CHAPTER 8 THINKING

Thinking- Concepts: mental categories use to group similar objects,

events, characteristics(fruit food dog love) allows to relate exper. and
objects by similar features. Superordinate-most general form ie.
Animal. Basic Level type- concept with similar concepts like
dog,cat. Subordinate- most specific concept ie ones own pet.
Formal Concept- defined by specific rules.
Prototypes: mental representation of objects that our mind has ex. of
(chair)
Schemas: mental framework representing our knowledge about things
(picnic)
Solving Problems- cognition that occurs when goal must be reached by
thinking and behaving certain way.
Strategies: solving problems using manipulation of mental images/trial
&error
Subgoaling: setting intermediate goals to be in better position of reaching
final goal.
Algorithms: step by step strategy that guarantee solution using formula,
directions.
Heuristics: Rule of thumb/educated guess.
Means-end: heuristic steps taken to reduce obstacles between start and
finish.
Problems with problem solving:
Mental set: try to solve prob. In way that worked before.
Functional Fixedness: a block to prob. solving from thinking about obj.
typical functions.
Confirmation Bias: tendency to search for evidence that fits ones beliefs and
ignore evidence that doesnt fit.
Convergent thinking: only one answer.
Divergent thinking: starts with one point and comes up with many different
ideas.
Making decisions: people use established rules. Biases can interfere with
good decisions.
Belief perseverance: hold onto a belief in the face of contradicting evidence.
Availability heuristic: making a judgment about probability based on how
easily it comes to mind.
Thinking and the brain: frontal lobes- critical for processing thought.
Dorsolateral prefrontal region- damage leads to impaired planning,
planning, distractibility and deficits in working memory.
Creativity: 3 elements: originality, fluency, flexibility.
Intelligence: Verbal ability, problem solving skills, ability to adapt and
learn.
Individual diff: stable ways ppl are diff.
Assessment: measure of performance, skill, ability
Psychometrics: mental testing
Structural: what abilities are intelligence made up of (verbal,
mathematical)
Functional: what processes underlie intelligence? (short term memory,
mental processing speed)
Unitary ability vs. Multiple interrelated abilities:
Spearman: general G factor (unitary) ability to reason/ solve problems or
general intelligence.
S factor- ability to excel in certain areas, specific intelligence.
Gardner`s multiple intelligence (eg. Savant syndrome)
Heredity vs. environment.
The Psychometric approach:
Sir Francis Galton: Emphasized heredity. Designed first intelligence test
(head size, hand grip, reaction time)Believed sensory, perception, motor
responses keys of intelligence.
Binet: emphasized role of environment. Developed concept of Mental Age.
Later others developed IQ=MA/CA x 100
Today IQ tests compare score to norm. Follow norm. curve.
Wechsler tests: measure verbal and nonverbal.
Measuring IQ tests: reliability, validity (current GPA), standardization
(Norms).
Deviation IQ Scores- assumes IQ is normally around 100 with deviation
of 15.
Developmental delay- mild=-55-70 IQ. Moderate=40-55. Severe=25-40.
Profound= below 25

