Trigonometry Handbook

MathHandbook
ofFormulas,ProcessesandTricks
Trigonometry
Preparedby:EarlL.Whitney,FSA,MAAA
Version1.09
January14,2015
Copyright20122015,EarlWhitney,RenoNV.AllRightsReserved
TrigonometryHandbook
Thisisaworkinprogressthatwilleventuallyresultinanextensivehandbookonthesubjectof
Trigonometry. In its current form, the handbook covers many of the subjects contained in a
Trigonometrycourse,butisnotexhaustive.Inthemeantime,wearehopefulthatthismaterial
willbehelpfultothestudent.Revisionstothishandbookwillbeprovidedonwww.mathguy.us
astheybecomeavailable.
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
Trigonometry Handbook
Table of Contents
Page
Description
6
6
7
7
7
8
9
Chapter1:FunctionsandSpecialAngles
Definitions(xandyaxes)
Radians
SineCosineRelationship
Definitions(RightTriangle)
SOHCAHTOA
TrigonometricFunctionsofSpecialAngles
TrigonometricFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
UnitCircle
10
11
12
14
16
18
20
22
Chapter2:GraphsofTrigFunctions
BasicTrigFunctions
TableofTrigFunctionCharacteristics
SineFunction
CosineFunction
TangentFunction
CotangentFunction
SecantFunction
CosecantFunction
24
24
25
Chapter3:InverseTrigonometricFunctions
Definitions
PrincipalValuesandRanges
GraphsofInverseTrigFunctions
26
27
Chapter4:VerifyingTrigonometricIdentities
StepsInvolvedinVerification
Techniques
30
30
30
31
31
31
32
32
32
32
Chapter5:KeyAngleFormulas
AngleAdditionFormulas
DoubleAngleFormulas
HalfAngleFormulas
PowerReducingFormulas
ProducttoSumFormulas
SumtoProductFormulas
Cofunctions
LawofSines
LawofCosines
PythagoreanIdentities
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Table of Contents
Page
Description
33
34
36
Chapter6:SolvinganObliqueTriangle
SummaryofMethods
TheAmbiguousCase
FlowchartfortheAmbiguousCase
37
37
38
38
Chapter7:AreaofaTriangle
GeometryFormula
Heron'sFormula
TrigonometricFormulas
CoordinateGeometryFormula
39
39
40
40
41
42
Chapter8:PolarCoordinates
Introduction
ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarCoordinates
ExpressingComplexNumbersinPolarForm
OperationsonComplexNumbersinPolarForm
DeMoivre'sTheorem
DeMoivre'sTheoremforRoots
43
43
44
44
45
47
48
49
Chapter9:PolarFunctions
PartsofthePolarGraph
Symmetry
GraphingMethods
GraphingwiththeTI84PlusCalculator
GraphTypes(Circles,Roses,Limaons)
Rose
Cardioid
ConvertingBetweenPolarandRectangularFormsofEquations
50
50
50
51
52
53
53
53
54
56
Chapter10:Vectors
Introduction
SpecialUnitVectors
VectorComponents
VectorProperties
DotProduct
VectorProjection
OrthogonalComponentsofaVector
Work
VectorCrossProduct
VectorTripleProducts
57
AppendixA
SummaryofPolarandRectangularForms
58
Index
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Table of Contents
UsefulWebsites
Mathguy.usDevelopedspecificallyformathstudentsfromMiddleSchooltoCollege,basedontheauthor's
extensiveexperienceinprofessionalmathematicsinabusinesssettingandinmathtutoring.Containsfree
downloadablehandbooks,PCApps,sampletests,andmore.
http://www.mathguy.us/
WolframMathWorldPerhapsthepremiersiteformathematicsontheWeb.Thissitecontainsdefinitions,
explanationsandexamplesforelementaryandadvancedmathtopics.
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/
KhanAcademySuppliesafreeonlinecollectionofthousandsofmicrolecturesviaYouTubeonnumerous
topics.It'smathandsciencelibrariesareextensive.
www.khanacademy.org
AnalyzeMathTrigonometryContainsfreeTrigonometrytutorialsandproblems.UsesJavaappletsto
exploreimportanttopicsinteractively.
http://www.analyzemath.com/Trigonometry.html
SchaumsOutline
Animportantstudentresourceforanyhighschoolorcollegemathstudentisa
SchaumsOutline.Eachbookinthisseriesprovidesexplanationsofthevarious
topicsinthecourseandasubstantialnumberofproblemsforthestudenttotry.
Manyoftheproblemsareworkedoutinthebook,sothestudentcanseeexamples
ofhowtheyshouldbesolved.
SchaumsOutlinesareavailableatAmazon.com,Barnes&Nobleandother
booksellers.
Note: This study guide was prepared to be a companion to most books on the subject of High School
Trigonometry. Precalculus (4th edition) by Robert Blitzer was used to determine some of the subjects to
include in this guide.
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TrigonometricFunctions
TrigonometricFunctions
( and axes)
Radians(
0
30
45
60
90
sin
sin
csc
cos
cos
sec
tan
tan
1
tan
cot
sin
cos
cot
cot
1
cot
tan
cos
sin
sec
sec
cos
csc
csc
sin
0 radians
6
4
3
2
sin
radians
sin
radians
sin
cos
cos
cos
radians
radians
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TrigonometricFunctionsandSpecialAngles
TrigonometricFunctions(RightTriangle)
SOHCAHTOA
sin
cos
tan
SpecialAngles
Radians
sin
sin
cos
cos
tan
tan
TrigFunctionsofSpecialAngles( )
Degrees
0
30
45
60
Version 1.09
90
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undefined
January 14, 2015
InquadrantsotherthanQuadrantI,trigonometricvaluesforanglesarecalculatedinthefollowing
manner:
DrawtheangleontheCartesianPlane.
Calculatethemeasureoftheanglefromthex
axisto.
Findthevalueofthetrigonometricfunctionof
theangleinthepreviousstep.
Assigna or signtothetrigonometric
valuebasedonthefunctionusedandthe
quadrantisin.
Examples:
inQuadrantIICalculate: 180
For
sin 60
120,baseyourworkon180
,so:
120
60
inQuadrantIIICalculate:
180
For
cos 30 ,so:
180
30
inQuadrantIVCalculate: 360
For
tan 45
1,so:
Version 1.09
315
45
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TheUnitCircle
TheUnitCirclediagrambelowprovides and valuesonacircleofradius1atkeyangles.Atany

