0.25L as given in the notes.

5.625m

1.25m 1.0m

Loading transmitted to wall

4.5m

Equivalent uniformly distributed load transferred to strip from window

= [0.7 x 0.5 x (3.5 + 4.5)]/(1.125 x 4.5 x 2) = 0.28kN/m2
Total uniformly distributed loading on strip, therefore
= 0.7 x 0.28 0.98kN/m2
Designing strip as simply supported span
M = 0.125 x 0.98 x 1.2 x 4.52 {wL2/8} = 2.98kNm
So trequired [(2.98 x 3.0 x 6 x 106)/(0.9 x 1000)]0.5 = 244mm
If moment were assessed as WkfL2/10 then trequired reduces to 218mm
Considering this and that there will be some stiffness in the window frame, then a wall thickness
as originally suggested of 215mm is adequate.

Solution - Problem 3
Using the transformation method indicated in the notes, then fixity to edges is reduced by a
quarter = 0.25, i.e. = 0.75 {Use the notation : = 1.0 for full fixity, = 0.0 for simple
support}
Hence the bending moment coefficient is determined from 8E and 8I. In order to transform, we
reduce the panel fixity to a value intermediate between full fixity and simple support. i.e We
assume partial fixity.
Now = 0.25/0.75 = 0.33 (Table 3)
h/L = 4/4 = 1.0
For the pinned edge condition, Table E ( = 0), then = 0.066 (by linear interpolation)
For the pinned edge condition, Table I ( = 1), then = 0.033 (by linear interpolation)
So including effect fro transformation, = 0.75, = 0.041
Hence m = 0.041 x 0.60 x 1.2 x 42 = 0.47kNm/m
Hence trequired = [(0.47 x 3.0 x 6 x 106)/(0.75 x 1000)]0.5 = 106mm

Solution - Problem 4
Outer leaf.

No information given on water absorption of bricks, so take WA > 12 which gives the worst case.
For brick fkb = 0.3,

fkp = 0.9,

wall density = 1700kg/m3

Consider wall as simply supported at base, built in up the sides and include self weight.
Self weight stress at mid height = 0.5 x 3.375 x 1700 x 9.81 x 10-6 x 0.9 = 0.025N/mm2
Orthogonal ratio including self weight = [0.3 + (0.025 x 3.0)]/0.9 = 0.417
Therefore bending moment coefficient (Table 8c) for an aspect ratio = 3.375/4.5 = 0.75,
= 0.044 (by interpolation)
Consider thickness as 103mm,
Design moment capacity of wall M

= [fkp x Z]/m
= [fkpbt2]/(6m) = {0.9 x 1000 x 1032]/[3.0 x 6 x 106]
= 0.531kNm per m

Applied design moment m = WkfL2 and setting this as equal to the design moment capacity of
the wall :
Wk = M/[fL2] = 0.531/[0.044 x 1.2 x 4.52] = 0.499kN/m2
Total characteristic wind pressure = 0.6kN/m2 therefore, excess force to be carried by inner leaf :
is 0.6 0.499 = 0.101kN/m2
Design of inner leaf.
Try 3.6N/mm2 blocks, 100m thick. Aspect ratio of panel = 1.25
Consider self weight as 1000kg/m3,
Then self weight stress at mid height = 0.025 x 1000/1700 = 0.015N/mm2
Modified orthogonal strength ratio = [0.25 + 0.015 x 3.0]/0.45 = 0.66
Now considering simple support to all s=edges then from BS5628 par 1 Table 8A,
= 0.066 + 4/10(0.069 0.066) = 0.0672 (by interpolation)

Thickness is 100mm so
M = [0.45 x 1000 x 1002]/(3.0 x 6 x 106) = 0.25kNm
There fore characteristic wind force that can be carried
Wk = 0.25/[0.0672 x 1.2 x 4.52] = 0.153kN/m2
Total capacity of cavity wall is acceptable.
It should be noted that the wall panel could be shown to carry a greater wind force since some
degree of fixity could be allowed at the base of both walls. In addition, if mortar jointing were
used between the inner blockwall and the columns, then some degree of fixity might effectively be
taken at the support due to arching action in the wall. In the example, the total wind load was
determined based on the assumption that both leaves attain their ultimate strength simultaneously
as inferred by the first paragraph to clause 32.4.5 of BS5628 : Part 1. If, however, the wind load
were shared between the two leaves, in proportion to their design moments of resistance, as
previously given then the stress in the leaves would be as follows:
Mbrick = 0.532, Mblock = 0.250 kNm per m
Thus Wk would be shared in the ratio :
0.531/0.781 x 0.6 = 0.41 kN/m2 to brick
And

0.250/0.781 x 0.6 = 0.19kN/m2 to block

This then gives :

fkp in bricks = [0.41 x 1.2 x 0.044 x 4.52 x 3.0 x 6 x 106]/(1000 x 1032) = 0.744kN/m2
fkb in blocks = [0.19 x 1.2 x 0.0672 x 4.52 x 3.0 x 6 x 106]/(1000 x 1002) = 0.559kN/m2
This suggests an overstress in the block. However, as we are working in ultimate terms, and
since the wind pressure will be distributed as suction and positive pressure on both leaves, then it
would appear reasonable to accept the first method for design purposes. In this instance, the
additional allowance for self weight fixity could be shown to prove the wall adequate.
Wall ties.
Wall ties used to be specified by strength. Now Annex C of Bs 5628 : Part 1 provides guidance.
No data on the use of the building is provided so a conservative choice must be made. Select
type 1 wall ties. Provide 2.5 ties per m2 and in addition, 3 4 ties per m at unbonded edges. The
ties must be bedded at least 50mm into the mortar. Table C3 gives the tensile and compressive
load capacity of each type 1 tie as = 2.5kN. Hence design transfer potential per tie = 2.5/3.0 =
0.8kN. {m wall ties = 3.0}
Hence at a density of 2.5 ties per m2, the transfer capacity of the ties :
= 0.8 x 2.5 = 2.0kN/m2 > 0.6kN/m2