Gifted- IQ 130+
Sternberg- Triarchic theory of intelligence-3 kinds of intelligence.
Analytical(break problems down into components) Creative(deal with
new/different concepts, new ways to solve) Practical(use info to live and be
successful) Emotional(manage ones emotions and self motivate)
Syntax- system of rules for combining words phrases to form correct
sentences.
Morphemes- smallest units of meaning in language
Semantics- rules for determining meaning of words
Phonemes-basic units of sound in language
Pragmatics- practical ways of talking to others.
Linguistic Relativity Theory- thought process and concepts are
controlled by language.
CHAPTER 9 MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
Motivation- Biological(food/water) need:deprivation energizes drive to
get rid of need.Drive: aroused state(uncomfortable) Drive reduction theory:
homeostasis PRIMARY DRIVE- biological needs(hunger) SECONDARY
DRIVE- (acquired) learned through experience (money)
Emotional (panic/love)
Cognitive (expectations/beliefs)
Social (reactions from others)
Yerkes-Dodson Law: performance is related to arousal
Arousal approach: try to maintain optimal level of stimulation, avoid overarousal. Varies in people(introverts, extroverts) Simple tasks best performed
with high arousal, complex tasks best with low arousal.
Cognitive approach: Freud: role of conscious vs. unconscious. Incentive:
desire to obtain goal. Either Extrinsic (do activit for concrete reward) or
Intrinsic( do activity for its own sake, enjoyment) 7
Humanistic approach: Maslows hierarchy of motives
Needs satisfied in sequence: physio, safety, love, esteem, self-actualization)
Behaviour change most likely when:
Specific goals set that are challenging, realistic. Must be something
wanted,not unwanted. Increase skill. Expect to succeed
PHYSIOLOGICAL COMPONENTS Hunger:
INSULIN-hormone secreted by pancreas to control levels of fats,
proteins etc by reducing glucose level.
GLUCAGONS- hormone like insulin but decreases glucose level.
LEPTIN: hormone that when released into blood signals
hypothalamus that body has enough food so reduce appetite
increase full feeling.
determined by stomach contractions (Cannon & Washburn gastric balloon)
Pressure from full stomach release hormone CCK to brain. Blood sugar drop
signals start eating lateral hypothalamus(stimulation=more eating,
Destruction=less eating.) Blood sugar increase insulin level rises tells stop
eating ventromedial hypothalamus(stimulation-decreased eating,
destruction-increased(obese rat))
GENETIC factors: efficient metabolism can eat small amounts and store,
inefficient metabolism can eat lots but not store.
EXTERNAL & cognitive factors: obese more sensitive to external cues.
Eating Disorders: anorexia 2 subtypes: restricting + binge-purge. Atleast
15% below normal weight. Bulimia: binge-purge.
THIRST: intracellular(thirst triggered by loss of fluid within bodily
cells) and Extracellular (triggered by loss of fluid between cells)
Defining emotion: feeling or thought evokes Physiological
arousal(ANS) conscious exp. Behavioural expression.
THEORIES: common sense- emotion is followed by arousal James-Lange
theory- arousal precedes experience of emotion(happy cause im smiling)
Facial feedback hypothesis: expression can influence emotion.
Cognitive Dimensions: Schachter & Singers Two factor theory:
emotion determined by 2 factors: physiological arousal- determines
intensity of emotion, and Cognitive interpretation- determines tpe of
emotion.
Interpretation of arousal affects emotions(bridge study)
Limitations: interpretations of ones intentions can impact emotions, doesnt
explain primary emotions.
LeDouxs Theory of emotion:
External stimuli are first routed to thalamus, thalamus sends info to
cortex(associated with complex/secondary emotions and rely on memory)
or directly to amygdala (automatic unconscious primary emotions like fear)

