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Soilnailing
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Soilnailingisaconstructiontechniquethatcanbeusedasaremedialmeasuretotreatunstablenaturalsoil
slopesorasaconstructiontechniquethatallowsthesafeoversteepeningofneworexistingsoilslopes.The
techniqueinvolvestheinsertionofrelativelyslenderreinforcingelementsintotheslopeoftengeneral
purposereinforcingbars(rebar)althoughproprietarysolidorhollowsystembarsarealsoavailable.Solid
barsareusuallyinstalledintopredrilledholesandthengroutedintoplaceusingaseparategroutline,
whereashollowbarsmaybedrilledandgroutedsimultaneouslybytheuseofasacrificialdrillbitandby
pumpinggroutdownthehollowbarasdrillingprogresses.Kineticmethodsoffiringrelativelyshortbars
intosoilslopeshavealsobeendeveloped.Barsinstalledusingdrillingtechniquesareusuallyfullygrouted
andinstalledataslightdownwardinclinationwithbarsinstalledatregularlyspacedpointsacrosstheslope
face.Arigidfacing(oftenpneumaticallyappliedconcrete,otherwiseknownasshotcrete)orisolatedsoil
nailheadplatesmaybeusedatthesurface.[1]Alternativelyaflexiblereinforcingmeshmaybeheldagainst
thesoilfacebeneaththeheadplates.Rabbitproofwiremeshandenvironmentalerosioncontrolfabricsand
maybeusedinconjunctionwithflexiblemeshfacingwhereenvironmentalconditionsdictate.
Soilnailcomponentsmayalsobeusedtostabilizeretainingwallsorexistingfillslopes(embankmentsand
levees)thisisnormallyundertakenasaremedialmeasure.
SinceitsfirstapplicationusingmoderntechniquesinVersaillesin1972,[2]soilnailingisnowawell
establishedtechniquearoundtheworld.Oneofthefirstnationalguidelinepublicationsforsoilnailingwas
producedinJapanin1987.TheU.S.FederalHighwayAdministrationissuedguidelinepublicationsin
1996[3]and2003.[4]

Contents
1PreliminaryAnalysis
2Origins
3Design
4Construction
5Costcomparison
6Inspectionandperformancemonitoring
7Seealso
8References

PreliminaryAnalysis
Fourmainpointstobeconsideredindeterminingifsoilnailingwouldbeaneffectiveretentiontechnique
areasfollows.First,theexistinggroundconditionsshouldbeexamined.Next,theadvantagesand
disadvantagesforasoilnailwallshouldbeassessedfortheparticularapplicationbeingconsidered.Then
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othersystemsshouldbeconsideredfortheparticularapplication.Finally,costofthesoilnailwallshould
beconsidered.[5]Soilnailwallscanbeusedforavarietyofsoiltypesandconditions.Themostfavorable
conditionsforsoilnailingareasfollows:Thesoilshouldbeabletostandunsupportedonetotwometers
highforaminimumoftwodayswhencutverticalornearlyvertical.Alsoallsoilnailswithinacross
sectionshouldbelocatedabovethegroundwatertable.Ifthesoilnailsarenotlocatedabovethe
groundwatertable,thegroundwatershouldnotnegativelyaffectthefaceoftheexcavation,thebond
betweenthegroundandthesoilnailitself.[6]Baseduponthesefavorableconditionsforsoilnailingstiffto
hardfinegrainedsoilswhichincludestifftohardclays,clayeysilts,siltyclays,sandyclays,andsandysilts
arepreferredsoils.Sandandgravelswhicharedensetoverydensesoilswithsomeapparentcohesionalso
workwellforsoilnailing.Weatheredrockisalsoacceptableaslongastherockisweatheredevenly
throughout(meaningnoweaknessplanes).Finally,glacialsoilsworkwellforsoilnailing.[6]
Alistofunfavorableordifficultsoilconditionsforsoilnailingcanincludedry,poorlygradedcohesionless
soils,soilswithahighgroundwatertable,soilswithcobblesandboulders,softtoverysoftfinegrained
soils,highlycorrosivesoils,weatheredrockwithunfavorableweaknessplanes,andloess.[7]Otherdifficult
conditionsincludeprolongedexposuretofreezingtemperatures,aclimatethathasarepeatedfreezeand
thawcycle,andgranularsoilsthatareveryloose.[8]

