CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
In the past century, it has been seen that the consumption of non-renewable sources of
energy has caused more environmental damage than any other human activity. Electricity
generated from fossil fuels such as coal and crude oil has led to high concentrations of
harmful gases in the atmosphere. This has in turn led to many problems being faced today
such as ozone depletion and global warming. Vehicular pollution has also been a major
problem.

1.1 NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES

A non-renewable resource (also known as a finite resource) is a resource that does not renew
itself at a sufficient rate for sustainable economic extraction in meaningful human
timeframes. An example is carbon-based, organically-derived fuel. The original organic
material, with the aid of heat and pressure, becomes a fuel such as oil or gas. Fossil
fuels (such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas), and certain aquifers are all examples of nonrenewable resources.

1.1.1 Petroleum
Oil, or petroleum, comes from the liquefied, fossilized remains of plants and animals that
lived hundreds of millions of years ago; once oil sources are depleted, they cannot be
replaced. Oil is an energy source that the world is very much dependent upon. It is used to
create fuels, such as gasoline, diesel and jet fuel. It is also used in the manufacturing of
plastics and industrial chemicals. Much of our oil is imported, creating a dependency on
sources that are unpredictable and costly. The environmental impacts of mining oil include
threats to waterways, plants and wildlife due to oil spills and increased infrastructure in
natural areas. The impacts of oil combustion include air pollution, smog and increased
greenhouse gas emissions. [1]

1.1.2 Coal
Coal is the most plentiful nonrenewable resource in the world and is used to create more than
half of the electricity used in the world is made when plant material has been compressed in
bogs for millions of years. [1] The extraction of coal from surface and sub-surface mines
creates numerous problems for humans and the environment. Sub-surface mines are
dangerous for miners as tunnels can collapse and built-up gas can explode. They also create
subsidence, meaning that the ground level lowers when the coal is removed. Surface mining,
or strip-mining, causes erosion and water pollution and decreases biodiversity by reducing
plant and animal habitats. Additionally, the combustion of coal contributes to air pollution
and global climate change and creates a toxic ash as a byproduct. [1]

1.1.3 Natural Gas

Natural gas is the result of decomposing plants and animals that were trapped beneath rock
millions of years ago. This gas is drilled from the ground or extracted using dynamite and
then processed and piped through thousands of miles of pipelines for cooking, heating homes
and fueling vehicles. [2] Though natural gas is considered to be a relatively "clean" fossil
fuel, the environmental impacts of extracting it and installing pipelines include severe
disruption of wildlife habitat and groundwater contamination. [3]

1.1.4 Nuclear Energy

Although nuclear energy is often held up as a viable alternative to coal and oil, it is not a
renewable energy source. Nuclear power requires uranium, a radioactive metallic element
that must be mined from the earth and is not quickly replenished. Nuclear energy does not
create air pollution though combustion like fossil fuels. It does, however, produce radioactive
waste, which must be disposed of and which can cause problems for humans and ecosystems
for thousands of years. Additionally, accidents and leaks from nuclear power plants can have
catastrophic effects on the entire planet.[4]

1.2 RENEWABLE SOURCES

Therefore, alternative sources of energy have become very important and relevant to todays
world. These sources, such as the sun and wind, can never be exhausted and therefore are
called renewable. They cause less emission and are available locally. Their use can, to a large
extent, reduce chemical, radioactive, and thermal pollution. They stand out as a viable source
of clean and limitless energy. These are also known as non-conventional sources of energy.
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Most of the renewable sources of energy are fairly non-polluting and considered clean though
biomass, a renewable source, is a major polluter indoors. Under the category of renewable
energy or non-conventional energy are such sources as the sun, wind, water, agricultural
residue, firewood, and animal dung.
Most renewable energy comes either directly or indirectly from the sun. Sunlight, or solar
energy, can be used directly for heating and lighting homes and other buildings, for
generating electricity, and for hot water heating, solar cooling, and a variety of commercial
and industrial uses.
The sun's heat also drives the winds and this energy, is captured with wind turbines. Then, the
winds and the sun's heat cause water to evaporate. When this water vapor turns into rain or
snow and flows downhill into rivers or streams, its energy can be captured
using hydroelectric power.
Along with the rain and snow, sunlight causes plants to grow. The organic matter that makes
up those plants is known as biomass. Biomass can be used to produce electricity,
transportation fuels, or chemicals. The use of biomass for any of these purposes is called bio
energy.
Hydrogen also can be found in many organic compounds, as well as water. It's the most
abundant element on the Earth. But it doesn't occur naturally as a gas. It's always combined
with other elements, such as with oxygen to make water. Once separated from another
element, hydrogen can be burned as a fuel or converted into electricity.
Not all renewable energy resources come from the sun. Geothermal energy taps the Earth's
internal heat for a variety of uses, including electric power production, and the heating and
cooling of buildings. And the energy of the ocean's tides come from the gravitational pull of
the moon and the sun upon the Earth.
In fact, ocean energy comes from a number of sources. In addition to tidal energy, there's the
energy of the ocean's waves, which are driven by both the tides and the winds. The sun also
warms the surface of the ocean more than the ocean depths, creating a temperature difference
that can be used as an energy source. All these forms of ocean energy can be used to produce
electricity.