Amygdala responsible for initial approach or withdraw, cortex can

then override decision.
LIE DETECTION: measures autonomic nervous system(heart rate,
BP, galvanic skin response) Assumes lying is stressful.
RIGHT PREFRONTAL AREA: motivation to withraw/escape.(fear, disgust)
Damage=mania, decreased caution.
LEFT PREFRONTAL AREA: motivation to approach(anger, happiness)
damage=depression.
CHAPTER 11 STRESS AND HEALTH
PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY= study of effects of psychological
factors(stress,emotions, behaviour,) on immune system.
GENERAL MODEL- stressorsintervening factorreaction
2 kinds of stressors: distress(unpleasant) and eustress(positive
events)
Common sources- Social readjustment rating scale(srrs)
Life events (major life changes, 12 month period) vs. daily
hassles(cumulative stress)
CONFLICT: approach-approach= must choose between 2 desirable
options. Avoidance-avoidance= must choose between 2 undesirable
options approach-avoidance= 1 option that has positive and negative
consequences.
Responding to stress: emotional, psychological, behavioural,
physiological. Long term responses: illness PTSD
FACTORS involved: Biological- general adaptation syndrome= 3 stages
of physio reaction to stress. Alarm=body experiences temp. shock releases
hormones for fight or flight(epinephrine.adrenalin) HR & BP go up.,
Resistance= Goal: keep activity under control. Return body to
homeostasis. Different hormones released(glucocorticoids)
Exhaustion=body has protective resources. Wear+tear on body=
exhaustion, vulnerability to disease(immune decreases, illness, depression,
CHD, HBP)
2 Biological pathways connect brain & endocrine system in
response to stress:
HPA pathway: through hypothalamus & pituitary glands to adrenal glands
where cortisol is released(by psychological stressors)
SNS Pathway: extends through hypothalamus to SNS & adrenal glands,
adrenalines released.
Short term responses: usually beneficial.
Long term: adrenal glands secrete stress hormones(epinephrine,
norepinephrine) irregular heartbeat
Glucocorticoids: Inhibit inflammation to prevent mobility limits, decreased
efficiency of immune system(interfere wit msgs from cytokines) break down
muscle tissue to help make fats avail. for energy. (high levels may lead to
blocked coronary arteries.)
Importance of Appraisal: primary (estimate severity, classify as threat or
challenge) vs. secondary( Assessing a threat estimate resources avail.)
(LAZARUS, FOLKMAN) Potentional stressor(external eventprimary
appraisalsecondary appraisal
Personality Factors: TYPE A=hostile, impatient, hard worker TYPE
B=relaxed,easygoing TYPE C=pleasant but repressed.Difficulty expressing
emotions.HARDY=thrives on stress but lacks anger & hostility of Type A.
COPING: Problem-focused coping: face problem and try to actively solve
it. (seeking advice/info) Emotion-focused coping: responding to the
stress on emotional level + defensive appraisal. (denial, venting)
SOCIAL SUPPORT: info + feedback from others that one is loved & valued.
Forms: tangible assistance, emotional support
Consequences of Stess: Burnout; Psychological disorder.
Stress Management: turn threat into challenge. Avoid helplessness. Take
physical action. Prepare for stress.
CHAPTER 12 PERSONALITY
Personality: pattern of psychological characterisitcs that differentiate
individuals. Leads to acting consistently.Variables are reflected by
behaviours and starts from inside someone, not a situation.
Freuds theory and the psychodynamic approach:
1. Jean Charcot & hypnotism
2. Joseph Breuer & Anna O. and catharsis: release of emotional
tension.
3. Freuds Topographic model:1st model
A)Conscious: thoughts, perceptions currently aware of.

B)Preconcious: body of retrievable info(memories, knowledge)