Origins
SoilnailingevolvedfromtheNewAustrianTunnelingmethodwhichisasystemforunderground
excavationsinrock.Thismethodconsistsofpassivesteelreinforcementintherockfollowedbythe
applicationofreinforcedshotcrete.Thisconceptofcombiningpassivesteelreinforcementandshotcretehas
alsobeenappliedtothestabilizationofrockslopessincetheearly1960s.[9]
Thefirstapplicationofsoilnailingwasimplementedin1972forarailroadwideningprojectnear
Versailles,France.Soilnailswereusedtostabilizean18mhighslopeconsistingofsandysoil.This
methodprovedtobemorecosteffective,whileatthesametimecutdowntheconstructiontimewhen
comparedtootherconventionalsupportmethods.[9]Germanywasthenextcountrytoinvestigatesoil
nailing.From1975to1981theUniversityofKarlsruheandtheconstructioncompanyBauercollaborated
toestablisharesearchprogram.Thisprogramconductedfullscaletestingofexperimentalwallswith
differentconfigurationsanddevelopedanalysisproceduresforuseindesign.[9]TheUnitedStatesfirstused
soilnailingin1976forthesupportofa13.7mdeepfoundationexcavationindensesiltysands.Soilnailing
wasimplementedintheexpansionofTheGoodSamaritanHospitalinPortland,Oregon.Thisretaining
systemwasproducedinapproximatelyhalfthetimeatabout85%ofthecostofconventionalretaining
systems.[10]

Design
Afterapreliminaryanalysisofthesite,initialdesignsofthesoilnailwallcanbebegin.Thisbeginswitha
selectionoflimitstatesanddesignapproaches.Thetwomostcommonlimitstatesusedinsoilnailwall
designisstrengthlimitandservicelimitstates.[11]Thestrengthlimitstateisthelimitstatethataddresses
potentialfailuremechanismsorcollapsestatesofthesoilnailwallsystem.[11]Theservicelimitstateisthe

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limitstatethataddresseslossofservicefunctionresultingfromexcessivewalldeformationandisdefined
byrestrictionsinstress,deformationandfacingcrackwidthunderregularserviceconditions.[11]Thetwo
mostcommondesignapproachesforsoilnailwallsarelimitstatedesignandserviceloaddesign.[11]
Initialdesignconsiderationsincludewalllayout(wallheightandlength),soilnailverticalandhorizontal
spacing,soilnailpatternonwallface,soilnailinclination,soilnaillengthanddistribution,soilnail
materialandrelevantgroundproperties.[12]Withallthesevariablesinthemindofthedesignengineerthe
nextstepistousesimplifiedchartstopreliminarilyevaluatenaillengthandmaximumnailforce.Nail
length,diameterandspacingtypicallycontrolexternalandinternalstabilityofthewall.Theseparameters
canbeadjustedduringdesignuntilallexternalandinternalstabilityrequirementsaremet.[13]Afterthe
initialdesigniscompleted,finaldesignprogresseswherethesoilnailwallhastobetestedforexternaland
internalfailuremodes,seismicconsiderationsandaestheticqualities.[14]Drainage,frostpenetrationand
externalloadssuchaswindandhydrostaticforcesalsohavetobedeterminedandincludedinthefinal
examinationofthedesign.[14]Soilnailwallsarenotidealinlocationswithhighlyplasticclaysoils.Soils
withhighplasticity,ahighliquidlimitandlowundrainedshearstrengthsareatriskoflongterm
deformation(creep).[14]

