1.

UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING OF BEAMS

AIM:
To determine the principal axes of an unsymmetrical section.
THEORY:
The flexure formula = (My/I) based on the elementary theory of
bending of beams assumes that the load is always applied through one of the
principal axes of the section. Actually, even if the applied load passes through
the centroid and/or the shear center of the section the plane of bending and the
plane of loading need not necessarily be the same. Therefore, a knowledge of
the location of the principal axes is required for the determination of the stress
distribution in beams (of any arbitrary cross section) using flexure formula. The
determination of the principal axes experimentally is described here.
If Ix, Iy and Ixy are the moments and product of inertia of any section about
an arbitrary orthogonal centroidal axes OX and OY then the inclination of one
of the principal axes to OX is given by
2Ixy
tan 2 = -----------(Iy - Ix)

(1)

1 tan-1 (2 Ixy)
= ------------2 (Iy Ix)

The experimental determination of the principal axes of a given section is

based on the fact that when the load passes through the shear center and is in the
direction of one of the principal axes of the section, the entire section under the
load deflects in the direction of the load only.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
A thin uniform cantilever Z section as
At the free and extension pieces are attached on either side of the web to
facilitate vertical loading.
A steel support structure to mount the channel section as cantilever.
A string and pulley arrangement to apply the horizontal load WH.
1

 Two hooks are attached to the extension pieces to apply the vertical load
Wv .
Two dial gauges.This enables the determination of displacements u and v.
PROCEDURE:
1. Mount two dial gauges on the section to measure the horizontal and
vertical deflections of a point (u/v).
2. Apply the vertical load Wv
3. Read u and v the horizontal and vertical deflections respectively, and note
down in the tabular column.
4. Increase the load WV in steps of about 200 noting down in each case the
values of u and v. Repeat the procedure and check for consistency in
measurements.
5. Calculate the inclination using Eqn (1).
GRAPH
1. Plot the graphs (u/v) vs. (WV/WH) and find the intersection of this curve
with a straight line through the origin at 45 (Note: The X and Y scales
must be chosen to be same for the graph).
FORMULAE
t x h1 3
Ixx =

b x t3
+ (t x b)(x)2

+2
12

12

h1 x t3
Iyy =

Ixy = 2

t x b3
+ (t x b) (y) 2

+2
12

where, x=(h/2)-(t/2)

12

(bt) (+b/2) (-x11) +2

where, y=(b/2)-(t/2)

bt+ (-b/2) (x11)

2

x11= x1 + x1
2 Ixy
tan 2 theor =
Iyy - Ixx
theor =(1/2) tan-1

2 IXY
Iyy -Ixx

RESULT
Thus the principal axes of an unsymmetrical section has been determined.
OBSERVATION
b =50 mm,
h = 80 mm,
t = 2 mm,
h1 = 76 mm
(where, h1=(h-2t))
TABULATION
S. No.

WV
(Kg)

Dial gauge
readings
u
v

WV/WH

u/v

WH
(Kg)

1
2
3
4
5
6

2.SHEAR CENTER OF CHANNEL SECTIONS

AIM:

To determine the shear centre of an open channel section.

THEORY:

For any unsymmetrical section there exists a point at which any vertical
force does not produce a twist of that section. This point is known as shear
center.
The location of this shear center is important in the design of beams of
open sections when they should bend without twisting, as they are weak in
resisting torsion. A thin walled channel section with its web vertical has a
horizontal axis of symmetry and the shear center lies on it. The aim of the
experiment is to determine its location on this axis if the applied shear to the tip
section is vertical (i.e. along the direction of one of the principal axes of the
section) and passes through the shear center tip, all other sections of the beam
do not twist.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
A thin uniform cantilever beam of channel section.At the free end
extension pieces are attached on either side of the web to facilitate
vertical loading.
Two dial gauges
A steel support structure to mount the channel section as cantilever.
Two loading hooks each weighing about 0.1Kg.
PROCEDURE:
1. Mount two dial gauges on the flange at a known distance apart at the free
end of the beam.Set the dial gauge readings to a fixed point.
2. Place a total of say 1.2 kilograms load at A (loading hook and six load
pieces will make up this value). Note down the dial gauge reading.
3. Now remove one load piece from the hook at A and place in hook at B.
This means that the total vertical load on this section remains 1.2
kilogram. Record the dial gauge readings.
4. Transfer carefully all the load pieces to B one by one. Noting each time
the dial gauge readings. This procedure ensures that while the magnitude

of the resultant vertical force remains the same its line of action shifts by
a known amount along AB every time a load piece is shifted. Calculate
the distance e of the line of action from the web thus:
FORMULA
1.Experimental location of the shear center (e):
AB (Wa-Wb)
e=