C)Unconcious: no immediate access but retrievable under extreme
situations(frears, violent motives, selfish needs)
4. Freuds Structural Model: 2nd model
A)ID: instincts, entirely unconscious. Present at birth. Selfish.
B)EGO: during first 2 years. Develops out of need to deal with reality.
Mostly consiouc, rational, logical. Operates on reality principle; primary
functions: statisfy id impluses while realistic.
C) SUPEREGO: Moral branch by age 5 formed. Contains the Ego Ideal:
standards for moral behaviour. Contains Conscience: produces pride or
guilt, depends on how close behaviour matches ego ideal.
5.Intrapsychic conflict: 3 parts of personality are always struggling with
eachother. Goal is to satisfy needs of id and superego.
6. Healthy individual: has a strong ego doesnt allow id or superego too
much control over personality.
7. Anxiety: arises from confrontation between personality componenets.
8. Studying the Unconscious: hypnosis, free association, dream analysis,
projective tests(thematic apperception test, Rorschach), parapraxes(slips of
tongue, symbolic behaviour(forgetfulness, lateness)
9. Freuds Psychosexual Stage Theory of Personality Development:
A) Oral Stage: oral fixation. First stage occurring in first yr of life in
which the mouth is the erogenous zone and weaning is primary conflict.
B) Anal Stage: anal fixation. Second stage occurring rom 1-3 yrs, anus is
the erogenous zone and toilet training is the source of conflict.
Anal expulsive personality: messy, destructive, hostile.
Anal retentive personality: neat, fussy, stingy, stubborn.
C) Phallic Stage: 3-6 years, child discovers sexual feelings.
Oedipus Complex: child develops sexual attraction to opposite sex parent
and jealousy towards same sex parent.
Identification: defence mechanism where person tries to become like
someone else to deal with anxiety.
D) Latency: fourth stage occurring in school years where sexual feelings of
a child are repressed while child develops in other ways.
10. Evaluation of Freudian theory:
Contributions: interation between child & caregiver, defense mechanisms,
therapeutic approach.
Critisism: overemphasis on sexuality, male bias, difficult to test
unconscious.
HUMANISTIC APPROACH:
Emphasizes personal responsibility & self acceptance in
differences.
4 Elements: here & now, personal responsibility (choice),
phenomenology(focus on subjective interpretation of reality, and growth.
Carl Rogers pioneered this approach in Psychotherapy.
All have capacity to fully function(open to experiences), but we grow up
under conditions of worth/conditional positive reward:significant others
provide love and support but often with conditions
Self Concept: images of ones self that develop from interactions with
people that matter to them. Desires that others would disapprove of are
repressed and kept out of sel-concept.
Contributions: comprehensive theory, applications for therapy.
Criticisms: vague concepts sometimes difficult to test, too optimistic.
TYPE & TRAIT THEORIES:
1.Type Theories: categorize people(Sheldons Somatotypes:
ectomorphic, endomorphic, mesomorphic)
Limitations: not everyone can be categorized.
2.Trait Theories: trait refers to emotional, cognitive, behavioural
tendencies & underlying dimensions that form personality;
conceptualized as on a continuum ranging high to low.
3.Assumptions (stable over time/across situations)
Focus on group, description of traits, prediction of behaviour from traits.
Comparisons across people; little emphasis on personality change.
Employ a psychometric approach; method of factor analysis to find common
denominators of personality by noting which traits cluster statistically. THE
BIG FIVE-OCEAN. Openness to experience, Conscientiousness,
Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.
Allport noted 18000 traits, Cattrell argued for 16 distinct traits.
Limitations: lack of theoretical framework, doesnt explain how personality
develops, over-reliance on self reports.