Construction
Withthedesigncomplete,constructionisthenextstep.Mostsoilnailwallconstructionfollowsaspecific
procedure.Firstacutisexcavatedandtemporarybracingisputinplaceifnecessary.Thisisdonewith
conventionalearthmovingequipmentandhydraulicdrills.[15]Next,holesforthesoilnailsaredrilledat
predeterminedlocationsasspecifiedbythedesignengineer.Theequipmentusedforthisstepisdependent
onthestabilityofthematerialinwhichthesoilnailwallissupporting.Rotaryorrotarypercussivemethods
usingairflushordryaugermethodscanbeusedwithstableground.[15]Forunstableground,singletube
andduplexrotarymethodswithairandwaterflushorhollowstemaugermethodsareused.[15]Withthe
holesdrilled,thenextstepistoinstallandgroutthenailsintoplace.Afterallnailsareinserted,adrainage
systemisputintoplace.Syntheticdrainagematisplacedverticallybetweenthenailheads,whichare
extendeddowntothebaseofthewallwheretheyaremostcommonlyconnectedtoafootingdrain.[16]A
layerofshotcreteisappliedandbearingplatesareinstalledbeforeafinalfacingisputinplacetocomplete
thesoilnailwall.[16]Variationsofthestepsdescribedabovemaybenecessarytoaccommodateadditional
preparationtasksorsupplementaryactivitiesforspecificprojectconditions.
Intermsofconstruction,soilnailwallshaveadecisiveadvantageoverotheralternatives.Soilnailwalls
requireasmallerrightofwaythangroundanchorwallsandhavelessenvironmentalimpact.[17]Installation
ofsoilnailwallsisrelativelyrapidandtypicallyuseslessmaterialsandsmallerconstructionequipment
thangroundanchorwalls.[17]

Costcomparison
Onegreatadvantageofsoilnailwallsistheircosteffectivenessoverotheralternatives.Whenconventional
soilnailingconstructionproceduresareused,soilnailwallsaremuchmoreeconomicalthanconcrete
gravitywallsandsimilarlyormorecosteffectivethangroundanchorwalls.[18]
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Inspectionandperformancemonitoring
Inspectionactivitiesplayavitalroleintheproductionofhighqualitysoilnailwallsbecauseconformance
toprojectplansandspecificationsshouldresultinasoilnailwallthatwillperformitsintendeddutyforits
designedduration.Inspectionsusuallyinvolveevaluationofthefollowing:conformanceofsystem
componentstomaterialspecification,conformanceofconstructionmethodstoexecutionspecifications,
conformancetoshorttermperformancespecifications,andlongtermmonitoring.[19]Shortterm
performancespecificationsarecheckedwithloadstests,whichutilizehydraulicjacksandpumpsto
performseveralloadapplications.Threecommonloadtestsforshorttermperformanceareverificationor
ultimateloadtests,prooftestsandcreeptests.Verificationorultimateloadtestsareconductedtoverifythe
complianceofthesoilnailswithpulloutcapacityandstrengthsresultingfromthecontractor'sinstallation
method.[20]Prooftestsareintendedtoverifythatthecontractor'sconstructionprocedurehasbeen
consistentandthatthenailshavenotbeendrilledandgroutedinasoilzonenottestedintheverification
stage.[20]Creeptestsareperformedtoensurethatthenaildesignloadscanbesafelycarriedthroughoutthe
structure'sservicelife.[20]
Longtermperformancemonitoringisusedtocollectdatatoensureadequateperformanceandrefinefuture
designpractices.Parameterstobemeasuredincludeverticalandhorizontalmovementofthewallface,
localmovementsordeteriorationoffacingelements,drainagetotheground,loads,loaddistributionand
loadchangesinthenails,temperatureandrainfall.[21]Theseparametersaremeasuredusingseveralspecific
toolsincludinginclinometers,loadcellsandstraingauges.Moreinformationaboutgeotechnicalmonitoring
canbefoundongeotechdata.infodatabase(http://www.geotechdata.info/monitoring/monitoring.html).