Renewable energy sources are just that, renewable. Fossil fuels are limited. While we still
have plenty at the present time, current oil reserves may only last another 30 to 70 years.
Fossil fuels are used much more quickly than they can be formed by nature. The sun is
expected to last another 4 or 5 billion years.
The main fossil fuels that are in use include coal, petroleum, lignite and natural gasses.
Renewable energy sources include solar, water, wind, geothermal and waste material. Solar
power is available for use almost anywhere. It does not take a great deal of sunlight to
produce solar power. Water, wind and geothermal power do have area limitations but fuel
from waste is unlimited. We produce more than enough waste.
Fossil fuels tend to be a "dirtier" source of power. While some fossil fuels do burn cleanly
most do not. Fossil fuels produce carbon dioxide when burned and some, like coal, also
produce sulphur dioxide, a source of acid rain. Renewable energy sources like the sun and
water are clean. Solar and hydropower do not produce harmful gasses. Wind energy does not
produce harmful gasses. Some uses of waste for energy will produce gasses but not to the
extent of fossil fuel sources.
There are other environmental aspects to consider besides air quality when comparing fossil
fuel and renewable energy sources. Coal needs to be mined. This mining, when not done
properly, can damage the land that it is mined from. Coal mining can be dangerous to the
miners and have long lasting health effects. Oil must be drilled. Drilling for oil is also a
dangerous operation. Oil being transported can leak causing damage to both ocean life and
land.
While it is true that building power plants to produce energy from renewable resources is
initially costly, the cost can be less in the long run. Solar generators do not need to be moved
because the sun ran out in the particular area that plant is located in. The sun is not going to
run out. Oil rigs do need to be rebuilt in new locations. New mines need to be dug for new
coal. Most hydroelectric plants will not need to be moved to find new sources of water.
Unless a river is diverted, the water will be there.
In considering safety, there are issues that need to be dealt with in developing of use of
renewable energy. Wind power needs to be planned carefully so as not to disturb wildlife.
Hydroelectric plants need to be located to prevent damage to aquatic life. These issues can be
4

dealt with by proper planning and location of plants. We have a incredible amount of
renewable energy sources to supply our needs. We only have to have the determination to
make use of them.[5]

1.3 USES OF SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is used everywhere throughout the globe. solar powered objects don't need
direct sunlight but daylight. Even behind clouds and rain you get light and one minute of
sunlight can last us many lifetimes.
The use of solar energy is becoming increasingly popular. Education, easily accessible
supplies and concern for energy savings has helped the boost of solar energy use. Microwave,
TV, radio, telemetry and radio telephones are using solar energy and so are residential homes.

1.3.1 Residential
The number of PV installations on buildings connected to the electricity grid has grown in
recent years. Government subsidy programs (particularly in Germany and Japan) and green
pricing policies of utilities or electricity service providers have stimulated demand. Demand
is also driven by the desire of individuals or companies to obtain their electricity from a
clean, non-polluting, renewable source. These consumers are usually willing to pay only a
small premium for renewable energy. Increasingly, the incentive is an attractive financial
return on the investment through the sale of solar electricity at premium feed-in tariff rates.
In solar systems connected to the electricity grid, the PV system supplies electricity to the
building, and any daytime excess may be exported to the grid. Batteries are not required
because the grid supplies any extra demand. However, to be independent of the grid supply,
battery storage is needed to provide power at night.
Holiday or vacation homes without access to the electricity grid can use solar systems more
cost-effectively than if the grid was extended to reach the location. Remote homes in sunny
locations can obtain reliable electricity to meet basic needs with a simple system comprising
of a PV panel, a rechargeable battery to store the energy captured during daylight hours, a
regulator (or charge controller), and the necessary wiring and switches. Such systems are
often called solar home systems (SHS).

1.3.2 Commercial
On an office building, roof areas can be covered with glass PV modules, which can be semitransparent to provide shaded light. On a factory or warehouse, large roof areas are the best
location for solar modules. If the roof is flat, then arrays can be mounted using techniques
that do not breach the weatherproofed roof membrane. Also, skylights can be partially
covered with PV.
The vertical walls of office buildings provide several opportunities for PV incorporation, as
well as sunshades or balconies incorporating a PV system. Sunshades may have the PV
system mounted externally to the building, or have PV cells specially mounted between glass
sheets comprising the window.

