Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates

In this section , we extend the concepts of calculus to

curves described by parametric equations and polar
coordinates. For instance, in order to study the motion of
an object such as an airplane in two dimensions, we
would need to describe the objects position (x,y) as a
function of the parameter t(time). That is , we write the
position in the form ( x, y) ( x(t ), y(t )) , where x(t ) and y (t )
are functions to which our existing techniques of calculus
can be applied. In addition, we will explore how to use
polar coordinates to represent curves, not as a set of
points ( x, y ) , but rather , by specifying the points by the
distance from the origin to the point. Polar coordinates
are especially convenient for describing circles, such as
those that occur in propagating sound waves.
Plane Curves and Parametric equations
It is often convenient to describe the location of appoint
( x, y ) in the plane in terms of a parameter. For instance,
in tracking the movement of a satellite , we would
naturally want to give its location in terms of time. In this
way , we not only know the path it follows, but we also
know when it passes through each point.
Given any pair of functions x(t ) and y (t ) defined on the
same domain D, the equations
x x (t )
, y y (t )
are called parametric equations. Notice that for each
choice of t, the parametric equations specify a point
( x, y ) ( x(t ), y (t )) in the xy-plane. The collection of all such
points is called the graph of the parametric equations. In
the case where x(t ) and y (t ) are continuous function and

D is an interval of the real line, the graph is a curve in the

xy-plane, referred to as a plane curve.
The choice of the letter (t) to denote the independent
variable ( called the parameter) should make you think
of time, which is often what the parameter represents.
Example
Find parametric equations for the line segment joining
the points (1,2) and (4,7) .
Solution
For a line segment, the parametric equation can be
linear functions;
x a bt , y c dt
Where a,b,c,d are some constants to be determined
at
at

t 0 x a 1,

yc2

t 1 x a b 4, then b 3
y cd 7d 5

Hence

x 1 3t ,

y 2 5t

where

0 t 1

is a pair of parametric equations determining the line

segment

Example
Find parametric equation of the curve :

y x 4 3x 2

Solution
Any equation of the form y f (x) can be converted to
parametric form by letting the parameter t x . then we
have the equations:
x t,

y t 4 3t 2

using these parametric equations to graph the curve,

we obtain

It would be possible to solve the given equation

( y x 3x ) for x as four functions of y and graph
them individually, but the parametric equations
provide a much easier method.
4

In general , if we need to graph an equation of the

form y f (x) , we can use the parametric equations:
x t , y f (t )

Example
Sketch the plane curve defined by the parametric
equations

x 6 t2

and

t
,
2

2t 4

Solution
In the following table we list a number of values of the
parameter t and corresponding values of x and y.
t
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4

x
2
5
6
5
2
-3
-10

y
-1
-1/2
0
1/2
1
3/2
2

We have plotted these points and connected them with a

smooth curve as in figure below

It is also possible to eliminate the parameter here, by

solving for t in terms of y. We have t 2 y , so that
x 6 4t . The graph of this last equation is a parabola
opening to the left. However, the plane curve we are
looking for is the portion of this parabola corresponding
to 2 t 4 . From the table notice that this corresponds to
1 y 2 , so that the plane curve is the portion of the
2

parabola indicated in the figure above, where we have

also indicated a number of points on the curve.

Example
Find the path of a projectile thrown horizontally with
initial speed of 20 ft/s from a height of 64 feet.
Solution
The path is defined by the parametric equations
x 20t , y 64 16t 2

for

0t 2

Where t represents time (in seconds). This describes the

plane curve shown in the figure below

Note that the orientation indicated in the graph gives the

direction of motion. Although we could eliminate the

x
parameter here y 64 16( 400 ) , the parametric equations
provide us with more information, as they tell us when
the object is located at a given point and indicate the
2

direction of motion. We indicate the location of the

projectile at several times in figure shown above.

Example
Sketch the plane defined by the parametric equations:
x 2 cos t ,

y 2 sin t

(a)

0 t 2

(b)

0t

for

Solution
(a)
the default graph produced by most graphing calculators
looks something like the curve shown in the following
figure

We have added arrows indicating the orientation. The

curve is looks like an ellipse, but with some more
thought we can identify that it is a circle. Rather than

eliminate the parameter by solving for t in terms of either

x or y, instead notice that :
x 2 y 2 4 cos 2 t 4 sin 2 t 4(cos 2 t sin 2 t ) 4

So the plane curve lies on the circle of radius 2 centered

at the origin. In fact, it is the whole circle, as we can see
by recognizing what the parameter represents in this
case. Recall that from the definition of sine and cosine
that if ( x, y ) is a point on the unit circle and is the angle
from the positive x-axis to the line segment joining ( x, y )
and the origin, then we define cos x and sin y . Since
we have x cos 2 and y 2 sin , the parameter t
corresponds to the angle . The curve is the entire circle
of radius 2, traced out as the angle t ranges from 0 to 2

(b)
What would change if the domain were limited to
0 t ? Since we have identified t as the angle as
measured from the positive x-axis, it should be clear that
we will now get the top half of the circle, as shown in the
figure below:

Example
Identify the plane curves
(a) x 2 xost, y 3 sin t
(b) x 2 4 cos t , y 3 4 sin t
(c) x 3 cos 2t , y 3 sin 2t
all for 0 t 2
Solution
Using a computer-generated sketch of (a) gives us
the following figure:

It is difficult to determine the sketch whether the

curve is an ellipse or simply a distorted graph of a
circle. You can rule out a circle, since the parametric
equations produce x-values between -2 and 2 and yvalues between -3 and 3. To verify that this is an
ellipse , observe that
x 2 y 2 4 cos 2 t 9 sin 2 t

cos 2 t sin 2 t 1
4
9
4
9

A computer sketch of (b) is shown in the following

figure

We can verify that this is a circle :

( x 2) 2 ( y 3) 2 16

Finally the sketch of ( c) is shown below

10

We can verify that this is a circle

x2 y 2 9

Example
Find parametric equations for the portion of the
parabola y x from (1,1) to (3,9)
2

Solution
Any equation of the form y f (x) can be converted
to parametric form simply by defining t x . Here,
this gives us y x t , so that
2

x t,

y t2

1 t 3

is a parametric representation of the curve.