pointontheunitcircle,the coordinateisequaltothecosineoftheangleandthe coordinateis
equaltothesineoftheangle.Usingthisdiagram,itiseasytoidentifythesinesandcosinesofangles
thatrecurfrequentlyinthestudyofTrigonometry.
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GraphsofBasic(Parent)TrigonometricFunctions
Thesineandcosecantfunctionsarereciprocals.So:
sin
1
csc
and
csc
sin
Thecosineandsecantfunctionsarereciprocals.So:
cos
1
sec
and
sec
cos
Thetangentandcotangentfunctionsarereciprocals.So:
tan
Version 1.09
1
cot
and
cot
Page 10 of 60
tan
January 14, 2015
SummaryofCharacteristicsandKeyPointsTrigonometricFunctionGraphs
Sine
Function:
Cosine
Tangent
Cotangent
Secant
Cosecant
ParentFunction
sin
Domain
cos
tan
, except
none
,where
none
Range
1, 1
1, 1
Period
,where isanInteger
intercepts
(1)
OddorEvenFunction
OddFunction
,where
isodd
EvenFunction
, except
,where
, except ,
where isanInteger
isodd
, 1 1,
,where isan
Integer
, 1 1,
csc
where isodd
,where isan
Integer
isodd
sec
, except ,
where isanInteger
where isodd
VerticalAsymptotes
cot
midwaybetween
asymptotes
midwaybetween
asymptotes
none
none
OddFunction
OddFunction
EvenFunction
OddFunction
sin
GeneralForm
Amplitude,Period,
PhaseShift,VerticalShift
when
| |,
(2)
cos
| |,
when
when
when
when
tan
| |,
Notes:
(1) Anoddfunctionissymmetricabouttheorigin,i.e.
| |,
| |,
verticalasymptote
csc
| |,
verticalasymptote
verticalasymptote
.Anevenfunctionissymmetricaboutthe axis,i.e.,
Page 11 of 60
sec
verticalasymptote
verticalasymptote
(2) AllPhaseShiftsaredefinedtooccurrelativetoastartingpointofthe axis(i.e.,theverticalline
Version 1.09
cot
verticalasymptote
verticalasymptote
verticalasymptote
0).
January 14, 2015
GraphofaGeneralSineFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofasinefunctionis:
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
| |.Theamplitudeisthemagnitudeofthestretchorcompressionofthe
Amplitude:
functionfromitsparentfunction:
sin .
Period:
.Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasineorcosine
function,thisisthelengthofonecompletewave;itcanbemeasuredfrompeaktopeakor
sin .
fromtroughtotrough.Notethat2istheperiodof
PhaseShift:
.Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation:
.So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift:
.Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
.
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation:
Example:
Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onewave,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow.
Forthisexample:
;
| |
Amplitude:
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
Version 1.09
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| |
January 14, 2015
GraphingaSineFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Awave(cycle)ofthesinefunctionhasthreezeropoints(pointsonthexaxis)
atthebeginningoftheperiod,attheendoftheperiod,andhalfwayinbetween.
Example:
.
Step1:PhaseShift:
Thefirstwavebeginsatthe
point unitstotherightof
theOrigin.
Step2:Period:
.
,
Thepointis:
.Thefirst
Thefirstwaveendsatthe
wherethewavebegins.
waveendsatthepoint:
Step3:Thethirdzeropoint
islocatedhalfwaybetween
thefirsttwo.
The pointis:
Step4:The valueofthe
pointhalfwaybetweenthe
leftandcenterzeropointsis
" ".
The pointis:
centerandrightzeropoints
The pointis:
is .
Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthefivekey
points.
Thiswillproducethegraph
ofonewaveofthefunction.
Step7:Duplicatethewave
totheleftandrightas
desired.
Version 1.09
Note:If
0,allpoints
onthecurveareshifted
verticallyby units.
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January 14, 2015
GraphofaGeneralCosineFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofacosinefunctionis:
Amplitude:
cos .
Period:
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasineorcosine
function,thisisthelengthofonecompletewave;itcanbemeasuredfrompeaktopeakor
cos .
fromtroughtotrough.Notethat2istheperiodof
PhaseShift:
.So,
VerticalShift:
.
Example:
is:y 3.Onewave,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow.
Forthisexample:
;
| |
Amplitude:
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
Version 1.09
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| |
January 14, 2015
GraphingaCosineFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Awave(cycle)ofthecosinefunctionhastwomaxima(orminimaif
0)
oneatthebeginningoftheperiodandoneattheendoftheperiodanda
minimum(ormaximumif
0)halfwayinbetween.
Example:
.
Step1:PhaseShift:
Thefirstwavebeginsatthe
thepoint , .
Step2:Period:
,
,
Thepointis:
.Thefirst
Thefirstwaveendsatthe
wherethewavebegins.
waveendsatthepoint:
pointhalfwaybetweenthose
inthetwostepsaboveis
"
".
Thepointis:
leftandcenterextremais
" ".
Thepointis:
centerandrightextremais
" ".
Thepointis:
Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthefivekey
points.
totheleftandrightas
desired.
Version 1.09
Note:If
0,allpoints
verticallyby units.
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January 14, 2015
GraphofaGeneralTangentFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofatangentfunctionis:
Amplitude:
tan .
Period:
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Foratangentor
cotangentfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutiveasymptotes(itisalso
tan .
thedistancebetween intercepts).Notethatistheperiodof
PhaseShift:
.So,
VerticalShift:
.
Example:
is:y 3.Onecycle,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow.
Notethat,forthe
tangentcurve,we
typicallygraphhalf
oftheprincipal
cycleatthepoint
ofthephaseshift,
andthenfillinthe
otherhalfofthe
cycletotheleft
(seenextpage).
Version 1.09
Forthisexample:
;
;
| |
Amplitude:
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
| |
Page 16 of 60
January 14, 2015
GraphingaTangentFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Acycleofthetangentfunctionhastwoasymptotesandazeropoint halfwayin
between.Itflowsupwardtotherightif
0anddownwardtotherightif
Example:
0.
Step1:PhaseShift:
Thefirstcyclebeginsatthe
zeropoint unitstothe
rightoftheOrigin.
Step2:Period:
.
,
Thepointis:
Placeaverticalasymptote
Therightasymptoteisat:
unitstotherightofthe
beginningofthecycle.
Step3:Placeavertical
asymptote
Theleftasymptoteisat:
unitstothe
leftofthebeginningofthe
cycle.
zeropointandtheright
asymptoteis" ".
The pointis:
leftasymptoteandthezero
pointis"
".
The pointis:
Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthethreekey
points,approachingthe
asymptotesoneachside.
totheleftandrightas
desired.
Note:If
0,allpoints
verticallyby units.
Trigonometry
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
GraphofaGeneralCotangentFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofacotangentfunctionis:
Amplitude:
cot .
Period:
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Foratangentor
cotangentfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutiveasymptotes(itisalso
cot .
thedistancebetween intercepts).Notethatistheperiodof
PhaseShift:
.So,
VerticalShift:
.
Example:
Notethat,forthe
cotangentcurve,
wetypicallygraph
theasymptotes
first,andthen
graphthecurve
betweenthem(see
nextpage).
Version 1.09
Forthisexample:
;
;
| |
Amplitude:
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
Page 18 of 60
| |
January 14, 2015
GraphingaCotangentFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Acycleofthecotangentfunctionhastwoasymptotesandazeropoint halfwayin
between.Itflowsdownwardtotherightif
0andupwardtotherightif
0.
Example:
.
Step1:PhaseShift:
Placeaverticalasymptote
unitstotherightofthe
axis.
Step2:Period:
.Theleft
asymptoteisat:
Placeanothervertical
asymptote unitstothe
rightofthefirstone.
Therightasymptoteisat:
Step3:Azeropointexists
halfwaybetweenthetwo
asymptotes.
Thepointis:
,
leftasymptoteandthezero