2Wv

2.Theoretical location of the shear center (e):

e= 3b / [6+ (h/b)]
GRAPH
Plot e versus (d1-d2) curve and determine where this meets the e axis and
locate the shear center.

RESULT
Thus the shear centre of an open channel section has been determined.
OBSERVATIONS
Length of the beam (L)

50cm

Height of the web (h)

10cm

Width of the flange (b)

5cm

Thickness of the sheet (t)

1.6mm

Distance between the two hook stations (AB)

30cm

Vertical load Wv = (Wa+Wb)

S. No.

Wa
(Kg)

Wb
(Kg)

d1
(mm)

d2
(mm)

d1-d2
(mm)

e
(mm)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

3.SHEAR CENTER OF I SECTIONS

AIM
To determined the shear centre for I section
THEORY
The horizontal elements of the "I" are known as flanges, while the vertical
element is termed the "web". The web resists shear forces, while the flanges
resist most of the bending moment experienced by the beam. Beam
theory shows that the I-shaped section is a very efficient form for carrying
both bending and shear loads in the plane of the web. On the other hand, the
cross-section has a reduced capacity in the transverse direction, and is also
inefficient in carrying torsion, for which hollow structural sections are often
preferred.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
A thin uniform cantilever beam of I section at the free end extension
pieces are attached on either side of the web to facilitate vertical loading.
Two dial gauges are mounted firmly on this section, a known distance
apart, over the top flange. This enables the determination of the twist, if
any, experienced by the section.
A steel support structure to mount the Angle section as cantilever.
Two loading hooks each weighing about 0.1Kg.
PROCEDURE:
5. Mount two dial gauges on the flange at a known distance apart at the free
end of the beam.Set the dial gauge readings to a fixed point.
6. Place a total of say 1.2 kilograms load at A (loading hook and six load
pieces will make up this value). Note down the dial gauge reading.
7. Now remove one load piece from the hook at A and place in hook at B.
This means that the total vertical load on this section remains 1.2
kilogram. Record the dial gauge readings.
6

8. Transfer carefully all the load pieces to B one by one. Noting each time
the dial gauge readings. This procedure ensures that while the magnitude
of the resultant vertical force remains the same its line of action shifts by a
known amount along AB every time a load piece is shifted. Calculate the
distance e of the line of action from the web.
FORMULA
1.Experimental location of the shear center (e):
AB (Wa-Wb)
e=

2Wv

GRAPH
Plot e versus (d1-d2) curve and determine where this meets the e axis and
locate the shear center.
RESULT

Thus the shear centre of I section has been determined.

OBSERVATIONS
Length of the beam (L)

50cm

Height of the web (h)

10cm

Width of the flange (b)

2cm

Thickness of the sheet (t)

4mm

Distance between the two hook stations (AB)

30cm

Vertical load Wv = (Wa+Wb)

Wa
S. No.
(Kg)

Wb
(Kg)

Dial gauge readings

d1
d2

d1-d2

e
(mm)

1
2
3
4
5
6

4.SHEAR CENTER OF L SECTIONS

AIM
To determined the shear centre for L section.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
A thin uniform cantilever beam of L section at the free end extension
pieces are attached on either side of the web to facilitate vertical loading.
Two dial gauges are mounted firmly on this section, a known distance
apart, over the top flange. This enables the determination of the twist, if
any, experienced by the section.
A steel support structure to mount the Angle section as cantilever.
Two loading hooks each weighing about 0.1Kg.
PROCEDURE
9. Mount two dial gauges on the flange at a known distance apart at the free
end of the beam.Set the dial gauge readings to a fixed point.
10.Place a total of say 0.5 kilograms load at A. Note down the dial gauge
reading.
11.Now remove one load piece from the hook at A and place in hook at B.
This means that the total vertical load on this section remains 0.5
kilogram. Record the dial gauge readings.
12.Transfer carefully all the load pieces to B one by one. Noting each time
the dial gauge readings. This procedure ensures that while the magnitude
of the resultant vertical force remains the same its line of action shifts by a
known amount along AB every time a load piece is shifted. Calculate the
distance e of the line of action from the web.
FORMULA
1.Experimental location of the shear center (e):
8