Example
Sketch the plane curves:
(a) x t 1, y t 2
(b) x t 1, y t 2
2

Solution
Since there is no restriction places on t, we can assume
that t can be any real number. Eliminating the parameter
in (a), we get t x 1 , so that the parametric equations in
(a) correspond to the parabola
y ( x 1) 2 2

shown in the figure below

11

Notice that the graph includes the entire parabola, since t

and hence, x t 1 can be any real n umber.
For (b) when we eliminate the parameter, we get t x 1
and so, y ( x 1) 2 , this gives the same parabola as in
(a) . However, the initial sketch of the parametric
equations shown in the following figure shown only the
right half of the parabola
2

12

To verify that this is correct, note that since x t 1 , we

have that x 1 for every real number t. Therefore , the
curve is only the right half of the parabola
y ( x 1) 2 as shown.
2

Example
Sketch the plane curves:
(a) x t 2, y t t
(b) x t t, y t 5t 4
2

Solution
(a) The sketch is shown in the figure below

From the vertical line test, this is not the graph of any
function. Further, converting to an x-y equation here is
messy and not particularly helpful. However, examine
that parametric equations to see if important portions of
the graph have been left out ( e.g., there supposed to be
13

anything to the left of x 2 ?). Here, x t 2 2 for all t

and y t t has no maximum or minimum . It seems that
most of the graph is indeed shown in the last figure.
2

(b) the sketch is shown below

Once again , this is not a familiar graph. To get an idea of

the scope of the graph, note that x t t has no maximum
or minimum . To find the minimum of
y t 5t 4 , note that critical numbers are at t 0 and
5
t
with corresponding function values 4 and -9/4 ,
2
respectively. We should conclude that y 9 / 4 , as shown
in the figure for this point.
3

14

Example
Suppose that a missile is fired toward your location from
500 miles away and follows a flight path given by the
parametric equations:
x 100t ,

y 80t 16t 2 ,

0t 5

Two minutes later , you fire an interceptor missile from

your location following the flight path :
x 500 200(t 2),

y 80(t 2) 16(t 2) 2 ,

2t7

Determine whether the interceptor missile hits its target.

Solution
In the following figure :

We have plotted the flight paths for both missiles

simultaneously. The two paths clearly intersect, but this
does not necessarily mean that the two missiles collide.
For that to happen, they need to be at the same point at
the same time. To determine whether there are any values
of t for which both paths are simultaneously passing
through the same point, we set the two x-values equal:
15

100t 500 200(t 2)

And obtain one solution : t 3 . Notice that this simply

says that the two missiles have the same x-coordinate
when t 3 . Unfortunately, the y-coordinates are not the
same here, since when t 3 , we have
80t 16t 2 96 but

80(t 2) 16(t 2) 2 64

You can see this graphically by plotting the two paths

simultaneously for 0 t 3 only, as we have done in the
figure below:

From the graph, you can see that the two missiles pass
one another without colliding. So, by the time the
interceptor missile intersects the flight path of the
incoming missile, it is long gone , so the interceptor
missile does not hit its target.

Calculus and Parametric equations

16

Tangents
Our initial aim is to find a way to determine the slopes of
tangent lines to the curves that are defined
parametrically. First, recall that for a differentiable
function y f (x) , the slope of the tangent line at the point
x a is given by f (a ) .Written in Leibniz notation, the
dy
slope is dx (a) . Both x and y are functions of the
parameter t. Notice that if x x(t ) and y y (t ) both have
derivatives that are continuous at t=c, the chain rule gives
us:
dy dy dx
dx

.
0 , we have then
as
long
as
dt
dx dt
dt
dy
(c )
dy
y (c)
dt
(c )

dx
dx
x (c)
(c )
dt

Where

a f (c)

(2.1)

. In the case where

dy
dy
y (t )
(a) lim dt lim
t

c
t

c
dx
dx
x (t )
dt

x (c) y (c) 0 ,

we define

(2.2)

provided the limit exists.

We can use (2.1) to calculate second ( as well as higher
dy
order) derivatives. Notice that if we replace y by dx , we
get
d dy

d y d dy
dt dx


dx
dx 2 dx dx
dt
2

(2.3)

17

Example
A curve C is defined by the parametric equations
x t , y t 3t .
(a) Show that C has two tangents at the point (3,0) and
find their equations.
(b)Find the point on C where the tangent is horizontal or
vertical.
(c)Determine where the curve is concave upward or
downward.
(d) Sketch the curve.
2

Solution
(a) Notice that y t 3t t (t 3) 0 when t 0 or t 3 .
Therefore, the point (3,0) on C arises from two
values of the parameter, t 3, and t 3 . This
indicated that C crosses itself at (3,0). Since
3

dy dy / dt 3t 2 3t 3
1

t
dx dx / dt
2t
2
t

dy
The slope of the tangent when t 3 is dx 6 / 2 3 3 ,
so the equations of the tangents at (3,0) are

3 ( x 3),and

y 3 ( x 3)

(b) C has a horizontal tangent when dy / dx 0 , that is

when dy / dt 0 and dx / dt 0 . Since dy / dt 3t 3 , this
happens when t 1 , that is t 1 . The
2

18

corresponding points on C are (1,2) and (1,2) . C

has a vertical tangent when dx / dt 2t 0 , that is ,
t 0 ( Note that dy / dt 0 ). The corresponding point
on C is (0,0) .
(c) To determine concavity we calculate the second
derivative:
d dy
3
1

1 2
d y dt dx
3(t 2 1)
2
t

dx
2t
dx 2
4t 3
dt
2

Thus , the curve is concave upward when ( t 0 ) and

concave downward when ( t 0 ).

(d) The figure is as following:

19

Example
Find the slope of the tangent to the path
y 2 sin t cos 2t at
(a) t 0 ;
(b) t / 4 , and
(c ) the point (0,3) .

x 2 cos t sin 2t ,

Solution
(a) First , note that;
20

dx
2 sin t 2 cos 2t
dt

and

dy
2 cos t 2 sin 2t
dt

From (2.1) , the slope of the tangent line at

dy
dx

t 0

t0

is then

dy
( 0)
2 cos 0 2 sin 0
dt

1
dx
2 sin 0 2 cos 0
( 0)
dt

(b) The slope of the tangent line at

dy
dx t

t /4

dy

( )
2 cos 2 sin
4
4 2 2
dt 4
dx

2
( ) 2 sin 2 cos
dt 4
4
4

is:

( c) To determine the slope at the point (0,3) , we must

first determine a value of t that corresponds to the
point in this case, notice that t 3 / 2 gives x 0 and
y 3 . Here, we have
dx 3
dy 3

0
dt 2
dt 2

and consequently, we must use (2.2) to compute

dy
dx

Since the limit has indeterminate form ( 0 ) , we use

1Hopitals Rule, to get
dy 3
2 cos t 2 sin 2t
2 sin t 4 cos 2t
lim

t lim
3

/
2
t

/
2
dx 2
2 sin t 2 cos 2t
2 cos t 4 sin 2t

Which does not exist, since the limit in the numerator

is 6 and the limit in the denominator is 0. This says
that the slope of the tangent line at t 3 / 2 is
undefined.