CHAPTER 13 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Social Psychology: study of how people think about themselves and
others and relate to others. Emphasizes perceptions or person
interpretations and how ppl affected by social situations.
Social behaviour: influencing others. Relevant to soc. Influence, 2
motives important in determining thoughts/behaviours & explain why ppl
conform/obey. Normative social influence: ppl want to be liked,
accepted, approved of. Social norms: learned, socially based rules how ppl
should or shouldnt act. Informational social influence: ppl want to be
correct & how to best act in a situation.
Conformity: Solomon Asch: series of studies in which task clearly
defined. Subject went along with wrong answer 37% of time. 73%
conformed at least once. Why? Size of group. Unanimous decisions create
more likelihood of conforming. Attractive ppl, similar.
Obediance: complying with explicit demand. Usually from authority figure.
Compliance: changing ones behaviour as result of other ppl direction or
asking for change
Foot in door technique: ask for small commitment, after gaining
compliance, ask for bigger commitment.
Door in face technique: ask for large commitment. Be refused. Ask for
smaller.
Milgram study. No one stopped before 300 volts. 80% continued
past learner saying heart condition or ouch.
Social Perception: study of how we use info to develop impression of
others.
Attribution theory: describes how ppl understand & explain causes of
social behaviour. Fritz Heider view ppl as scientists.
Is it something within person?(personality) Internal Attribution. Makes
a Dispositional Attribution.
Is it caused by something outside person?(situation) External
Attribution makes a Situational Attribution.
Rules of Attraction: attractiveness, proximity, similarity, reciprocity
Social Exchange Model explains:
Factors that affect situation: stress, children, time= general decrease in
satisfaction over time.Satisfaction determined by: Rewards-CostsComparison Level. Comparison level determined by past
relationships and parental relationships. Commitment determined
by: stasfation + investments.
CONFLICT AMONG GROUPS:
Prejudice: unjustified negative attitudes toward ppl based on their social
group. Race, sex, age, nation, etc.(emotional)
Factors promoting prejudice:
Stereotypes: cognitive generalization about a groups characteristics.
Social Identity Theory: individuals assigned to a group view themselves
as an in-group. Allows for comparisons. Which can lead to
competition/discrimination against other groups.
(Jane Elliots minimal group exercise brown eyes blue eyes) factors
may be arbitrary, but can still promote in group out group biases.
Discrimination: behaving differently toward ppl (behavioural)
Reducing Prejeudice: Sherifs 1966 study of boys at camp.
3 Phases of Robbers Cave Experiment:
1. create in-groups; boys assigned to 1 of 2 camps. Development of
Social Identity. 2. Instilling of Inter-group competition: resulted in
hostility. 3. Encouraging Inter-group Cooperation: Non-competitive
Contact: Did not help Cooperative action toward super-ordinate goal: made
friendships. (groups needed to pull truck up hill)
Contact hypothesis: contact situations must include: a common goal,
mutual interdependence, equal status of group members, friendly, informal
setting, multiple contacts.
CHAPTER 14 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY: study of abnormal behaviour
Define Abnormal Behaviour- 4 elements:
1)Statistically Deviant: atypical behaviour
2)Socially Deviant: Deviates from culturally accepted norms.
3)Maladaptive: Interferes with ones ability to function effectively.
4) Personal Distress: causes personal discomfort.
Classifying Abnormal Behaviour: The DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL
MANUAL of MENTAL DISORDERS. Standard for diagnosing mental illness.