AB (Wa-Wb)
e=

2Wv

GRAPH
Plot e versus (d1-d2) curve and determine where this meets the e axis and
locate the shear center.
RESULT
Thus the shear centre of L section has been determined.
OBSERVATIONS
Length of the beam (L)

50cm

Height of the web (h)

10cm

Width of the flange (b)

5cm

Thickness of the sheet (t)

1.6mm

Distance between the two hook stations (AB)

30cm

Vertical load Wv = (Wa+Wb)

Wa
S. No.
(Kg)

Wb
(Kg)

Dial gauge readings

d1
d2

d1-d2

e
(mm)

1
2
3
4
5

5.SHEAR CENTER OF CLOSED SECTION

AIM
To determine the shear center of a closed section .
THEORY
For any unsymmetrical section there exists a point at which any vertical
force does not produce a twist of that section. This point is known as shear
center.
9

The location of this shear center is important in the design of beams of

closed sections when they should bend without twisting. The shear center is
important in the case of a closed section like an aircraft wing, where the lift
produces a torque about the shear center. Similarly the wing strut of a semi
cantilever wing is a closed tube of aerofoil section. A thin walled D section
with its web vertical has a horizontal axis of symmetry and the shear center lies
on it. The aim of the experiment is to determine its location on this axis if the
applied shear to the tip section is vertical (i.e., along the direction of one of the
principal axes of the section) and passes through the shear center tip, all other
sections of the beam do not twist.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
A thin uniform cantilever beam of D section. At the free end extension
pieces are attached on either side of the web to facilitate vertical loading.
Two dial gauges are mounted firmly on this section, a known distance
apart, over the top flange. This enables the determination of the twist, if
any, experienced by the section.
A steel support structure to mount the D section as cantilever.
Two loading hooks each weighing about 0.1 Kg.
PROCEDURE
13.Mount two dial gauges on the flange at a known distance apart at the free
end of the beam.
14.Place a total of say 1.2 kilograms load at A (loading hook and 6 load
pieces will make up this value). Note the dial gauge readings (nominally,
hooks also weigh 100 grams each). Note down dial gauge reading.
15.Now remove one load piece from the hook at A and place it at hook B.
The total vertical load on this section remains 1.2 kilogram. Record the
dial gauge readings.

10

16.Transfer carefully all the load pieces to B from A one by one. Note each
time the dial gauge readings. This procedure ensures that while the
magnitude of the resultant vertical force remains the same its line of
action shifts by a known amount along AB every time when a load piece
is shifted. Calculate the distance e (see fig) of the line of action from
the web thus:
(AB) x (Wa-Wb)
eexp

---------------------

where WV = (Wa + Wb)

2Wv
For every load case calculate the algebraic difference between the dial
gauge readings suffered by the section.
GRAPH
Plot e Vs (d1-d2) curve and determine where this meets the axis and
locate the shear center.
RESULT
Thus the shear center of a closed section has been determined.
OBSERVATION
Length of the beam (L)

500mm

Height of the web (h)

100mm

Thickness of the sheet (t)

1.6mm

Distance between the two hook stations (AB)

300mm

Weights 6 Nos.

0.2kg

TABULATION
S.
No.

Wa

Wb

Dial gauge
readings
d1
d2

(d1-d2)
Algebraic difference

11

6.CONSTANT STRENGTH BEAM

AIM
To determine the stress at various locations along the length of a
constant strength beam to show that they are equal and compare with
theoretical values.
THEORY
The aerospace structures engineer is constantly searching for types
of structures which will save structural weight and still provide a
structure which is satisfactory from a fabrication and economic
standpoint. One such structure is constant strength beam.A beam in
which section modulus varies along the length of the beam in the same
proportion as the bending moment is known as constant strength beam.
In this case the maximum stress remains constant along the length of the
beam.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Aluminium strength beam,Strain gauges, strain indicator and
weights with hook.
FORMULA USED
1. Stress (experimental)