21

The tangent lines are shown in the figure below for

different t-values. Notice that the tangent line at the
point (0,3) is vertical

Finding slopes of tangent lines can help us identify

many points of interest.

Example
Identify all points at which the plane curve
x cos 2t , y sin 3t has a horizontal or vertical tangent
line.
Solution
A sketch of the curve is shown in the figure below:
22

There appear to be two locations ( the top and bottom

of the bow) with horizontal tangent lines and one point
( the far right edge of the bow) with a vertical tangent
line. Recall that horizontal tangent lines occur where
dy
0.
dx
From (2.1), we then have
only when

dy y (t )

0,
dx x (t )

which can occur

0 y (t ) 3 cos 3t

provided that
x (t ) 2 sin 2t 0 for the same value of t. Since cos 0
only when is an odd multiple of / 2 , we have that
3 5
y (t ) 3 cos 3t 0 , only when 3t ,
,
,... and so ,
2 2
2
t

3 5
,
,
,...
6 6
6

. The corresponding points on the curve

are then:

1

, y cos , sin ,1
3
2
6 6
2
3
3 3

x
, y
cos , sin
1,1
2
6 6

9
7 7
1

x 6 , y 6 cos 3 , sin 2 2 ,1

and

9
9 9

, y
cos 3 , sin
( 1,1)
2
6 6

23

Notice that t 5 / 6 and t 11 / 6 reproduce the first and

the third points, respectively, and so on. The points
(1 / 2,1) and (1 / 2,1) are on the top and bottom of the
bow , respectively, where there clearly are horizontal
tangents. The points (1,1) and (1,1) should not
seem quite right, though. These points are on the
extreme ends of the bow and certainly dont look like
they have vertical or horizontal tangents.
To find points where there is a vertical tangent, we
need to see where x (t ) 0 but y (t ) 0 . Setting
0 x (t ) 2 sin 2t , we get sin 2t 0 , which occurs if
2t 0, ,2 ,...
or t 0, / 2, ,... The corresponding points
are
x(0), y (0) cos 0, sin 0 (1,0)
x( ), y ( ) cos 2 , sin 3 (1,0)

Since y (t ) 3 cos 3t 0 , for t 0 or t , there is a vertical

tangent line only at the point (1,0) .
Theorem (2.1)
Suppose that x (t ) and y (t ) are continuous. Then for
the curve defined by the parametric equations x x(t )
and y y (t ) ,
(i)
if y(c) 0 and x (c) 0 , there is a horizontal
tangent line at the point ( x(c), y (c)) ,
(ii)
if x(c) 0 and y(c) 0 , there is a vertical tangent
line at the point ( x(c), y (c)) .
Recall that if the position of an object moving along
straight line is given by the differentiable function f(t),
the objects velocity is given by f (t ) . The situation with
24

parametric equations is completely similar. If the position

is given by ( x(c), y (c)) , for differentiable functions x(t )
and y (t ) , then the horizontal component of velocity is
given by x (t ) and the vertical component of velocity is
given by y (t ) ( see the figure below)

The speed can be defined to be x(t ) y (t ) . From this,

note that the speed is 0 if and only if x(t ) y (t ) 0 . In this
event, there is no horizontal no vertical motion.
2

Example
For the path of scrambler x 2 cos t sin 2t , y 2 sin t cos 2t , find
the horizontal and vertical component of velocity and
speed at times t 0 and t / 2 , and indicate the direction
of motion. Also determine all times at which the speed is
zero.
Solution
Here, the horizontal component of velocity is

25

dx
2 sin t 2 cos 2t
dt
dy
2 cos t 2 sin 2t.
dt

and the vertical component is

at t=0, the horizontal and vertical components of

velocity both equal 2 and the speed is 4 4 8 . The rider
is located at the point ( x(0), y (0)) (2,1) and is moving to the
right [ since x(0) 0 ]and ( vertical) and the speed is
16 0 4 . At this time, the rider is located at the point (0,1)
and is moving to the left

[ since x 2 0 ].
In general, the speed of the rider at time t is given by
s (t )

dx

dt

dy

dt

2 sin t 2 cos 2t 2 2 cos t 2 sin 2t 2

4 sin 2 t 8 sin t cos 2t 4 cos 2 2t 4 cos 2 t 8 cos t sin 2t 4 sin 2 2t

8 8 sin t cos 2t 8 cos t sin 2t

Using the identities

8 8 sin 3t

, sin 2t cos 2t 1 and

sin t cos 2t sin 2t cos t sin 3t , the speed is 0 whenever
sin 3t 1 . This occurs when 3t / 2,5 / 2,9 / 2,... ,
or t / 6,5 / 6,9 / 6,.... .
sin t cos 2 t 1
2

The corresponding points on the curve are

3
3
3
3

( x( / 6), y ( / 6))
3 , , ( x (5 / 6), y (5 / 6))
3 , , and
2
2
2

2
( x (9 / 6), y (9 / 6)) (0,3) . These points are the three tips of
the path seen in the figure below;

The Area
26

Referring to the last figure notice that the path begins and
ends at the same point and so, encloses an area. An
interesting question is to determine the area enclosed by
such curve. Computing areas in parametric equations is
a straightforward extension of the original development
of integration. Recall that for a continuous function f
defined on [a,b], where f ( x) 0 on [a,b], the area under
the curve y f (x) for a x b is given by :
b

f ( x )dx

ydx
a

Now, suppose that this same curve is described

parametrically by x x(t ) and y y(t ) , where the curve is
traversed exactly once for c t d . We can then compute
the area by making the substitution x x(t ) . It then
follows that dx x(t )dt and so, the area is given by
b

a y (t )

dx

x ( t ) dt

y (t ) x (t )dt ,
c

Where it is clear that we have changed the limits of

integration to match the new variable of integration. We
generalize this result in the following theorem
Theorem (2.2)
Suppose that the parametric equations x x(t ) and y y(t ) ,
with c t d , describe a curve that is traced out clockwise
exactly once, as t increases from c to d and where the
curve does not intersect itself, except that the initial and
terminal points are the same [ i.e., x(c) x(d ) and y (c) y (d )
]. Then the enclosed area is given by
d