pointis" ".
The pointis:
zeropointandtheright
asymptoteis"
".
The pointis:
Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthethreekey
points,approachingthe
totheleftandrightas
desired.
Note:If
0,allpoints
verticallyby units.
Trigonometry
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
GraphofaGeneralSecantFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofasecantfunctionis:
Amplitude:
sec .
Period:
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasecantor
cosecantfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutivemaximaorminima(itis
sec .
alsothedistancebetweeneverysecondasymptote).Notethat2istheperiodof
PhaseShift:
.So,
VerticalShift:
.
Example:
OnecycleofthesecantcurvecontainstwoUshapedcurves,one
openingupandoneopeningdown.
Forthisexample:
;
;
| |
Amplitude:
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
Version 1.09
Page 20 of 60
| |
January 14, 2015
GraphingaSecantFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Acycleofthesecantfunctioncanbedevelopedbyfirstplottingacycleofthe
correspondingcosinefunctionbecausesec
Thecosinefunctionszeropointsproduceasymptotesforthesecantfunction.
Maximaforthecosinefunctionproduceminimaforthesecantfunction.
Minimaforthecosinefunctionproducemaximaforthesecantfunction.
SecantcurvesareUshaped,alternatelyopeningupandopeningdown.
Theequationofthe
correspondingcosine
functionfortheexampleis:
Step1:Graphonewaveof
thecorrespondingcosine
function.
Example:
Step2:Asymptotesforthe
secantfunctionoccuratthe
zeropointsofthecosine
function.
Thezeropointsoccurat:
Step3:Eachmaximumof
thecosinefunction
representsaminimumfor
thesecantfunction.
Cosinemaximaand,
therefore,secantminimaare
Step4:Eachminimumof
thecosinefunction
representsamaximumfor
thesecantfunction.
Thecosineminimum and,
therefore,thesecant
Secantasymptotesare:
at:
and
, 4 and
maximumisat:
Step5:DrawsmoothU
shapedcurvesthrougheach
keypoint,approachingthe
,4
, 4
totheleftandrightas
desired.Erasethecosine
functionifnecessary.
, 0
, 0 and
Note:If
0,allpoints
verticallyby units.
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
GraphofaGeneralCosecantFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofacosecantfunctionis:
Amplitude:
csc .
Period:
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasecantor
cosecantfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutivemaximaorminima(itis
csc .
alsothedistancebetweeneverysecondasymptote).Notethat2istheperiodof
PhaseShift:
.So,
VerticalShift:
.
Example:
OnecycleofthecosecantcurvecontainstwoUshapedcurves,one
openingupandoneopeningdown.
Forthisexample:
;
;
| |
Amplitude:
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
Version 1.09
Page 22 of 60
| |
January 14, 2015
GraphingaCosecantFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Acycleofthecosecantfunctioncanbedevelopedbyfirstplottingacycleofthe
correspondingsinefunctionbecausecsc
Thesinefunctionszeropointsproduceasymptotesforthecosecantfunction.
Maximaforthesinefunctionproduceminimaforthecosecantfunction.
Minimaforthesinefunctionproducemaximaforthecosecantfunction.
CosecantcurvesareUshaped,alternatelyopeningupandopeningdown.
Theequationofthe
correspondingsinefunction
fortheexampleis:
Step1:Graphonewaveof
thecorrespondingsine
function.
Example:
Step2:Asymptotesforthe
cosecantfunctionoccurat
thezeropointsofthesine
function.
Thezeropointsoccurat:
,0 ,
,0 ,
,0
Cosecantasymptotesare:
Step3:Eachmaximumof
thesinefunctionrepresents
aminimumforthecosecant
function.
Thesinemaximumand,
therefore,thecosecant
minimumisat: , 4
Step4:Eachminimumof
thesinefunctionrepresents
amaximumforthecosecant
function.
Thesineminimumand,
therefore,thecosecant
maximumisat:
Step5:DrawsmoothU
shapedcurvesthrougheach
keypoint,approachingthe
totheleftandrightas
desired.Erasethesine
functionifnecessary.
, 4
Note:If
0,allpoints
verticallyby units.
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
InverseTrigonometricFunctions
Inversetrigonometricfunctionsaskthequestion:whichangle hasafunctionvalueof ?Forexample:
sin
0.5 askswhichanglehasasinevalueof0.5.Itisequivalentto:sin
tan
1askswhichanglehasatangentvalueof1.Itisequivalentto:tan
0.5.
1.
PrincipalValuesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Thereareaninfinitenumberofanglesthatanswerthesequestions.
So,mathematicianshavedefinedaprincipalsolutionforproblems
involvinginversetrigonometricfunctions.Theanglewhichisthe
principalsolution(orprincipalvalue)isdefinedtobethesolutionthat
liesinthequadrantsidentifiedinthefigureatright.Forexample:
Thesolutionsto
2
sin
0.5are
.Thatis,thesetofallsolutionstothisequationcontainsthe
twosolutionsintheinterval 0, 2 ,aswellasallanglesthatare
integermultiplesof2 lessorgreaterthanthosetwoangles.
Giventheconfusionthiscancreate,mathematiciansdefineda
principalvalueforthesolutiontothesekindsofequations.
Theprincipalvalueof forwhich
0.5liesinQ1because0.5ispositive,andis
sin
RangesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Therangesoftheinversetrigonometric
functionsaretherangesoftheprincipalvalues
ofthosefunctions.Atablesummarizingthese
isprovidedinthetableatright.
RangesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Function
sin
AnglesinQ4aregenerallyexpressedas
negativeangles.
cos
tan
Range
2
0
2
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
GraphsofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Version 1.09
Page 25 of 60
January 14, 2015
VerifyingIdentities
AsignificantportionofanytrigonometrycoursedealswithverifyingTrigonometricIdentities,i.e.,
statementsthatarealwaystrue(assumingthetrigonometricvaluesinvolvedexist).Thissection
dealswithhowthestudentmayapproachverificationofidentitiessuchas:
1
tan
sin
InverifyingaTrigonometricIdentity,thestudentisaskedtoworkwithonlyonesideoftheidentity
and,usingthestandardrulesofmathematicalmanipulation,derivetheotherside.Thestudentmay
workwitheithersideoftheidentity,sogenerallyitisbesttoworkonthesidethatismostcomplex.
Thestepsbelowpresentastrategythatmaybeusefulinverifyingidentities.
VerificationSteps
1. Identifywhichsideyouwanttoworkon.LetscallthisSideA.Letscallthesideyouarenot
workingonSideB.So,youwillbeworkingonSideAtomakeitlooklikeSideB.
a. Ifonesidehasamultipleofanangle(e.g.,tan 3 )andtheothersidedoesnot(e.g.,
cos ),workwiththesidethathasthemultipleofanangle.
b. Ifonesidehasonlysinesandcosinesandtheotherdoesnot,workwiththeonethat
doesnothaveonlysinesandcosines.
c. Ifyougetpartwaythroughtheexerciseandrealizeyoushouldhavestartedwiththe
otherside,startoverandworkwiththeotherside.
2. Ifnecessary,investigateSideBbyworkingonitalittle.Thisisnotaviolationoftherulesas
longas,inyourverification,youcompletelymanipulateSideAtolooklikeSideB.Ifyou
choosetoinvestigateSideB,moveyourworkoffalittletothesidesoitisclearyouare
investigatingandnotactuallyworkingsideB.
3. Simplifyasmuchaspossiblefirst,butremembertolookattheothersidetomakesureyou
aremovinginthatdirection.Dothisalsoateachstepalongtheway,aslongasitmakesSide
AlookmorelikeSideB.
a. UsethePythagoreanIdentitiestosimplify,e.g.,ifonesidecontains 1 sin
and
withcos .
theothersidecontainscosinesbutnotsines,replace 1 sin
b. Changeanymultiplesofangles,halfangles,etc.toexpressionswithsingleangles(e.g.,
replacesin 2 with2 sin cos ).
c. Lookfor1s.Oftenchanginga1intosin
cos willbehelpful.
4. RewriteSideAintermsofsinesandcosines.
5. Factorwherepossible.
6. SeparateorcombinefractionstomakeSideAlookmorelikeSideB.
Thefollowingpagesillustrateanumberoftechniquesthatcanbeusedtoverifyidentities.
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques
Technique:InvestigateBothSides
Often,whenlookingatanidentity,itisnotimmediatelyobvioushowtoproceed.Inmanycases,
investigatingbothsideswillprovidethenecessaryhintstoproceed.
Example:
1
1
sin cos
1
1