Seealso
Erosioncontrol

References
1. ^Goldstein,Natalie(SepOct2001)."SoilNailing"(http://www.erosioncontrol.com/septemberoctober
2001/soilnailingconstruction.aspx).ErosionControl(ForesterMedia)8(6).
2. ^"Constructiond'unmurdesoutnemententreVersaillesChantiersetVersaillesMatelots",S.RabejacandP.
Toudic,Generalreviewoftherailways,93rdedition,pp232237.
3. ^U.S.FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA)."ManualforDesignandConstructionMonitoringofSoilNail
Walls."(http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/geotech/library_arc.cfm?pub_number=160)Publicationno.
FHWASA96069.RevisedOctober1998.
4. ^FHWA(2003)."GeotechnicalEngineeringCircularNo.7:SoilNailWalls."
(http://isddc.dot.gov/OLPFiles/FHWA/016917.pdf)PublicationNo.FHWAIF03017.
5. ^FHWA(2003)."GeotechnicalEngineeringCircularNo.7:SoilNailWalls."
(http://isddc.dot.gov/OLPFiles/FHWA/016917.pdf)PublicationNo.FHWAIF03017.pp.13,14.
6. ^abFHWA(2003)."GeotechnicalEngineeringCircularNo.7:SoilNailWalls."
(http://isddc.dot.gov/OLPFiles/FHWA/016917.pdf)PublicationNo.FHWAIF03017.pp.14,15.
7. ^FHWA(2003)."GeotechnicalEngineeringCircularNo.7:SoilNailWalls."
(http://isddc.dot.gov/OLPFiles/FHWA/016917.pdf)PublicationNo.FHWAIF03017.pp.15,16.
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(http://isddc.dot.gov/OLPFiles/FHWA/016917.pdf)PublicationNo.FHWAIF03017.pp.15,16.
8. ^FHWA(2003)."GeotechnicalEngineeringCircularNo.7:SoilNailWalls."
(http://isddc.dot.gov/OLPFiles/FHWA/016917.pdf)PublicationNo.FHWAIF03017.pp.16.
9. ^abcFHWA(2003)."GeotechnicalEngineeringCircularNo.7:SoilNailWalls."
(http://isddc.dot.gov/OLPFiles/FHWA/016917.pdf)PublicationNo.FHWAIF03017.pp.23.
10. ^FHWA(2003)."GeotechnicalEngineeringCircularNo.7:SoilNailWalls."
(http://isddc.dot.gov/OLPFiles/FHWA/016917.pdf)PublicationNo.FHWAIF03017.pp.24.
11. ^abcdU.S.FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA)."ManualforDesignandConstructionMonitoringof
SoilNailWalls."(http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/geotech/library_arc.cfm?pub_number=160)Publication
no.FHWASA96069.RevisedOctober1998.pp.77.
12. ^FHWA(2003)."GeotechnicalEngineeringCircularNo.7:SoilNailWalls."
(http://isddc.dot.gov/OLPFiles/FHWA/016917.pdf)PublicationNo.FHWAIF03017.pp.123.
13. ^FHWA(2003)."GeotechnicalEngineeringCircularNo.7:SoilNailWalls."
(http://isddc.dot.gov/OLPFiles/FHWA/016917.pdf)PublicationNo.FHWAIF03017.pp.130.
14. ^abcFHWA(2003)."GeotechnicalEngineeringCircularNo.7:SoilNailWalls."
(http://isddc.dot.gov/OLPFiles/FHWA/016917.pdf)PublicationNo.FHWAIF03017.pp.144.
15. ^abcU.S.FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA)."ManualforDesignandConstructionMonitoringofSoil
NailWalls."(http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/geotech/library_arc.cfm?pub_number=160)Publicationno.
FHWASA96069.RevisedOctober1998.pp.33.
16. ^abU.S.FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA)."ManualforDesignandConstructionMonitoringofSoil
NailWalls."(http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/geotech/library_arc.cfm?pub_number=160)Publicationno.
FHWASA96069.RevisedOctober1998.pp.35.
17. ^abFHWA(2003)."GeotechnicalEngineeringCircularNo.7:SoilNailWalls."
(http://isddc.dot.gov/OLPFiles/FHWA/016917.pdf)PublicationNo.FHWAIF03017.pp.17.
18. ^FHWA(2003)."GeotechnicalEngineeringCircularNo.7:SoilNailWalls."
(http://isddc.dot.gov/OLPFiles/FHWA/016917.pdf)PublicationNo.FHWAIF03017.pp.18.
19. ^FHWA(2003)."GeotechnicalEngineeringCircularNo.7:SoilNailWalls."
(http://isddc.dot.gov/OLPFiles/FHWA/016917.pdf)PublicationNo.FHWAIF03017.pp.156.
20. ^abcFHWA(2003)."GeotechnicalEngineeringCircularNo.7:SoilNailWalls."
(http://isddc.dot.gov/OLPFiles/FHWA/016917.pdf)PublicationNo.FHWAIF03017.pp.163.
21. ^FHWA(2003)."GeotechnicalEngineeringCircularNo.7:SoilNailWalls."
(http://isddc.dot.gov/OLPFiles/FHWA/016917.pdf)PublicationNo.FHWAIF03017.pp.170.

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