A y (t ) x (t )dt x(t ) y (t )dt

(2.4)

27

If the curve is traced out counterclockwise, then the

enclosed area is given by
d

A y (t ) x(t ) dt x (t ) y (t )dt

(2.5)

The new area formulas given in theorem (2.2) turn to be

quite useful. We can use these to find the area enclosed
by a parametric curve.
Example :
Determine the area under the parametric curve given by ;
x 6( sin ),
y 6(1 cos )
, 0 2
Solution;
dx
6(1 cos ) dx 6(1 cos ) d
d

the area is then:

2

A 6(1 cos ).6(1 cos )d

0

36(1 cos ) 2 d
0

36 (1 2 cos cos 2 ) d
0

1
3

2 cos cos 2 d
2
2

36

1
3

36 2 sin sin 2
4
2

108

The parametric curve used in the previous example is

called a cycloid. Its general form is :
x r ( sin ),

y r ( cos )

28

it is like a wheel of radius r that is rolling to the right and

we are tracing the path of a point p that is initially
touching the ground. The point p will be back on the
ground after it has rotated ( 2 ).

Example
Find the area enclosed by the path of the scrambler
x 2 cos t sin 2t ,

y 2 sin t cos 2t

Solution
Notice that the curve is traced out counterclockwise once
for 0 t 2 . From (2.5), the area is then
A

x(t ) y (t )dt

(4 cos

(2 cos t sin 2t )(2 cos t 2 sin 2t )dt

t 2 cos t sin 2t 2 sin 2 2t )dt 2

Where the integration has been evaluated using a CAS.

Example
Find the area by the ellipse
( for constants a, b 0 ).

x2 y2

1
a2 b2

29

Solution
One way to compute the area is to solve the equation for
y to obtain
y b 1

and then integrate:

x 2
x 2

b
1

b
1

a 2
a 2
a
a

x2
a2

dx

This integration also can be evaluated by trigonometric

substitution or by using a CAS, but a simpler, more
elegant way to compute the area is to use parametric
equations . Notice that the ellipse is described
parametrically by x a cos t , y b sin t , for 0 t 2 . The ellipse
is then traced out counterclockwise exactly once for
0 t 2 , so that the area is given by (2.5) to be
2

A y (t ) x (t ) dt (b sin t )(a sin t ) dt ab sin 2 tdt ab

Where this last integral can be evaluated by using the

1
half-angle formula: sin t 2 (1 cos 2t )
2

30

Arc Length and Surface Area

In this section we investigate arc length and surface area
for curves defined parametrically. Along the way, we
explore one of the most famous and interesting curves in
mathematics.
Let C be the curve defined by the parametric equations
x x (t ) and y y (t ) , for a t b ( see the figure below)

Where x , x , y and y are continuous on the interval

[ a, b] . We further assume that the curve does not intersect
itself, except possibly at a finite number of points. Our
goal is to compute the length of the curve
( the arc length). We begin by constructing an
approximation.
First , we divide the t-interval [a, b] into n subintervals of
equal length, t :
a t 0 t1 t 2 ... t n b

Where

t i t i 1 t

ba
n

, for each

i 1,2,..., n

31

For each subinterval [t , t ] , we approximate the arc

length S of the portion of the curve joining the point
( x (t ), y (t )) to the point ( x (t ), y (t )) with the length of the
line segment joining these points. This approximation is
shown in the figure below:
i 1

i 1

i 1

for the case n=4. We have

si d ( x(t i 1), y (t i 1)), ( x(t i ), y (t i ))

x(t i ) x(t i 1 ) 2 y (t i ) y (t i 1 ) 2

Recall that from the mean value theorem , we have that :

x(t ) x(t ) x (c )(t t ) x (c )t , and
i 1

i 1

y (ti ) y (ti 1 ) y ( d i )(ti ti 1 ) y (d i )t

Where c and d are some points in the interval

This gives us :
i

si

(t i 1 , t i )

x(t i ) x(t i 1 ) 2 y(t i ) y(t i 1 ) 2

x (ci )t 2 y (d i )t 2
x (ci ) 2 y (d i ) 2 t

Notice that t is small, then c and d are close together.

So, we can make the further approximation
i

si

x(ci ) 2 y (ci ) 2 t

32

Taking the limit as n then gives us the exact arc

length which we should recognize as an integral:
n

s lim
n

i 1

x(ci ) 2 y(ci ) 2 t x(t ) 2 y(t ) 2 dt

a

We summarize this discussion in the following theorem.

Theorem (3.1)
For the curve defined parametrically by x x(t ), y y (t ) ,
a t b , if x and y are continuous on [ a, b] and the
curve does not intersect itself ( except possibly at a finite
number of points), then the arc length s of the curve is
given by
b

s
a

x(t ) 2 y (t ) 2 dt
a

dx

dt

dy
dt
dt

(3.1)

Example
Find the arc length of the scrambler curve
x 2 cos t sin 2t , y 2 sin t cos 2t , for 0 t 2 . Also, find the
average speed of the scrambler over this interval.

Solution
The curve is shown in the following figure:

33

First, note that x, x , y and y are all continuous on the

interval [ 0, 2]. From (3.1), we then have
b

dx

dt

s
a

dy
dt
dt

2 sin t 2 cos 2t

2 cos t 2 sin 2t dt
2

4 sin 2 t 8 sin t cos 2t 4 cos 2 2t 4 cos 2 t 8 cos t sin 2t 4 sin 2 2t dt

8 8 sin t cos 2t 8 cos t sin 2t dt

8 8 sin 3t dt 16

Since sin t cos 2t sin 2t cos t sin 3t , where we have

approximated the last integral numerically. To find the
average speed over the given interval, we simply divide
the arc length ( i.e., the distance traveled), by the total
time, 2 , to obtain
s ave