sin
cos
cot
cot
Yuk!Thisidentitycontainsalotoffunctionsthataredifficulttodealwith.Letsinvestigateitby
convertingtosinesandcosinesonbothsides.Notethatontheright,Imovemynewfractionoff
tothesidetoindicateIaminvestigatingonly.Idothisbecausewemustverifyanidentityby
workingonlyonesideuntilwegettheotherside.
1
1
cos
sin
1
1

sin
cos
cos
cos
cos
sin
cos
cos

sin
cos
NoticethatIchangedeach1intheexpressionontherightto
becauseIwanttoget
somethingthatlooksmoreliketheexpressionontheright.
LookingatwhatIhavenow,Inoticethatthetwoexpressionslookalotalike,exceptthatevery
placeIhavea1intheexpressionontheleftIhavecos intheexpressionontheright.
Whatismynextstep?Ineedtochangeallthe1sintheexpressiononthelefttocos .Icando
thismymultiplyingtheexpressionontheleftby
1
1
cos
cos
sin

1
1
cos

sin
cos

cot
cot
Noticethatthismatchestheorangeexpressionabove.
1

1
cot
cot
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VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques(contd)
Technique:BreakaFractionintoPieces
Whenafractioncontainsmultipletermsinthenumerator,itissometimesusefultobreakitinto
separateterms.Thisworksespeciallywellwhenthenumeratorhasthesamenumberoftermsas
existontheothersideoftheequalsign.
Example:

cos
cos cos
tan tan
First,itsagoodideatoreplacecos

withitsequivalent:
cos cos
sin sin
cos cos
Next,breakthefractionintotwopieces:

cos cos
sin sin

cos cos
cos cos
Finally,simplifytheexpression:
1
sin
cos
sin
cos
tan tan
tan tan
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques(contd)
Technique:GetaCommonDenominatoronOneSide
Whenafractioncontainsmultipletermsinthenumerator,itissometimesusefultobreakitinto
separateterms.Thisworksespeciallywellwhenthenumeratorhasthesamenumberoftermsas
existontheothersideoftheequalsign.
Example:

1
cos

sin
sin
cos
Ifweweretosolvethislikeanequation,wemightcreateacommondenominator.Remember,
however,thatwecanonlyworkononeside,sowewillusethecommondenominatoronlyon
thatside.Inthisexample,thecommondenominatorwouldbe:cos 1 sin .

cos
cos

cos
1 sin
cos
cos 1
sin
Oncewehaveinsertedthedenominatorfromtherightsideintheexpressionontheleft,therest
oftheexpressionshouldsimplify.Tokeepthecos intheexpression,weneedtoworkwiththe
numerator.Acommonsubstitutionistoworkbackandforthbetweensin andcos .

1 sin
cos 1 sin
Noticethatthenumeratorisadifferenceofsquares.Letsfactorit.
1
sin
1 sin
cos 1 sin
Finally,wesimplifybyeliminatingthecommonfactorinthenumeratoranddenominator.

sin

cos
sin
cos
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KeyAngleFormulas
sin
sin
sin cos cos sin

sin cos cos sin
tan
cos
cos
cos cos
cos cos
tan
cos 2

sin sin
sin sin
DoubleAngleFormulas
sin 2 2 sin cos

tan 2
cos
sin
1 2 sin
2 cos
1
HalfAngleFormulas
Theuseofa+orsigninthehalfangle
sin
cos
formulasdependsonthequadrantinwhich
theangle resides.Seechartbelow.
SignsofTrigFunctions
ByQuadrant
tan
sin+
sin+
cos
cos+
tan
tan+
x
sin
sin
cos
cos+
tan+
tan
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January 14, 2015
KeyAngleFormulas(contd)
sin
tan
cos