(N/m2)

Where = stress
E=Youngs modulus
= strain
(The system is in half bridge; therefore the stress value should be divided by 2).
2. Stress (theoretical)

12

Where M= moment for a load

(Nm)
{W= weight and L= length corresponding each load}.
I=moment of inertia

(m4 )
PROCEDURE
1. The constant strength beam is fixed as a cantilever.
2. Strain gauges are fixed.
3. The strain gauges are fixed on the surfaces at each location to
increase the circuit sensitivity of the strain gauge circuit.
4. The beam is loaded gradually by 200gm upto 1000gm placing the
weights slowly in the hook near the tip of the cantilever.
5. The strain gauge readings are noted for every load at locations at A,
B, C position and tabulated.
GRAPH
Graphs are plotted for the following cases:
1. Stress V/S theoretical and actual strain for point A
2. Stress V/S theoretical and actual strain for point B
3. Stress V/S theoretical and actual strain for point C
(Stress on Y-axis and strain on X-axis).
RESULT
The experimental values of the stress are compared with the theoretical
values and found to agree well with the experimental results.

OBSERVATIONS
Youngs modulus of aluminium,E
Distance of point A from loading point, LA
Depth of the beam, hA = d1
Width of the beam, t
Distance of point A from loading point, LB
Depth of the beam, hB = d2

=
=
=
=
=
=

70GPa
15cm = 0.150 m
0.050 m
0.005m
23cm = 0.23 m
0.060 m
13

Distance of point A from loading point, LC

Depth of the beam, hC = d3

=
=

39cm = 0.39 m
0.080 m

DIAGRAM
C

LB
LA

TABULATION
S. No.

Weight( Kg)

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

A
(10-6)

B
(10-6)

C
(10-6)

CALCULATION

14

1.Experimental stress
2.Theoretical stress.
S. No. Weight( Kg)

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

A(exp)
MPa

B(exp)
MPa

C(exp)
MPa

A(the)
MPa

B(the)
MPa

C(the)
MPa

7.FLEXIBILITY MATRIX
AIM:
To determine the flexibility matrix of a cantilever beam.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Cantilever beam setup
2. Weighing hook, weights.
3. Dial gauge with stand (quantity 2).
THEORY:
Flexibility and its converse, known as stiffness matrix are important
properties which characterize the response of structure by means of force
displacement. The flexibility of a structure is defined as the displacement by a
unit force and the stiffness is defined as the force required for unit displacement.
A flexibility matrix relates that force p at K1 and K2 of an element to the
displacement at K1 & K2.
The stiffness matrix is important factor of structure. It can be readily shown in
the flexibility matrix.
FORMULA:

15

Theoertical method
1
11

2
12

free end
1

Flexibility matrix =

L
21

22

Flexibility coefficient
11
12
21
22

=
=
=
=

Displacement along 1 when unit load is applied along 1.

Displacement at 1 when unit moment is applied at 2.
Displacement at 2 when unit load is applied at 1.
Displacement at 1 when unit moment is applied at 2.

L = Length
b
d

11

bd3
= I = ----12
21
11
L3
----3EI

12
L2
---2EI

L2
---2EI
21

L
---EI
22

1 unit load

12
22
1 unit

Experimental method
(a) Deflection matrix D
D11

D12

16

D21

D22

from dial gauge

(b) Co factor matrix of Deflection matrix is given by A

0.2 x 9.81
D11

0.2 x 9.81
D12

0.2 x 9.81
D21

0.2 x 9.81
D22

A11

A12

A=
(c )
(d )
(e)

A21
A22
Adj A = A11
-A21

- A12
A22

Determinant matrix A = (A11x A22) - ( A12 xA21)

Flexibility Matrix A-1 = 1 x adj A
A

PROCEDURE:
1. Initially the total length of the given cantilever beam is divided into 2
equal parts K1, K2.
2. Now place the weight hook loading and dial gauge at K1.
3. To find K12 keep the hook at 2 K2 & deflection at K1.
4. To find K2, deflection at K2 unit load at K1.
5. To find K22 deflection K2 unit load at K2.
6. Note down the reading of the dial gauge .
RESULT
Thus the flexibility matrix of a cantilever beam has been determined