16
2.546
2

Theorem (3.1) allows the curve to intersect itself at a

finite number of points, but a curve cannot intersect itself
over an entire interval of values of the parameter t. To see
why this requirement is needed, notice that the
parametric equations x cos t , y sin t , for 0 t 4 , describe
the circle of radius 1 centered at the origin. However, the
circle is traversed twice as t ranges from 0 to 4 . If we
apply theorem (3.1) to this curve , we would obtain:
34

dx

dt

dy

dt

dt

( sin t ) 2 cos 2 t dt 4

Which corresponds to twice the arc length

( circumference) of the circle. As we can see, if a curve
intersects itself over an entire interval of values of t, the
arc length of such a portion of the curve is counted twice
by (3.1).
Example
Determine the length of the parametric curve given by :
x 3sin t ,
y 3cos t , 0 t 2
Solution
This is a circle of radius 3 centred at the origin . also it is
traversed only once in this range 0, 2 .
Hence , the length is :
L

dx dy

dt
dt dt

3cos t

3sin t dt
2

9(cos 2 t sin 2 t ) dt

3dt 3 t
0

3(2 ) 6
0

35

since this is a circle, length is equal to circumference

( 2r 6 )
on the other hand,. If we use:
x 3sin 2t ,
y 3cos 2t ,

dx
6 cos 2t ,
then:
dt

0 t 2

dy
6sin 2t , and the length
dt

is:
L

6 cos 2t

6sin 2t dt
2

36 cos 2 (2t ) sin 2 (2t ) dt

6dt 12
0

Example
An 8-foot-tall ladder stands vertically against a wall. The
bottom of the ladder is pulled along the floor , with the
top remaining in contact with the wall , until the ladder
rests flat on the floor. Find the distance traveled by the
midpoint of the ladder.
Solution
We first find parametric equations for the position of the
midpoint of the ladder. We orient the x- and y-axes as
shown in the figure below:
36

Let x denote the distance from the wall to the bottom of

the ladder and let y denote the distance from the floor to
the top of the ladder. Since the ladder is 8 feet long,
observe that x y 64 . defining the parameter t x , we
have y 64 t . The midpoint of the ladder has
x y
coordinates ( 2 , 2 )and so , parametric equations for the
midpoint are
2

1
x
(
t
)

y(t ) 1 64 t 2

When the ladder stands vertically against the wall, we

have x 0 and when it lies flat on the floor, x 8 . So
0 t 8 . The arc length is then given by
8

1

2

s
0

1
t

2
2 64 t

dt 1 1 t 2

4
64 t
0

dt

1
64
1
1
dt
dt
2
2 64 t
2 1 t / 8 2
0
0

37

Substituting u t / 8 gives us du 8 dt or dt 8du . For the

limits of integration, note that when t 0, u 0 and when
t 8, u 1 . The arc length is then
8

1
1
0 2 1 t / 8 2 dt

2
0

u 1
1
8du 4 sin 1 u
2
u 0
1 u

4
0 2
2

Surface Area
We can use the arc length formula to find a formula for
the surface area of a surface of revolution. Recall that if
the curve y f (x) for c x d is revolved about the x-axis (
see the figure below)
38

The surface area is given by :

d

Surface

Area 2
c

f ( x)

radius

1 f ( x) dx

2

arc

length

Let C be the curve defined by the parametric equations

x x (t ) and y y (t ) with a t b , where x, x , y and y are
continuous and where the curve does not intersect itself
for a t b . The corresponding formula for surface area
with parametric equations:
d

Surface

Area 2
c

y (t )

radius

x(t ) y(t ) dt

2

arc

length

More generally, we have that if the curve is revolved

about the line y c , the surface area is given by
d

Surface

Area 2
c

y (t ) c

radius

x(t ) y(t ) dt

2

arc length

39

Likewise, if we revolve the curve about the line x=d, the

surface area is given by:
d

Surface

Area 2
c

x (t ) d

radius

x(t ) y(t ) dt

2

arc

length

So the surface area has some thing common for all

formulas , that is
b

Surface

Area 2 ( radius )( arc

length) dt

Example
Find the surface area formed by revolving the half-ellipse
x
y

1,
y 0 about the x-axis ( see the figure)
9
4
2

Solution
It would be a mess to set up the integral for
x
y f ) x) 2 1
Instead , notice that we can represent the
9
curve by the parametric equations x 3 cos t , y 2 sin t , for
0 t . From the formula for surface area we have :
2

40

Surface

Area 2

(3 sin t ) 2 (2 cos t ) 2 dt

(2 sin t )

radius

arc

length

4 sin t 9 sin 2 t 4 cos 2 t dt

0

9 5 sin 1

5
10
3

67.7

Where we used a CAS to evaluate the integral.

Example
Determine the surface area of the solid obtained by
rotating the following parametric curve about the x-axis

x cos3 ,

y sin 3 , 0

Solution
First, evaluate the derivatives:
dx
3cos 2 sin ,
d

then, evaluate

ds

dy
3sin 2 cos
d

as following:

ds (3cos 2 sin ) 2 (3sin 2 cos ) 2 d

9 cos 4 sin 2 9sin 4 cos 2 d
9 cos 2 sin 2 (cos 2 sin 2 ) d
3cos sin d 3cos sin d

41

we can drop the sign of absolute value since both sine

and cosine are positive in the given range of

0 2

The surface area is then ;

S (2 y )ds
2

/2

sin

(3cos sin ) d

cos d

/2

sin
0

Let

u sin du cos d

, then

S 6 u 4 du
0

u 5
6
5

6
5

Example
Find the surface area of the surface formed by revolving
the curve x 2 sin 2t , y 3 cos 3t , for 0 t / 3 , about the line
x 2.
Solution
A sketch of the curve is shown in the figure below:
42

Since x-values on the curve are all less than 2 , the radius
of the solid of revolution is 2 x 2 2 sin 2t and so, the
surface area is given by
Surface

Area

/3

2t 3 sin 3t
2 (2 2 sin 2t ) 2 cos

0

radius

arc length

dt 20.1 where

we

have approximated the value of the integral numerically.

43

Polar Coordinates
A coordinate system represents a point in the plane by an
ordered pair of numbers called coordinates. Usually we
use Cartesian coordinates, which are directed distances
from two perpendicular axes. Here we describe a
coordinate system introduced by Newton, called the
polar coordinate system, which is more convenient for
many purposes.
We choose a point in the plane that is called the pole ( or
origin) and is labeled 0. Then we draw a ray ( half-line)
straight at 0 called the polar axis. This axis is usually
drawn horizontally to the right and corresponds to the
positive x-axis in Cartesian coordinates.
If p is any other point in the plane , let r be the distance
from 0 to p and let be the angle ( usually measured in
radius) between the polar axis and the line OP as in the
figure below

44

Then the point P is represented by the ordered pair ( r , )

and r , are called polar coordinates of P. we use the
convention that an angle is positive if measured in the
counterclockwise direction from the polar axis and the
negative in the clockwise direction. If P 0 , then r 0 and
we agree that (0, ) represents the pole for any value of .
We extend the meaning of polar coordinates ( r , ) to the
case in which r is negative by agreeing that, as in the
figure below , the points ( r , ) and ( r , ) lie on the same
line through 0 and at the same distance r from 0, but on
opposite sides of 0.