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January 14, 2015
KeyAngleFormulas(contd)
Cofunctions
EachtrigonometricfunctionhasacofunctionwithsymmetricpropertiesinQuadrantI.Thefollowing
identitiesexpresstherelationshipsbetweencofunctions.
sin
cos 90
cos
sin 90
tan
cot 90
cot
tan 90
sec
csc 90
csc
sec 90
A
c
LawofSines(seeaboveillustration)
PythagoreanIdentities(foranyangle)
sin
cos
sec
tan
csc
cot
LawofCosines(seeaboveillustration)
cos
cos
cos
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January 14, 2015
SolvinganObliqueTriangle
Severalmethodsexisttosolveanobliquetriangle,i.e.,atrianglewithnorightangle.Theappropriate
methoddependsontheinformationavailableforthetriangle.Allmethodsrequirethatthelengthof
atleastonesidebeprovided.Inaddition,oneortwoanglemeasuresmaybeprovided.Notethatif
twoanglemeasuresareprovided,themeasureofthethirdisdetermined(becausethesumofall
threeanglemeasuresmustbe180).Themethodsusedforeachsituationaresummarizedbelow.
GivenThreeSidesandnoAngles(SSS)
Giventhreesegmentlengthsandnoanglemeasures,dothefollowing:
UsetheLawofCosinestodeterminethemeasureofoneangle.
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethemeasureofoneofthetworemainingangles.
Subtractthesumofthemeasuresofthetwoknownanglesfrom180toobtainthemeasure
oftheremainingangle.
GivenTwoSidesandtheAnglebetweenThem(SAS)
Giventwosegmentlengthsandthemeasureoftheanglethatisbetweenthem,dothefollowing:
UsetheLawofCosinestodeterminethelengthoftheremainingleg.
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethemeasureofoneofthetworemainingangles.
GivenOneSideandTwoAngles(ASAorAAS)
Givenonesegmentlengthandthemeasuresoftwoangles,dothefollowing:
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethelengthsofthetworemaininglegs.
GivenTwoSidesandanAnglenotbetweenThem(SSA)
ThisistheAmbiguousCase.Severalpossibilitiesexist,dependingonthelengthsofthesidesandthe
measureoftheangle.Thepossibilitiesarediscussedonthenextseveralpages.
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SolvinganObliqueTriangle(contd)
TheAmbiguousCase(SSA)
Giventwosegmentlengthsandananglethatisnotbetweenthem,itisnotclearwhetheratriangleis
defined.Itispossiblethatthegiveninformationwilldefineasingletriangle,twotriangles,orevenno
triangle.Becausetherearemultiplepossibilitiesinthissituation,itiscalledtheambiguouscase.
Herearethepossibilities:
Therearethreecasesinwhich
Case1:
Producesnotrianglebecause isnotlongenoughtoreachthebase.
Case2:
Producesone(right)trianglebecause isexactlylongenoughtoreachthe
base. formsarightanglewiththebase,andistheheightofthetriangle.
Producestwotrianglesbecause istherightsizetoreachthebaseintwo
Case3:
places.Theanglefromwhich swingsfromitsapexcantaketwovalues.
Thereisonlyonecaseinwhich
Case4:
Producesonetrianglebecause isnotlongenoughtoreachthebase.
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January 14, 2015
SolvingaTriangle(contd)
SolvingtheAmbiguousCase(SSA)
Howdoyousolvethetriangleineachofthecasesdiscussedabove.Assumetheinformationgivenis
thelengthsofsides and ,andthemeasureofAngle .Usethefollowingsteps:
Step1:Calculatethesineofthemissingangle(inthisdevelopment,angle ).
Step2:Considerthevalueofsin :
Ifsin
Ifsin
Step1:Use
sin
sin
1,thenwehaveCase1thereisnotriangle.Stophere.
1,then
90,andwehaveCase2arighttriangle.ProceedtoStep4.
Ifsin
1,thenwehaveCase3orCase4.Proceedtothenextsteptodeterminewhich.
Step3:Considerwhether
If
,thenwehaveCase3twotriangles.Calculatethevaluesofeachangle ,usingthe
LawofSines.Then,proceedtoStep4andcalculatetheremainingvaluesforeachtriangle.
If
,thenwehavecase4onetriangle.ProceedtoStep4.
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
SolvinganObliqueTriangle(contd)
SolvingtheAmbiguousCase(SSA)contd
Step4:Calculate .Atthispoint,wehavethelengthsofsides and ,andthemeasuresofAngles
and .IfwearedealingwithCase3twotriangles,wemustperformSteps4and5foreachangle.
180
Step4istocalculatethemeasureofAngle asfollows:
Step5:Calculate .Finally,wecalculatethevalueof usingtheLawofSines.Notethatinthecase

wheretherearetwotriangles,thereisanAngle ineach.So,theLawofSinesshouldbeused
relatingAngles and .

sin

sin
sin
sin
AmbiguousCaseFlowchart
Start Here
Value of
sin
yes
Is
no
Two triangles
Version 1.09
Calculate , and then .

Steps 4 and 5, above
Page 36 of 60
January 14, 2015
AreaofaTriangle
AreaofaTriangle
Therearetwoformulasfortheareaofatriangle,dependingonwhatinformationaboutthetriangle
isavailable.
Formula1:Theformulamostfamiliartothestudentcanbeusedwhenthebaseandheightofthe
triangleareeitherknownorcanbedetermined.
where, isthelengthofthebaseofthetriangle.
istheheightofthetriangle.
Note:Thebasecanbeanysideofthetriangle.Theheightisthemeasureofthealtitudeof
whicheversideisselectedasthebase.So,youcanuse:
or
or
Formula2:Heronsformulafortheareaofatrianglecanbeusedwhen
thelengthsofallofthesidesareknown.Sometimesthisformula,though
lessappealing,canbeveryuseful.
where,
Note: issometimescalledthesemiperimeterofthetriangle.
, , arethelengthsofthesidesofthetriangle.
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
AreaofaTriangle(contd)
Thefollowingformulasfortheareaofatrianglecomefromtrigonometry.Whichoneisused
dependsontheinformationavailable:
Twoanglesandaside:
Twosidesandanangle:
CoordinateGeometry
Ifthethreeverticesofatrianglearedisplayedinacoordinateplane,theformulabelow,usinga
determinant,willgivetheareaofatriangle.
Letthethreepointsinthecoordinateplanebe: ,
,
,
,
triangleisonehalfoftheabsolutevalueofthedeterminantbelow:
.Then,theareaofthe
Example:Forthetriangleinthefigureatright,theareais:
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
PolarCoordinates
PolarcoordinatesareanalternativemethodofdescribingapointinaCartesianplanebasedonthe
distanceofthepointfromtheoriginandtheanglewhoseterminalsidecontainsthepoint.First,lets
investigatetherelationshipbetweenapointsrectangularcoordinates , anditspolar
coordinates , .
Themagnitude,r, isthedistanceofthepointfromtheorigin:
Theangle,,istheanglewhoseterminalsidecontainsthepoint.Generally,thisangleisexpressedin
radians,notdegrees.
tan
or
tan
Conversionfrompolarcoordinatestorectangularcoordinatesisstraightforward:
cos and
sin
Example1:Expresstherectangularform(4,4)inpolar
coordinates:
Given:
4
4
4
tan
so
tan
42
tan
So,thecoordinatesofthepointareasfollows:
Rectangularcoordinates:
Example2:Expressthepolarform(42,
1 inQuadrantII,
Given:
42
4, 4
PolarCoordinates: 42,
)inrectangularcoordinates:
cos
42 cos
42
sin
42 sin
42
So,thecoordinatesofthepointareasfollows:
PolarCoordinates: 42,
Version 1.09
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Rectangularcoordinates:
4, 4
January 14, 2015
PolarFormofComplexNumbers
ExpressingComplexNumbersinPolarForm
AcomplexnumbercanberepresentedaspointintheCartesianPlane,usingthehorizontalaxisfor
therealcomponentofthenumberandtheverticalaxisfortheimaginarycomponentofthenumber.
Ifweexpressacomplexnumberinrectangularcoordinatesas
,wecanalsoexpressitin
polarcoordinatesas
cos
sin ,with 0, 2 .Then,theequivalencesbetweenthe
twoformsfor are:
ConvertRectangulartoPolar
Magnitude:| |
tan
Angle:
ConvertPolartoRectangular
Since willgenerallyhavetwovalueson 0, 2
quadrantinwhich
resides.
xcoordinate:
cos
ycoordinate:
sin
,youneedtobecarefultoselecttheangleinthe
cos
Anotherexpressionthatmaybeusefulis:
asanexponentialformof .Thatis:
sin ,acomplexnumbercanbeexpressed
cos
sin
Itisthisexpressionthatisresponsibleforthefollowingrulesregardingoperationsoncomplex
numbers.Let:
cos
sin ,
cos
sin .Then,
Multiplication:
cos
sin
So,tomultiplycomplexnumbers,youmultiplytheirmagnitudesandaddtheirangles.
Division:
cos
sin
So,todividecomplexnumbers,youdividetheirmagnitudesandsubtracttheirangles.
Powers:
cos
sin
Thisresultsdirectlyfromthemultiplicationrule.
Roots:
cos
sin
also,seeDeMoivresTheorembelow
Thisresultsdirectlyfromthepowerruleiftheexponentisafraction.
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
DeMoivresTheorem
AbrahamdeMoivre(16671754)wasaFrenchmathematicianwhoprovideduswithaveryuseful
Theoremfordealingwithoperationsoncomplexnumbers.
Ifwelet
page:
cos
sin
,DeMoivresTheoremgivesusthepowerruleexpressedontheprior
cos
Example1:Find
,wehave
3and
First,since
Then,
And,
tan
831.542 ~ 111.542
So,
sin
4;
7.
4,096
138.590inQ II
4,096 cos 111.542
1,504.0
sin 111.542
3,809.9
Example2:Find
2and
First,since
,wehave
Then,
And,
tan
1,109.052 ~ 29.052
So,
212.4
3;
243
221.810inQIII
7.
243 cos 29.052
sin 29.052
118.0
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
DeMoivresTheoremforRoots
Let
cos
sin
.Then, has distinctcomplex throotsthatoccupypositions
equidistantfromeachotheronacircleofradius .Letscalltheroots: ,
rootscanbecalculatedasfollows:
2
cos
sin
, ,
Then,these
Theformulacouldalsoberestatedwith2 replacedby360ifthishelpsinthecalculation.
Example:Findthefifthrootsof
.
2and
,wehave
3.
First,since
Then,
And,
Theincrementalangleforsuccessiverootsis:360
Thencreateachartlikethis:
13;
tan
56.310;
Fifthrootsof