OBSEVATIONS
Material used =
E=
L=
17

TABULATION

S.No

Load
in Kg

K11
in mm

K12
in mm

K21
in mm

K22
in mm

8.COMBINED BENDING AND TORSION

AIM
To determine the principal stress and principal planes of a hollow circular shaft
due to combined loading.
THEORY
The most common combined load system encountered in structural design is
probably due to bending and torsion. In an Aircraft wing the lift acting at the
center of pressure produces a torque about the elastic axis and varying bending
moment along the wing span. To understand their combined effect a simpler
specimen, namely a hollow cylinder is subjected to a bending and torsion.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Hollow circular shaft fixed as a cantilever, weight hanger with slotted weights,
strain gauges, connecting wires, strain indicator.
FORMULA USED
1.Bending stress (experimental)
(N/m2)

Where = stress
18

E=Youngs modulus
= strain
(The system is in half bridge; therefore the stress value should be divided by 2).
2.Polar moment of inertia
(mm4)
3.Moment of Inertia
(mm4)
4.Bending Moment

(Nm)

5.Torque

(Nm)
6.Shear stress

max

(N/m2)

7.Principal Stress
x =

(N/m2)

8.Max. and Min. principal stress

1.2 =x+ y + (x- y )2 + (xy)2
2

y = 0
For root A
1.2 =AX +0 + (AX- 0 )2 + (xy)2
2

19

9.Principal angle
2xy
2max
Tan2 = ------------ = ----x - y
max

Principal angle =2 = Tan

-1

2max
------max

= direction of angle

PROCEDURE
1. At position A two strain gauges are fixed on the tube fixed as a cantilever,
one on the top fiber and the other at the bottom to measure the bending
stress, ().
2. Another strain gauge is fixed at the location C on the neutral axis at 45 to
measure the shear stress ().
3. Similarly two more strain gauges are at B fixed (top & bottom) for verify
the result at various locations of the tube.
4. The strain gauges on the tube are connected to half bridge circuit in the
strain indicator to increase the circuit sensitivity, since the tension and
compression get added up.
5. The strain gauge at 45 is connected to the half bridge of the strain
indicator to measure the shear stress.
6. The outside diameter of the tube is measured.
7. Weights are added to the hook attached to the lever in steps and the strain
gauge readings are noted from the strain indicator for each load.
8. From the strains the bending stress () shear stress () are calculated and
hence principal stresses xy and principal angle () are calculated.
9. These values are compared with theoretical values.
GRAPH
Graphs are plotted for the following cases:
4. Experimental Stress V/S A
5. Experimental Stress V/S B
6. Experimental Stress V/S C
(Stress on Y-axis and strain on X-axis).
RESULT
20

Thus d the principal stress and principal planes of a hollow circular shaft due to
combined loading has been determined.
OBSERVATIONS
Youngs Modulus of the tube (steel)
=
Thickness of the tube
=
Length of the tube = L
=
Outside diameter of the tube = do
=
Inside dia of tube = di
=
Distance of the strain gauges near to tip = (LA)
=
Distance of the strain gauges at the middle from tip = (LB)
=
Distance of the Strain gauges far to tip = (LC)
=
Distance from the center of the tube to the center of the hook (L0) =

200G Pa
0.002m
0.5m
0.05m
0.046m
0.08m
0.21m
0.41m
0.15m

DIAGRAM
L
LC
LB
LA
C

A
B

TABULATION
Sl
No
.
1
2
3
4

Weight
( kg)

(10-6)

(10-6)

c
(10-6)

bendin
g A
( N/m2)

bending

N/m2)

bendin
g C
(N/m2)

MA
(Nm)

MB
(Nm)

MC
(Nm)

T
(Nm)

0.5
1
1.5
2

21

max
N/m2)

Sl No.

x
x
2
( N/m ) (N/m2)

Cx
max
2
(N/m ) (N/m2)

min
(N/m2)

max
(N/m2)

min
(N/m2)

Cmax
(N/m2)

Cmin
(N/m2)

1
2
3
4

CALCULATIONS
22

9.FREE LONGITUDINAL VIBRATION

AIM
To study the Free Longitudinal Vibrations of a spring mass system.
THEORY
When particles of the shaft (or) disc move parallel to the axis of the shaft
then the vibrations are known as longitudinal vibration.
APPARATUS
Universal vibration beam setup, open coil helical spring, mass hanger,
weights and tape.
PROCEDURE
1) In the cantilever beam spring is fixed by means of hook so that the
mass hanger of known mass is placed.
2) Place the sensor at the end of the beam.
3) Move the top of the spring rod up to some level. Leave it suddenly
for the vibration in the beam.
4) Note down the maximum value of frequency and amplitude directly
in the digital indicator.
RESULT:
Thus the free longitudinal vibration of a spring mass system is studied
and found to be
Hz.