45

If

r 0,

the point ( r , ) lies in the same quadrant as ; if

r 0 , it lies in the in the quadrant on the opposite side of
the pole. Notice that ( r , ) represents the same point as
( r , ).

Example
Plot the points whose polar coordinates are given :
(a) (1,5 / 4)
(b) (2,3 )
( c) (2,2 / 3)
(d) (3,3 / 4)
Solution
The points are plotted in the following figures:

In part (d) the point (3,3 / 4) is located three units from

the pole in the fourth quadrant because the angle 3 / 4 is
in the second quadrant and r 3 is negative.
In the Cartesian coordinate system every point has only
one representation, but in the polar coordinate system
each point has many representations. For instance, the
point (1,5 / 4) in the above example could be written as
46

or (1,13 / 4) or (1, / 4)
(see the figures below)
(1,3 / 4)

In fact, since a complete counterclockwise rotation is

given by an angle 2, the point represented by polar
coordinates (r , ) is also represented by :
( r , 2n ) and ( r , ( 2n 1) ) where n is an integer.
The connection between polar and Cartesian coordinates
can be seen in the following figure

In which the pole corresponds to the origin and the polar

axis coincides with the positive x-axis. If the point P has
Cartesian coordinates ( x, y ) and the polar coordinates
( r , ) , then, from the figure , we have
cos

x
y
, sin
r
r

and also

x r cos

and

y r sin

(1)

Although equations (1) were deduced from the last

figure, which illustrates the case where r 0 and
47

0 /2,

these equations are valid for all values of r and

.
Equations (1) allows us to find the Cartesian coordinates
of a point when the polar coordinates are known. To find
r and when x and y are known, we use the equations
r 2 x 2 y 2 , tan

y
x

(2)

Which can be deduced from equations (1) or simply read

from the last figure.
Example
Convert the point
coordinates.

( 2, / 3)

from polar to Cartesian

Solution
Since r 2 and / 3 , equation (1) give

1
2. 1
3
2

3
y r sin 2 sin 2.
3
3
2

x r cos 2 cos

Therefore, the point is 1,

in Cartesian coordinates.

Example
48

Represent the point with Cartesian coordinates

terms of polar coordinates.

(1,1)

in

Solution
If we choose r to be positive, then equation (2) give
r

x 2 y 2 12 ( 1) 2 2

tan

y
1
x

Since the point (1,1) lies in the fourth quadrant, we can

choose / 4 or 7 / 4 . Thus , one possible answer is
2 , / 4 ; another is 2 ,7 / 4 .

Polar Curves
The graph of a polar equation
f ( r , ) 0 , consists of all points

, or more generally
that have at least one

r f ( )

49

polar representation
equation.

(r , )

whose coordinates satisfy the

Example
What curve is represented by the polar equation

r 2?

Solution
The curve consists of all points (r , ) with r 2 . Since r
represents the distance from the point to the pole, the
curve r 2 represents the circle with center 0 and radius 2.
In general, the equation r a represents a circle with
center 0 and radius a . ( see the figure)

Example
Sketch the curve 1 .

50

Solution
This curve consists of all points (r , ) such that the polar
angle is 1 radian. It is the straight line that passes
through 0 and makes an angle of 1 radian with the polar
axis ( see the figure)

Notice that the points (r ,1) on the line with r 0 are in

the first quadrant, whereas those with r 0 are in the third
quadrant.

Example
(a) Sketch the curve with polar equation
a Cartesian equation for this curve.

r 2 cos

Find

51

Solution
(a) In the following figure we find the values of r for
some convenient values of and plot the
corresponding points (r , ) .

Then we join these points to sketch the curve, which

appears to be a circle. We have used only values of
between 0 and , since if we let increase beyond ,
we obtain the same points again.
(b) To convert the given equation into Cartesian
equation we use equation (1) and (2) . From
x r cos we have cos x / r , so the equation r 2 cos
becomes r 2 x / r , which gives
2x r x y
or x y 2 x 0
Completing the square, we obtain
( x 1) y 1 which is an equation of a circle with
center (1,0) and radius 1. The following figure shows
the geometrical illustration that the circle has the
equation r 2 cos . The angle OPQ is a right angle and
so r / 2 cos
2

52

Example
Sketch the curve

r 1 sin

Solution
Instead of plotting the points as in the previous
example , we first sketch the graph of r 1 sin in

53

Cartesian coordinates as in the figure below by

shifting the sine curve up one unit.

This enables us to read at a glance the values of r that

correspond to increasing values of . For instance , we
see that as increases from 0 to / 2 , r ( the distance
from 0) increases from 1 to 2, so we sketch the
corresponding part of the polar curve in the following
figures

In (a) as increases from 0 to / 2 , r increases from

1 to 2, so we sketch the next part to the curve as in (b).
We see that as increases from / 2 to , r decreases
from 2 to 1. As increases from to 3 / 2 , r
decreases from 1 to 0 as in part ( c). Finally, as
increases from 3 / 2 to 2 , r increases from 0 to 1 as
in part (d).If we let increase beyond 2 or decrease
beyond 0, we would simply retrace our path. Putting
54

together the parts of the curve from figures (a) to (d) ,

we sketch the complete curve in part (e). It is called a
cardioid because its shaped like a heart.

Example
Sketch the curve

r cos 2

Solution
We first sketch r cos 2 , 0 2 , in Cartesian
coordinates in the following figure:

As increases from / 4 to / 2 , r goes from 0 to -1 as

in the part (1) in the following figure

55

This means that the distance from 0 increases from 0

to 1, but instead of being in the first quadrant this
portion of the polar curve ( indicated by 2) lies on the
opposite side of the pole in the third quadrant. The
remainder of the curve is drawn in a similar fashion,
with the arrows and numbers indicating the order in
which the portion are traced out. The resulting curve
has four loops and is called a four-leaved rose.

Areas and lengths in polar coordinates

In this section we develop the formula for the area of a
region whose boundary is given by a polar equation.

56

We need to use the formula for the area of a sector of a

circle
1
A r 2
2

(1)

where, as in the figure below , r is the radius and is

the radian measure of the central angle.