13 ~ 1.2924
Angle(
11.262
5 roots
72.
11.262
1.2675
0.2524
11.262
72
60.738
0.6317
1.1275
60.738
72
132.738
0.8771
0.9492
132.738
72
204.738
1.1738
0.5408
204.738
72
276.738
0.1516
1.2835
Noticethatifweaddanother72,weget348.738,whichisequivalenttoourfirstangle,
11.262because 348.738 360
11.262.Thisisagoodthingtocheck.Thenext
anglewillalwaysbeequivalenttothefirstangle!Ifitisnt,gobackandcheckyourwork.
Rootsfitonacircle:Noticethat,sincealloftherootsof
havethesamemagnitude,andtheiranglesthatare72apartfrom
eachother,thattheyoccupyequidistantpositionsonacirclewith
center 0, 0 andradius
13 ~ 1.2924.
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
PolarGraphs
Typically,PolarGraphswillbeplottedonpolargraphssuchastheone
illustratedatright.Onthisgraph,apoint , canbeconsideredtobethe
intersectionofthecircleofradius andtheterminalsideoftheangle (see
theillustrationbelow).
PartsofthePolarGraph
Theillustrationbelowshowsthekeypartsofapolargraph,alongwithapoint, 4,
ThePoleisthepoint 0, 0 (i.e.,theorigin).
ThePolarAxisisthe axis.
TheLine:
isthe axis.
Manyequationsthatcontainthecosine
functionaresymmetricaboutthePolarAxis.
Manyequationsthatcontainthesine
functionaresymmetricabouttheline
.
PolarEquationsSymmetry
Followingarethethreemaintypesofsymmetryexhibitedinmanypolarequationgraphs:
Symmetryabout:
QuadrantsContainingSymmetry
SymmetryTest(1)
ThePole
Opposite(IandIIIorIIandIV)
ThePolarAxis
Leftorrighthemispheres(IIandIII
Replace with intheequation
or IandIV)
TheLine
(1)
Upperorlowerhemispheres(Iand
IIorIIIandIV)
Replace with intheequation
Replace ,
equation
with
inthe
Ifperformingtheindicatedreplacementresultsinanequivalentequation,theequationpasses
thesymmetrytestandtheindicatedsymmetryexists.Iftheequationfailsthesymmetrytest,
symmetrymayormaynotexist.
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
GraphsofPolarEquations
GraphingMethods
Method1:Pointplotting
Createatwocolumnchartthatcalculatesvaluesof forselectedvaluesof .Thisisakintoa

twocolumnchartthatcalculatesvaluesof forselectedvaluesof thatcanbeusedtoplota
rectangularcoordinatesequation(e.g.,
4
3).
The valuesyouselectforpurposesofpointplottingshouldvarydependingontheequation
youareworkingwith(inparticular,thecoefficientof intheequation).However,asafebet
istostartwithmultiplesof 6(including
0).Ploteachpointonthepolargraphand
seewhatshapeemerges.Ifyouneedmoreorfewerpointstoseewhatcurveisemerging,
adjustasyougo.
Ifyouknowanythingaboutthecurve(typicalshape,symmetry,etc.),useittofacilitate
plottingpoints.
Connectthepointswithasmoothcurve.Admiretheresult;manyofthesecurvesare
aestheticallypleasing.
Method2:Calculator
UsingaTI84PlusCalculatororitsequivalent,dothefollowing:
Makesureyourcalculatorissettoradiansandpolarfunctions.HittheMODE
key;selectRADIANSinrow4andPOLARinrow5.Afteryoudothis,hitting
CLEARwillgetyoubacktothemainscreen.
HitY=andentertheequationintheform
.UsetheX,T, ,nkeyto
,youmay
enterintotheequation.Ifyourequationisoftheform
needtoentertwofunctions,
and
,andplotboth.
HitGRAPHtoplotthefunctionorfunctionsyouenteredinthepreviousstep.
Ifnecessary,hitWINDOWtoadjusttheparametersoftheplot.
o Ifyoucannotseethewholefunction,adjusttheXandYvariables(oruseZOOM).
o Ifthecurveisnotsmooth,reducethevalueofthe stepvariable.Thiswillplotmore
pointsonthescreen.Notethatsmallervaluesof steprequiremoretimetoplotthe
curve,sochooseavaluethatplotsthecurvewellinareasonableamountoftime.
o Iftheentirecurveisnotplotted,adjustthevaluesofthe minand maxvariablesuntil
youseewhatappearstobetheentireplot.
Note:Youcanviewthetableofpointsusedtographthepolarfunctionbyhitting2NDTABLE.
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
GraphTypes(PolarEquations)
Circle
Equation:
sin
Location:
abovePolarAxisif
belowPolarAxisif
Radius: /2
Symmetry:Line
cos
Equation:
Location:
0
rightofline
/2if
0
leftofline
/2if
Radius: /2
/2
0
0
Equation:
Location:
CenteredonthePole
Radius:
Symmetry:PolarAxis
Symmetry:Pole,PolarAxis,
Line
/2
Rose
Characteristicsofroses:
Equation:
sin
o Symmetricabouttheline
/2( axis)
Equation:
cos
o SymmetricaboutthePolarAxis( axis)
Containedwithinacircleofradius
If isodd,therosehas petals.
If iseventherosehas2 petals.
Notethatacircleisarosewithonepetal(i.e,
1).
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
GraphsofPolarEquations
LimaonofPascal
sin
Equation:
0
0
Location:bulbabovePolarAxisif
bulbbelowPolarAxisif
/2
Symmetry:Line
cos
Equation:
Location:bulbrightofLine
bulbleftofLine
Symmetry:PolarAxis
/2if
/2if
0
0
FourLimaonShapes
Innerloop
Cardioid
Dimple
Nodimple
FourLimaonOrientations(usingtheCardioidasanexample)
sinefunction
sinefunction
cosinefunction cosinefunction
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
GraphingPolarEquationsTheRose
Example:

Thisfunctionisarose.Considertheforms
sin and
cos .
Thenumberofpetalsontherosedependsonthevalueof .
If isaneveninteger,therosewillhave2 petals.
If isanoddinteger,itwillhave petals.
Letscreateatableofvaluesandgraphtheequation:
/12
7/12
/6
3.464
2/3
3.464
/4
3/4
/3
3.464
5 /6
3.464
11 /12
5 /12
/2
Becausethisfunctioninvolvesan
argumentof2,wewanttostartby
lookingatvaluesofin 0, 2
2
0, .Youcouldplotmore
points,butthisintervalissufficient
toestablishthenatureofthecurve;
soyoucangraphtheresteasily.
Oncesymmetryis
established,thesevalues
areeasilydetermined.
Thevaluesinthetable
generatethepointsinthe
Bluepointsonthegraph
correspondtobluevalues
inthetable.
twopetalsrightofthe axis.
Knowingthatthecurveisa
roseallowsustographthe
Orangepointsonthe
graphcorrespondto
orangevaluesinthetable.
othertwopetalswithout
calculatingmorepoints.
ThefourRoseforms:
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
GraphingPolarEquationsTheCardioid
Example:
Thiscardioidisalsoalimaonofform
sin with
.Theuseofthesinefunction
indicatesthatthelargeloopwillbesymmetricaboutthe axis.The signindicatesthatthelarge
loopwillbeabovethe axis.Letscreateatableofvaluesandgraphtheequation:
/6
7/6
/3
3.732
4/3
0.268
/2
3/2
2 /3
3.732
5 /3
0.268
5 /6
11 /6
Generally,youwanttolookat
valuesof in 0, 2 .However,
somefunctionsrequirelarger
intervals.Thesizeoftheinterval
dependslargelyonthenatureofthe
functionandthecoefficientof .
Oncesymmetryis
established,thesevalues
areeasilydetermined.
Theportionofthegraph
abovethexaxisresults
Bluepointsonthegraph
correspondtobluevalues
inthetable.
from inQ1andQ2,
wherethesinefunctionis
positive.
Similarly,theportionof
Orangepointsonthe
graphcorrespondto
orangevaluesinthetable.
thegraphbelowthexaxis
resultsfrom inQ3and
Q4,wherethesine
functionisnegative.
ThefourCardioidforms:
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
ConvertingBetweenPolarandRectangularFormsofEquations
RectangulartoPolar
ToconvertanequationfromRectangularFormtoPolarForm,usethefollowingequivalences:
cos Substitute cos for
sin Substitute sin for

Substitute for
Example:Convert8
StartingEquation:
10
0toapolarequationoftheform
cos and
Substitute
Factorout :
Divideby 8 cos
3 sin
sin :
8 cos
8 cos
10
.
0
3 sin
10
3 sin
10
PolartoRectangular
ToconvertanequationfromPolarFormtoRectangularForm,usethefollowingequivalences:
cos
Substitute for cos
sin
Substitute for sin

Substitute
for
Example:Convertr = 8 cos + 9 sin toarectangularequation.

StartingEquation:
, sin
Substitutecos
Multiplyby :
Completethesquare:
Subtract8
:
9 :
Substitute
r = 8 cos + 9 sin
8
8
9
8
Simplifytostandardformforacircle:
16
9
9
9
0
16
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
Vectors
Avectorisaquantitythathasbothmagnitudeanddirection.Anexamplewouldbewindblowing
towardtheeastat30milesperhour.Anotherexamplewouldbetheforceof10kgweightbeing
pulledtowardtheearth(aforceyoucanfeelifyouareholdingtheweight).
SpecialUnitVectors
Wedefineunitvectorstobevectorsoflength1.Unitvectorshavingthedirectionofthepositive
axeswillbequiteusefultous.Theyaredescribedinthechartandgraphicbelow.
UnitVector
Direction
positive axis
positive axis
positive axis
Graphical
representationof
unitvectors andj
intwodimensions.
VectorComponents
Thelengthofavector, ,iscalleditsmagnitudeandisrepresentedbythesymbol .Ifavectors
initialpoint(startingposition)is , , ,anditsterminalpoint(endingposition)is , , ,
inthe direction,
inthe direction,and
thenthevectordisplaces
inthe direction.Wecan,then,representthevectorasfollows:
Themagnitudeofthevector, ,iscalculatedas:

Ifthislooksfamiliar,itshould.Themagnitudeofavectorinthree
dimesnsionsisdeterminedasthelengthofthespacediagonalofa
rectangularprismwithsides , and .
Intwodimensions,theseconceptscontracttothefollowing:

Intwodimensions,themagnitudeofthevectoristhelengthofthehypotenuseofarighttriangle
withsides and .
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January 14, 2015
VectorProperties
Vectorshaveanumberofnicepropertiesthatmakeworkingwiththembothusefulandrelatively
simple.Let and bescalars,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
If
cos
Then,
inForcecalculations)
If
and
If
,then
Define tobethezerovector(i.e.,ithaszerolength,sothat
vectorisalsocalledthenullvector.
cos and
,then
sin
sin
(note:thisformulaisused
,then
Note:
canalsobeshownwiththefollowingnotation:
incalculatingdotproductsandperformingoperationswithvectors.
0).Note:thezero
, .Thisnotationisuseful
PropertiesofVectors
AssociativeProperty
DistributiveProperty
MultiplicativeIdentity
MagnitudeProperty
Unitvectorinthedirectionof
CommutativeProperty
AdditiveInverse
AssociativeProperty
AdditiveIdentity
Also,notethat:
| |

Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
VectorDotProduct
TheDotProductoftwovectors,
and
,isdefinedasfollows:
Itisimportanttonotethatthedotproductisascalar,notavector.Itdescribessomethingaboutthe
relationshipbetweentwovectors,butisnotavectoritself.Ausefulapproachtocalculatingthedot
productoftwovectorsisillustratedhere:
,
alternative
vector
notation
Intheexampleatrightthevectorsarelinedupvertically.
Thenumbersintheeachcolumnaremultipliedandthe
resultsareaddedtogetthedotproduct.Intheexample,
4, 3, 2 2, 2, 5 8 6 10 24.
General
,

Example
4, 3, 2
2, 2, 5
8
10
24
PropertiesoftheDotProduct
Let beascalar,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
CommutativeProperty
MagnitudeSquareProperty
Moreproperties:
ZeroProperty
, and areorthogonaltoeachother.
MultiplicationbyaScalarProperty
If
Ifthereisascalar suchthat
If istheanglebetween and ,thencos
0and
and
,then and areorthogonal(perpendicular).