OBSERVATIONS
Distance between fixed end to stiffness of the spring in m (L) =
Distance between fixed to weight pan in m (L1) =

TABULATION
Sl. No.

Mass attached (W)

(Kg)

1.

0.2

Deflection () of
spring (mm)

Frequency(exp)
in Hz

DIAGRAM

23

L1
L

SENSOR

10.FORCED VIBRATION
AIM:
To study the un-damped forced vibration of equivalent spring mass system.

APPARATUS
Universal vibration beam setup, open coil helical spring, mass hanger,
weights and tape.
FORMULA USED
1.Angular speed ()
2N
= -------60

(s-1)

2. Disturbing Force ( Fo )
Fo = mo e 2

(kgm/s2)

mo = mass of eccentricity weight = 24 gms = 0.024 Kg

e = Distance between middle of the shaft to middle of the eccentricity =0.035m.
3. Siffness of the spring (K)
Mg
K= ------------
Where,
M = mass of the disc (exciter) = 3.7 Kg
g = 9.81 m/sec2
= Deflection of beam i.e., amplitude in m
4. Theoretical Frequency
24

1
Theoretical frequency = fthe = -----2

K
-------M

(Hz)

PROCEDURE
1.

Support one end of the cantilever beam in the slot of trunion/fixed plate
and clamp it by means of knob.
2.
Attach the other end of beam to the lower end of spring.
3.
Adjust the screw to which the spring is attached such that beam is
horizontal in the above position.
4.
Weigh the exciter assembly along with a discs bearing & flexible shaft.
(3.7kg)
5.
Clamp the assembly at any convenient position in the cantilever beam.
6.
Allow system to vibrate freely.
7.
Neglect the initial reading of the sensor (amplitude and frequency)
because due to some sensitive vibration.
8.
Place the sensor at the end of the beam.
9.
Note down the frequency and amplitude with varying speed in the digital
indicator.
10. Repeat the experiment by varying speed and by also fixing different
eccentric weight on the disc.
RESULT
The un-damped forced vibration of equivalent spring mass system is studied.
TABULATION

Motor
speed,N

Experimental
Frequency,
fnexp
(Hz)

Amplitude
( deflection,)

mm

Angular
speed,
s-1)

Disturbng
force ,Fo
(kgm/s2)

Stiffness
of
spring,K(N/m)

Theoritical
Frequency,
fnthe
(Hz)

11.TORSIONAL VIBRATION OF SINGLE ROTOR SHAFT SYSTEMS

AIM:
To determine the torsional vibration of single Rotor Shaft system.
25

DESCRIPTION OF SETUP:
The general arrangement for carrying out the experiments. One end
of the shaft is gripped in the plate and heavy flywheel free to rotate in bush
bearing is fixed at the other end of the shaft.
The flywheel can be clamped at convenient position along the shaft.
Thus, length of the shaft can be varied during the experiments. Specially
designed plates are used for clamping top end of the shaft. The bush
bearing support to the flywheel shaft provides negligible lateral movement
during experiments. The bush housing is fixed to side member of
mainframe.
PROCEDURE:
1) Fix the flywheel at convenient position along the shaft.
2) Grip one end of the shaft at the bracket by the flat plate.
3) Place the frequency sensor side the disc. So that the frequency and
amplitude can be seen in digital indicator.
4) Twist the rotor-on the shaft up to 50 and allow oscillate.
5) Directly note down the frequency in digital meter.
FORMULA:
G.IP
1. Determine Torsional Stiffness kt= ----L
L=

length of shaft in m =0.003m

d4
J = IP = Polar M.I. of shaft = ------ m4
32
d=

Shaft dia 3mm = 0.003m

G = Modulus of rigidity of shaft = 80 GPa = 80 109 N/m2.