The formula above follows from the fact that the area
of a sector is proportional to its central angle:
A / 2 r 2

1 2
r
2

Let R be the origin, illustrated in the figure below,

bounded by the polar curve r f ( ) and by the rays a
and b , where f is a positive continuous function
and where 0 b a 2 .

57

We divide the interval [a, b] into subintervals with

endpoints , , ,..., and equal width . The rays
then divide R into n smaller regions with central
angle . If we choose in the i-th subinterval
[ , ] , then the area A of the ith region is
approximated by the area of the sector of a circle with
central angle and radius f ( ) ( see the figure
below)
0

i 1

*
i

i 1

*
i

Thus from formula (1) we have

1
A f (
2
* 2
i

and so an approximation to the total area

n

2
1
f ( i*
i 1 2

of

is

( 2)

It appears from the last figure that the approximation

in formula (2) improves as n . But the sums in

58

formula (2) are Riemann sums for the function

1
g ( ) f ( ) ,so
2
2

lim

n i 1

2
1
1
2
f ( i* f ( ) d
2
2
a

It therefore appears plausible and can be proved that

the formula for area A of the polar region R is
b

1
f ( ) 2 d
2
a

(3)

Formula (3) is often written as

b

1
A r 2 d
2
a

(4)

with the understanding that

r f ( )

Example
Find the area enclosed by one loop of the four-leaved
rose r cos 2 .
Solution
The curve r cos 2 was sketched in one of previous
examples as in the figure below

59

Notice that the region enclosed by the right loop is

swept out by a ray that rotates from / 4 to / 4 .
Therefore , formula (4) gives
A

/4

/4

1 2
1
r d
cos 2 2d

2
2
/ 4
/ 4

/4

/4

2
cos 2d

1
1

sin 4
2
4

1
(1 cos 4 )d
2

/4

Example
Find the area of the region that lies inside the circle
r 3 sin and outside the cardioid r 1 sin .
Solution
The cardioid and the circle are sketched in the
following figure and the desired region is shaded.

60

The values of a and b in formula (4) are determined by

finding the points of intersection of the two curves.
They intersect when 3 sin 1 sin , which gives sin 1 / 2 ,
so / 6, 5 / 6 . The desired area can be found by
subtracting the area inside the cardioid between / 6
and 5 / 6 from the area inside the circle from / 6
to 5 / 6 . Thus
A

1
2

5 / 6

5 / 6

/6

/6

1
2
2
3 sin d 2 1 sin d

Since the region is symmetric about the vertical axis

/ 2 , we can write
/2
1 /2

1
2

9
sin

1 2 sin sin 2 d

2 /6
2 /6

A 2

/2

8 sin

1 2 sin d

/6

/2

3 4 cos 2 2 sin d

/6

3 2 sin 2 2 cos

/2
/6

sin 2

1
1 cos 2
2

61

The last example illustrates the procedure for finding

the area of the region bounded by two polar curves .
in general , Let R be a region, that is bounded by
curves with polar equations r f ( ) , r g ( ) , a and
b , where f ( ) g ( ) 0 and 0 b a 2 ,as illustrated
in the following figure

The area A of R is found by subtracting the area inside

r g ( ) from the area inside r f ( ) , so using formula
(3) we have
b

1
f ( ) 2 d 1 g ( ) 2 d

2a
2a
b

1
f ( ) 2 g ( ) 2 d

2a

62

Conic Sections
In this section we give geometric definitions of
parabolas, ellipses, and hyperbolas and derive their
standard equations. They are called conic sections, or
conics, because they result from intersecting a cone with
a plane as shown in the following figures:

Parabolas
A parabola is the set of points in a plane that are
equidistant from a fixed point F ( called the focus) and a
fixed line ( called the directrix) . This definition is
illustrated by the following figure:

63

Notice that the point halfway between the focus and

directrix lies on the parabola; it is called vertex . The line
through the focus perpendicular to the directrix is called
the axis of the parabola.
We obtain a particularly simple equation for a parabola if
we place its vertex at the origin 0 and its directrix
parallel to the x-axis as in the figure below:

64

If the focus is the point (0, p) , then the directrix has the
equation ( y p) . If P( x, y ) is any point on the parabola,
then the distance from p to the focus is:

PF x 2 ( y p) 2
and the distance from p to the directrix is :

y p
the last figure illustrates the case where ( p 0) . The
defining property of a parabola is that these distances are
equal:

x 2 ( y p)2 y p
we get an equivalent equation by squaring and
simplifying:
2

x ( y p) y p ( y p)2
2

x y 2 py p y 2 py p
2

x 2 4 py
An equation of parabola with focus ( 0,p) and
directrix y=-p is x2 = 4py

(1)

65

If we write a 4 p , then the standard equation of a

parabola (1) becomes y ax . It opens upward if
( P 0) and downward if ( P 0) . The figures below
showing different cases:
2

If we interchange x and y in (1) we obtain :

y 4 px
2

(2)

Which is an equation of the parabola with focus

and directrix x p .
The parabola opens to the right if
( P 0) ( see the figure below)

( P 0)

(P,0)

and to the left if

66

In these both cases the graph is symmetric with respect

to x-axis, which is the axis of the parabola.

Example
Find the focus and the directrix of the parabola
y 10 x 0 and sketch the graph.
2

Solution
If we write the equation y 10 x and compare it with
equation (2) , we see that 4 p 10 , so p 5 / 2 . Thus, the
focus is ( p,0) (5 / 2,0) and the directrix is x 5 / 2 .
The sketch is shown in the following figure:
2

67

68

Ellipses
An ellipse is the set of points in a plane the sum of whose
distances from two fixed points F1 and F2 is a constant
( see the figure )

These two fixed points are called the foci ( plural of

focus) .
In order to obtain the simplest equation for an ellipse ,
we place the foci on the x-axis at the points (c,0) and
(c,0) as in the figure;

So that the origin is halfway between the foci. Let the

sum of the distances from a point on the ellipse to the
foci be 2a 0 .Then P( x, y ) is a point on the ellipse when :

69

PF1 PF2 2a
( x c ) 2 y 2 ( x c ) 2 y 2 2a
( x c ) 2 y 2 2a ( x c ) 2 y 2
squaring both sides , we have
x 2 2cx c 2 y 2 4a 2 4a ( x c ) 2 y 2 x 2 2cx c 2 y 2

which simplifies to :

a ( x c) 2 y 2 a 2 cx

we square again:

a 2 ( x 2 2cx c 2 y 2 ) a 2 2a 2cx c 2 x 2
which becomes : (a 2 c 2 ) x 2 a 2 y 2 a 2 (a 2 c 2 )
From triangle F F P in the last figure we see that
2c 2a , so c a and , therefore, a c 0 .
For convenience , let b a c . then the equation of the
ellipse becomes b x a y a b . If both sides are divided
by a b we obtain:
1

x2 y2
2 1
2
a
b

(3)

Since b a c a , it follows that b a .