,then and areparallel.
Version 1.09
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January 14, 2015
VectorDotProduct(contd)
VectorProjection
Theprojectionofavector, ,ontoanothervector ,isobtainedusingthedotproduct.Theformula
usedtodeterminetheprojectionvectoris:

proj
v2

isascalar,andthatproj
Noticethat

Inthediagramatright,v1
proj
isavector.
v1
OrthogonalComponentsofaVector(Decomposition)
Avector, ,canbeexpressedasthesumoftwoorthogonalvectors and ,asshownintheabove
diagram.Theresultingvectorsare:

isparallelto
proj
and
isorthogonalto
Work
Workisascalarquantityinphysicsthatmeasurestheforceexertedonanobjectoveraparticular
distance.Itisdefinedusingvectors,asshownbelow.Let:
Fbetheforcevectoractingonanobject,movingitfrompoint topoint .
bethevectorfrom to .
betheanglebetweenFand
Then,wedefineworkas:

cos
Magnitude
ofForce
Version 1.09
Distance
Traveled
Bothoftheseformulasareuseful.
Whichoneyouuseinaparticular
situationdependsonwhat
informationisavailable.
Anglebetween
Vectors
Page 53 of 60
January 14, 2015
VectorCrossProduct
CrossProduct
Inthreedimensions,
Let:
and
Then,theCrossProductisgivenby:
x
u
v
u
v
u
v
sin
u v
u v
u v
u v
u v
u v
Thecrossproductoftwononzerovectorsinthreedimensionsproducesathirdvectorthatis
orthogonaltoeachofthefirsttwo.Thisresultingvector x is,therefore,normaltotheplane
containingthefirsttwovectors(assuming and arenotparallel).Inthesecondformulaabove, is
theunitvectornormaltotheplanecontainingthefirsttwovectors.Itsorientation(direction)is
determinedusingtherighthandrule.
RightHandRule
x
Usingyourrighthand:
Pointyourforefingerinthedirectionof ,and
Pointyourmiddlefingerinthedirectionof .
Then:
Yourthumbwillpointinthedirectionof x .
Intwodimensions,
Let:
Then, x
u and
u
v
u
v
v
u v
v
u v whichisascalar(intwodimensions).
Thecrossproductoftwononzerovectorsintwodimensionsiszeroifthevectorsareparallel.Thatis,
vectors and areparallelif x 0.
Theareaofaparallelogramhaving and asadjacentsidesandanglebetweenthem:
sin .
Version 1.09
Page 54 of 60
January 14, 2015
PropertiesoftheCrossProduct
Let beascalar,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
, x
, x
, x
, x
ZeroProperty
, and areorthogonaltoeachother
Reverseorientationorthogonality
Everynonzerovectorisparalleltoitself
AnticommutativeProperty
x m
ScalarMultiplication
Moreproperties:
If x
If istheanglebetween and ,then
,then and areparallel.
o x
o sin
sin
Version 1.09
Page 55 of 60
January 14, 2015
VectorTripleProducts
ScalarTripleProduct
Let:
u u u .Thenthetripleproduct
volumeofaparallelepipedwith , ,and asedges:
u
v
w
u
v
w
givesascalarrepresentingthe
u
v
w
OtherTripleProducts

x x
Duplicatingavectorresultsinaproductof
x x
Note:vectors , ,and arecoplanarifandonlyif
0.
NoAssociativeProperty
Theassociativepropertyofrealnumbersdoesnottranslatetotripleproducts.Inparticular,
x x
Noassociativepropertyofdotproducts/multiplication
x x Noassociativepropertyofcrossproducts
Version 1.09
Page 56 of 60
January 14, 2015
Appendix A
SummaryofRectangularandPolarForms
Coordinates
Form
Conversion
RectangularForm
PolarForm
cos
sin
Complex
Numbers
Form
tan
cos
Form
or
cos
sin
Vectors
sin

Conversion
tan
magnitude
directionangle
Conversion
cos
sin
tan
Version 1.09
Page 57 of 60
January 14, 2015
Index
Page
34
36
30
37
37
38
38
46,48
45
32
40,57
40
40
50
40,57
39,57
49
57
7
7
7
54
7
6
41
42
52
30
Version 1.09
Subject
AmbiguousCaseforObliqueTriangles
AmbiguousCaseforObliqueTrianglesFlowchart
AreaofaTriangle
GeometryFormula
Heron'sFormula
CoordinateGeometryFormula
Cardioid
Circles
Cofunctions
ComplexNumbers
ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarForms
OperationsinPolarForm
PolarForm
ComponentsofVectors
ComplexNumbers
Coordinates
Equations
Vectors
CosecantFunction
CosineFunction
CotangentFunction
CrossProduct
DefinitionsofTrigFunctions(RightTriangle)
DefinitionsofTrigFunctions(xandyaxes)
DeMoivre'sTheorem
DeMoivre'sTheoremforRoots
DotProduct
DoubleAngleFormulas
Page 58 of 60
January 14, 2015
Index
Page
49
10
48
22
14
18
25
46
43
47
20
12
16
11
30
37
26
27
24
25
24
24
32
32
46
33
40
53
39,57
40,57
Version 1.09
Subject
Equations
Graphs
BasicTrigFunctions
Cardioid
CosecantFunction
CosineFunction
CotangentFunction
LimaonofPascal
PolarFunctions
Rose
SecantFunction
SineFunction
TangentFunction
TrigFunctionCharacteristics(Table)
HalfAngleFormulas
Heron'sFormula
IdentitiesVerification
Steps
Techniques
Definitions
Graphs
PrincipalValues
Ranges
LawofCosines
LawofSines
LimaonofPascal
ObliqueTriangleMethodstoSolve
PolarCoordinates
PolarFormofComplexNumbers
Page 59 of 60
January 14, 2015
Index
Page
45
39,57
31
24
31
53
51
32
6
39,51
45,47
7
7
6
7
31
7
8
7
56
9
50
50
50
57
54
52
53
53
51
53
56
53
Version 1.09
Subject
PolarGraphTypes
PolartoRectangularCoordinateConversion
PrincipalValuesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
ProjectionofOneVectorontoAnother
PropertiesofVectors
PythagoreanIdentities
Radians
RectangulartoPolarCoordinateConversion
Rose
SecantFunction
SineFunction
SOHCAHTOA
TangentFunction
TrigonometricFunctionsofSpecialAngles
TripleProducts
UnitCircle
UnitVectorsiandj
Vectors
Components
CrossProduct
DotProduct
Projection
Properties
SpecialUnitVectorsiandj
TripleProducts
Work
Page 60 of 60
January 14, 2015

Trigonometry Handbook

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TheUnitCirclediagrambelowprovides and valuesonacircleofradius1atkeyangles.Atany

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(2) AllPhaseShiftsaredefinedtooccurrelativetoastartingpointofthe axis(i.e.,theverticalline

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sin cos cos sin

sin 2 2 sin cos

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Step5:Calculate .Finally,wecalculatethevalueof usingtheLawofSines.Notethatinthecase

Calculate , and then .

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4,096 cos 111.542

243 cos 29.052

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.Then, has distinctcomplex throotsthatoccupypositions

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Replace with intheequation

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Createatwocolumnchartthatcalculatesvaluesof forselectedvaluesof .Thisisakintoa

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Substitute for cos

Substitute for sin

Example:Convertr = 8 cos + 9 sin toarectangularequation.

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