2. Determine T theoretical = Tthe
I
= 2 --Where, I = M.I. of Disc
Kt

W r2
= -- --g 4

26

Where, W = wt of the disc = 5.4 Kgs

g = 9.81 m/sec2 = specific gravity
D = Dia of disc = 0.200m. , r=d/2=0.1m
Natural frequency of rotar is = fn (the)
1
fn (the) = ---------Tthe
RESULT
Thus the Torsional vibration of single Rotor Shaft system has been
determined.
OBSERVATION
Shaft Dia
Dia of disc
Wt. of the Disc,W
Modulus of rigidity for shaft

=
=
=
=

3mm
200mm
3.7Kg
80 Gpa = 80 109 N/m2.

TABLE:
Sl.
No.

Length of
Shaft L cm

Frequency(exp)

12.STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR OF A SEMI TENSION FIELD BEAM

(WAGNER BEAM)
AIM:
To investigate and study the behaviors of a semi-tension field beam.
THEORY:
The development of a structure in which buckling of the web is permitted
with the shear loads being carried by diagonal tension stresses in the web is a
striking example of the departure of the design of Aerospace structures from the
standard structural design methods in other fields of structures, such as beam

27

design involving diagonal semi-tension field action in beam webs was done by
Wagner and hence it is know as Wagner beam.
As thin sheets are weak in compression. The webs of the Wagner beam
will buckle at a low value of the applied vertical load. The phenomena of
buckling may be observed by noting the wrinkles that appear on the thin sheet.
As the applied load further increased the stress in the compression direction.
This method of carrying the shear load permits the design of relatively thin
webs because of high allowable stresses in tension.
According to the theory developed by Wagner, the diagonal tensile stress
+ve values or Compression stress VE values.
t in the thin web is given by the expression.
2W
t= -------------d x t sin 2
Where,

in MPa

(1)

W= shear load in N
d = Distance between the flanges in mm
t = Thickness of the web in m
= Angle at which wrinkling occurs

i.e.,
Tan =
4

1 + td / 2AF
-----------------1 + tb / AS

(a)

b = Distance between stiffeners in mm

AF = Area of flange in m2
AS = Area of stiffener in m2
W
Stress in the Flange F = -------------2AF tan

in MPa

(2)

Wx b
Stress in the Stiffener S = ---------- tan
AS x d

in MPa

(3)

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
28

A stiffened thin-webbed cantilever beam in a frame, Strain gauges, Strain

indicator, Hydraulic jack, Load cell and Load indicator.
PROCEDURE:
o The wrinkling angle is calculated using the equation (a) and a strain gauge is
fixed at this angle in the web.
o Strain gauges are also fixed on the flanges and a stiffener to measure their
respective stresses (strain gauges are fixed).
o For individual strains load is applied gradually in steps using the hydraulic
jack.
o For each load the load indicator reading, strain indicator reading
corresponding to each strain gauge is noted.
RESULT:
t, F and S values are calculated theoretically using equations (1), (2)
and (3) and compared with the experimental values given in the table.
SPECIFICATIONS:
t = 0.8mm = 0.008m
b = 225mm2 =0.225m
d = 270m =0.27m
Area of flanges = AF = 390mm2 = 0.00039m2
Area of stiffness = AS = 390mm2 = 0.00039m2
E = 70GPa
TABULATION
Weight
Strain
Experimental
-6
applied(W)
(10 )
stress(MPa)
kg
N
t
t

Weight
applied(W)
kg
N

Strain
(10-6)
f

Experimental
stress(MPa)
f

Theoretical
stress(MPa)
t

Theoretical
stress(MPa)
f

29

Weight
applied(W)
kg
N

Strain
(10-6)
s

Experimental
stress(MPa)
s

Theoretical
stress(MPa)
s

Schematic view of Wagner beam

SIDE VIEW:
b

CF=F
Ct=t

CS=S
d
HYDRAULIC JACK

L
LOAD CELL
13. STUDY ON PHOTOELASTICITY
Introduction
Photoelasticity is an experimental method to determine the stress
distribution in a material. The method is mostly used in cases where
mathematical methods become quite cumbersome. Unlike the analytical
methods of stress determination, photoelasticity gives a fairly accurate picture
of stress distribution, even around abrupt discontinuities in a material. The
method is an important tool for determining critical stress points in a material,
and is used for determining stress concentration in irregular geometries.
Principle
The method is based on the property of birefringence exhibited by
certain transparent materials. Birefringence is a property where a ray of light
passing through a birefringent material experiences two refractive indices. The
property of birefringence (or double refraction) is observed in many
optical crystals. Upon the application of stresses, photoelastic materials exhibit
the property of birefringence, and the magnitude of the refractive indices at each
point in the material is directly related to the state of stresses at that point.