The x-intercepts are found by setting y 0 . Then
, or x a , so x a .
2

x2 / a2 1

70

The corresponding points (a,0) and (a,0) are called the

vertices of the ellipse and the line segment joining the
vertices is called the major axis .
To find the y-intercepts we set x 0 and obtain y b , so
y b . equation (3) is unchanged if x is replaced by ( x )
or y is replaced by ( y ) , so the ellipse is symmetric
about both axes . Notice that if the foci coincide, then
c 0 , so a b and the ellipse becomes a circle with radius
r a b.
2

We summarize the discussion as follows

x2 y2
The ellipse 2 2 1
a
b
( c , 0)

, where

c2 a2 b2

abf 0

, and vertices

( a,0)

has foci
(4)

see the figure below

If the foci of an ellipse are located on the y-axis at

(0, c ) , then we can find its equation by interchanging x
and y in (4)
71

x2 y 2
The ellipse 2 2 1
b
a
(0, c )

where

c 2 a 2 b2

abf 0

and vertices

has foci

(0, a )

(5)

see the figure below

Example
Sketch the graph of

9 x 2 16 y 2 144

and locate the foci.

Solution
Divide both sides of the equation by 144 :

72

x2 y 2

1
16 9
The equation is now in the standard form for an ellipse ,
so we have a 16 , b 9 , a 4 , b 3 . The x-intercepts are
4 , and the y-intercepts are 3 . Also ,
c a b 7 , so c m 7 and the foci are m 7, 0 . the
graph is sketched in the following figure:
2

Example
Find an equation of the ellipse with foci
vertices (0,3) .

(0,2)

and

Solution

73

Using the notation of (5) , we have c 2 and a 3 . Then

we obtain b a c 9 4 5 , so the equation of the ellipse
is :
x2 y 2

1
5
9
2

Another way of writing the equation is 9 x 5 y 45

Hyperbolas
A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane the
difference of whose distances from two fixed points F1
and F2 ( the foci ) is a constant. This definition is
illustrated in the following figure :
2

Notice that the definition of the hyperbola is similar to

that of an ellipse : the only change is that the sum of
distances has become a difference of distances. In fact ,
the derivation of the equation of a hyperbola is also
similar to the one given earlier for an ellipse. hence the
foci are on the x-axis at (c,0) and the difference of the
distance is : PF1 PF2 2a , then the equation of
the hyperbola is :
74

x2 y2
2 1
2
a
b

(6)

where c a b . Notice that the x-intercepts are again a ,

and the points (a,0) and (a,0) are the vertices of the
hyperbola. But if we put x 0 in equation (6) we get
y b , which is impossible , so there is no y-intercept.
The hyperbola is symmetric with respect to both axes.
2

To analyse the hyperbola further , we look at equation 6

and obtain
x2
y2

1
a2
b2

this shows that x a , so x x a .

Therefore , we have x a or x a . This means that the
hyperbola consists of two parts, called the branches.
When we draw a hyperbola it is useful to first draw its
asymptotes, which are the dashed lines :
b
b
y x and y x shown in the figure below:
a
a
2

75

Both branches of the hyperbola approach the asymptotes;

that is , they come arbitrarily close to the asymptotes.
The hyperbola

x2 y2

1
a2 b2

, vertices

, and asymptotes

( a,0)

has foci

( c,0)

, where

b
y x
a

c2 a2 b2

(7)

If the foci of a hyperbola are on the y-axis, then by

reversing the roles of x and y we obtain the following
information , which is illustrated in the following figure:

The hyperbola
vertices

(0, a )

y2 x2

1
a2 b2

has foci

and asymptotes

(0, c )

, where

a
y x
b

c2 a2 b2

(8)

Example
Find the foci and asymptotes of the hyperbola
9 x 16 y 144
and sketch its graph.
2

76

Solution
If we divide both sides of the equation by 144, it
x
y
becomes : 16 9 1 which is of the form given in (7)
with a 4 and b 3 . Since c 16 9 25 , the foci are
3
3
(5,0) . The asymptotes are the lines y x and y x .
4
4
The graph is shown in the figure below:
2

Example
Find the foci and equation of hyperbola with vertices
(0,1) and asymptotes y 2 x .
Solution
From (8) and the given information , we see that a=1 and

a 1
5
5
a

2 . Thus b
and c a b . The foci are 0,
2
b
2 2
4

and the equation of the hyperbola is

2

y 2 4x 2 1

77

Shifted Conics
We can shift conics by taking the standard equations
discussed in (1),(2),(4),(5),(7),and (8) and replacing x
and y by ( x-h) and (y-k).

Example
Find an equation of the ellipse with foci
and vertices (1,2) , (5,2) .

( 2,2)

( 4,2)

Solution
The major axis is the line segment that joins the vertices
78

,
and has the length 4 , so a 2 . The distance
between the foci is 2, so c 1 . Thus , b a c 3 . Since the
center of the ellipse is (3,2) , we replace x and y in (4)
by ( x 3) and ( y 2) to obtain:
(1,2) (5,2)

( x 3) 2 ( y 2) 2

1
4
3

as the equation of the ellipse

Example
Sketch the conic

and find its foci

9 x 2 4 y 2 72 x 8 y 176 0

Solution
We complete the squares as follows:
4( y 2 2 y ) 9( x 2 8 x) 176
4( y 2 2 y 1) 9( x 2 8 x 16) 176 4 144
4( y 1) 2 9( x 4) 2 36
( y 1) 2 ( x 4) 2

1
9
4

This is in form (8) except that x and y are replaced by

( x 4) and ( y 1) . Thus , a 9, b 4, and c 13
2

79

The hyperbola is shifted four units to the right and one

unit upward. The foci are 4,1 13 and 4,1 13 and the
vertices are
( 4,4)

and

( 4,2)

. The asymptotes are

3
y 1 ( x 4)
2

The hyperbola is sketched in the following figure :

80