Focus is on detailed descriptions. Allows for uniform communication

regarding mental illness.
DSM-IV is a multiaxial system.
Axis 1: major disorders(symptoms that cause distress or impair
functioning(eg. Schizophrenia)
Axis 2: Personality disorders & MR (chronic, enduring problems. Eg. APD
Axis 3: General medical conditions of relevance to mental disorder-cancer
Axis 4: Psychosocial stressors in recent past that may contribute
Axis 5: An assessment of current functioning & highest level of functioning
in past year (0-100, lower number, poorer function)
Critisism: continues to espouse medical model of mental illness.
System focuses solely on pathology and problems;
stigma(Rosenhan`s study);comorbidity(individual meets more than
one criteria)
ANXIETY DISORDERS: include motor tension, hyperactivity, apprehensive
thoughts & expectations.
Phobic Disorders: Irrational, overwhelming fear of object/situation.
Avoidance associated with phobia can be debilitating.
Causal Factors: behavioural perspective(classical (establishes fear) &
operant (maintains fear) conditioning)
Treatment: systematic desensitization(relaxation, hierarchy of fears, expose
each level) FLOODING: exposure at full intensity TREATMENT:
exposure(actual or imagined) based on principle of extinction.
Obsessive compulsive Disorders:
Obsessions:persistent, recurring, irrational thoughts/images)violence
Compulsions: irresistible impulsesnto perform some behaviour/ritual. May
be related to obsession.
CAUSAL FACTORS: biological perspective
Genetic predisposition; brain areas. Frontal lobes: Obsessions, Basal
Ganglia: Compulsions. Treatment: exposure therapy, antidepressants.
Mood Disorders: characterized by extremews of emotion. 1
extreme=depression or 2 extremes=bipolar disorder.
Major Depression: lethargy, opelessness for over 2 weeks, change in sleep
and eating, psychomotor agitation or retardation, no energy, suicidal
thoughts
Bipolar Disorder: extreme mood swings with episodes of mania(extreme
feeling of euphoria, energy, impulsivity) alternating with depression.
CAUSES: Biological-genetics, abnormalities in neurotransmitters. High levels
of Norepinephrine= mania. Low levels of Seratonin=depression. Cognitivebeck believes negative schemas lead to negative thoughts that magnify
negative experiences. Perfectionisn: unattainable personal standards
TREATMENT: Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy- monitor private thoughts,
confront irrational beliefs/alter emotions, activity assignments(change
behaviour) Biological therapy- antidepressants: Selective Seretonin
Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRI) regulate serotonin like Prozac, celexas. Lithium or
anticonvulsants for bipolar. ECT: can lift secere depression but sometimes
returns.
Psychosis: loss of touch with reality, associated with many
disorders(bipolar, schizophrenia), brain injury, drugs. Symptoms include:
Hallucinations: disturbances in perception(auditory common with
schizophrenia)
Delusions: Disturbances in thinking, disordered thought content and strong
beliefs in misrepresentations of reality.
Thought Disorder: Disorganized Speech & behaviour
TREATMENTS: medication, decrease stressors, enhance coping, gently
challenge distorted thoughts.
Childhood Disorders:
Oppositional Defiant Disorder: aversive & socially disruptive behaviours.
Atleast 4 of the following for 6 months: loses temper, argues with adults,
defies or refuses to comply, blames others for mistakes, easily annoyed,
angry, spiteful.
Conduct Disorder(CD): repetitive & persistent pattern of behaviour that
violates basic rights of others & major age-appropriate societal
norms(aggression to people/animals, destruction of property, lies & theft,
serious rule violations)
KEY ELEMENT: Childhood Physical Aggression.CAUSES: genetics & family
factors, Psychophysiology: Behavioural Activation system(BAS) stimulates
behaviour in response to signals of reward(overactive)

Behavioural Inhibition System(BIS): Produces anxiety, inhibits behaviour in

presence of punishment, fear(underactive, less stress hormones)
INTERVENTIONS: learn to identify, define, observe problem behav. Spend
fun time with child everyday. Set clear rules. Reward compliance.
PERSONAL DISORDERS: (On axis 2) long standing & highly
maladaptive pattern of behaviour, thought, feeling; impair social &
occupational functioning. Rigid.
Antisocial PD(APD): one most common personality disorder, more
common in men. Often reffered to as psychopathy or sociopathy but not the
same.

APD: frequent violations of basic rights of oterhs, criminal acts. Involves

presence of conduct disorder before age 15 and into adulthood like not
working consistently, breaking laws, phys. Aggression, recklessness.
CAUSES: Biological Roots: heredity, low arousability, low levels of anxiety in
face of punishment, poor impulse control. Environmental Influences: harsh
& inconsistent parenting, lack of affection, antisocial behaviour in father.
TREATMENTS: impossible to treat. Studies of inmates show they settle down
in middle age.
VULNERABILITY-STRESS MODEL: Considers interplay between 3
factors in development of any disorder. Vulnerability: predisposing
conditions(genetic risk, central nervous system impairment..) Stress: events

that heighten likelihood of schizophrenic epsidoes(death of parent, child

abuse) Protective factors: reduce risk of episodes(intelligence, social
competence, supportive relationships)
Approaches to Therapy: all types of psychotherapy try to help alleviate
suffering. Successful therapies have common elements: Support(strong
therapeutic alliance, telling stories), Learn(educate client about clinical
problem, coping skills), Action(encourage client to perform personal
experiments and try new things.
Somatoform disorders: disorders that take form of bodily illnesses and
symptoms but no real psychical disorder.