30

Information such as maximum shear stress and its orientation are available by
analyzing the birefringence with an instrument called polariscope.
When a ray of light passes through a photoelastic material, its electromagnetic
wave components gets resolved along the two principal stress directions and
each of these components experiences different refractive indices due to the
birefringence. The difference in the refractive indices leads to a
relative phase retardation between the two components. Assuming a thin
specimen made of isotropic materials, where two-dimensional photoelasticity is
applicable.,the magnitude of the relative retardation is given by the stress-optic
law

where is the induced retardation,

C is the stress-optic coefficient,
t is the specimen thickness,
1 and 2 are the first and second principal stresses, respectively.
The retardation changes the polarization of transmitted light. The polariscope
combines the different polarization states of light waves before and after passing
the specimen. Due to optical interference of the two waves, a fringe pattern is
revealed. The number of fringe order N is denoted as

which depends on relative retardation. By studying the fringe pattern one can
determine the state of stress at various points in the material.
For materials that do not show photoelastic behavior, it is still possible to study
the stress distribution in such materials. The first step is to build a model using
photoelastic materials, which has similar geometry as the real structure to be
investigated. The loading is then applied in the same way to ensure that the
stress distribution in the model is similar to the stress in the real structure.
Isoclinics and isochromatics
Isoclinics are the loci of the points in the specimen along which the principal
stresses are in the same direction.
Isochromatics are the loci of the points along which the difference in the first
and second principal stress remains the same. Thus they are the lines which
join the points with equal maximum shear stress magnitude
Two-dimensional photoelasticity
Photoelasticity can be applied both to three-dimensional and
two-dimensional state of stress. But the application of photoelasticty to the
31

three-dimensional state of stress is more involved as compared to the state of

two-dimensional or plane-stress systemThe experimental setup varies from
experiment to experiment. The two basic kinds of setup used are plane
polariscope and circular polariscope.
1. Plane polariscope
The setup consists of two linear polarizers and a light source. The
light source can either emit monochromatic light or white light depending upon
the experiment. First the light is passed through the first polarizer which
converts the light into plane polarized light. The apparatus is set up in such a
way that this plane polarized light then passes through the stressed specimen.
This light then follows, at each point of the specimen, the direction of principal
stress at that point. The light is then made to pass through the analyzer and we
finally get the fringe pattern
2. Circular polariscope
In a circular polariscope setup two quarter-wave plates are added to the
experimental setup of the plane polariscope. The first quarter-wave plate is
placed in between the polarizer and the specimen and the second quarter-wave
plate is placed between the specimen and the analyzer. The effect of adding the
quarter-wave plate after the source-side polarizer is that we get circularly
polarized light passing through the sample. The analyzer-side quarter-wave
plate converts the circular polarization state back to linear before the light
passes through the analyzer.
The basic advantage of a circular polariscope over a plane
polariscope is that in a circular polariscope setup we only get the isochromatics
and not the isoclinics. This eliminates the problem of differentiating between
the isoclinics and the isochromatics.

32

Applications
Photoelasticity has been used for a variety of stress analyses and even for
routine use in design, particularly before the advent of numerical
methods, such as for instance finite elements or boundary elements
Digitization of polariscopy enables fast image acquisition and data
processing, which allows its industrial applications to control quality of
manufacturing process for materials such as glass and polymer
Dentistry utilizes photoelasticity to analyze strain in denture materials.
Dynamic photoelasticity integrated with high-speed photography is
utilized to investigate fracture behavior in materials.
Another important application of the photoelasticity experiments is to
study the stress field around bi-material notches. Bi-material notches
exist in many engineering application like welded or adhesively bonded
structures

33