1.3.3 Industrial
For many years, solar energy has been the power supply choice for industrial applications,
especially where power is required at remote locations. Because solar systems are highly
reliable and require little maintenance, they are ideal in distant or isolated places.
Solar energy is also frequently used for transportation signaling, such as offshore navigation
buoys, lighthouses, aircraft warning light structures, and increasingly in road traffic warning
signals. Solar is used to power environmental monitoring equipment and corrosion protection
systems for pipelines, well-heads, bridges, and other structures. For larger electrical loads, it
can be cost-effective to configure a hybrid power system that links the PV with a small diesel
generator.

1.3.4 Remote Applications

Remote buildings, such as schools, community halls, and clinics, can benefit from solar
energy. In developing regions, central power plants can provide electricity to homes via a
local wired network, or act as a battery charging station where members of the community
can bring batteries to be recharged.
PV systems can be used to pump water in remote areas as part of a portable water supply
system. Specialized solar water pumps are designed for submersible use or to float on open

water. Large-scale desalination plants can also be PV powered using an array of PV modules
with battery storage.
PV systems are sometimes best configured with a small diesel generator in order to meet
heavy power requirements in off-grid locations. With a small diesel generator, the PV system
does not have to be sized to cope with the worst sunlight conditions during the year. The
diesel generator can provide back-up power that is minimized during the sunniest part of the
year by the PV system. This keeps fuel and maintenance costs low.

1.4 BENEFITS OF SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is an important part of life and has been since the beginning of time.
Increasingly, man is learning how to harness this important resource and use it to replace
traditional energy sources.
Solar energy is an important part of almost every life process, if not, all life processes. Plants
and animals, alike, use solar energy to produce important nutrients in their cells. Plants use
the energy to produce the green chlorophyll that they need to survive, while humans use the
sun rays to produce vitamin D in their bodies. However, when man learned to actually
convert solar energy into usable energy, it became even more important.
Most renewable energy investments are spent on materials and workmanship to build and
maintain the facilities, rather than on costly energy imports. Renewable energy investments
are usually spent within the world, frequently in the same state, and often in the same town.
Since solar energy is completely natural, it is considered a clean energy source. It does not
disrupt the environment or create a threat to Eco-systems the way oil and some other energy
sources might. It does not cause greenhouse gases, air or water pollution. The small amount
of impact it does have on the environment is usually from the chemicals and solvents that are
used during the manufacture of the photovoltaic cells that are needed to convert the sun's
energy into electricity. This is a small problem compared to the huge impact that one oil spill
can have on the environment.

1.5 SOLAR THERMAL HEATER

Solar thermal heater also called solar domestic hot water system can be a cost effective way
to generate hot water, which can be used for our home and industrial purpose also. And we
can be used it in any climate also but solar radiation should have.
In a solar thermal heater have three main components:
1. Solar collector
2. Heat exchanger
3. Storage tank

Solar collector
Solar collector is a important part of the solar thermal system. Solar collector is also two
types of flat plate collector and focusing collector.
Solar radiation incident upon the transparent surface of the solar collector is transmitted
through this surface. And coolant flows inside the tubes in a solar collector, which will be
heated. This flow goes to heat exchanger. The tubes are usually made of copper, but in our
solar collector we used channel, which is made of mild steel. It is black painted to help
absorb solar radiation. The solar collector is usually insulated to avoid heat losses.

Heat exchanger
Working principle of the heat exchanger is exchange the energy from one fluid to another
fluid.
So that hot water is flows in a copper tube in a heat exchanger. In heat exchanger water will
have heated after some time. It is made of insulting material like plastic.

Storage tank
We fill water in a storage tank. These systems are used to heat water for swimming pools as
well as for domestic cooking and cleaning needs.

1.5.1 Advantage
Generate electricity
By the help of solar energy we can generate electricity using solar cell (which is convert the
solar energy into electricity). Tidal energy wave energy also found from the solar energy

Save Energy

By using the suns free energy we can reduce our hot water energy consumption by 50% to
90% depending on where we live. Thats up to 90% less gas or electricity which needs to be
produced.

Save water heating costs

Reducing our energy usage will give us real dollar savings every day. An average home can
expect to save money off its energy bills year after year. And with the way energy costs are
increasing around the world, the savings could be even greater in the future.

Save the environment

Not only will we make big savings on our energy costs, using the suns free energy is great
for the environment. A family of four with a Solar water heater can save up to 3 or 4 tonnes
of greenhouse gas emissions compared to a conventional electric water heater. Thats the
same as taking a small car off the road, so we can imagine the benefits for our future
generations and the future of the planet.

1.5.2 Problems
1. Initial cost of the solar water heater is high.
2. Unavailability of solar energy during winter season, rainy season and cloudiness
environment .
3. Scaling problem occurs to use of normal water. Due to the scaling problem, life of
collector is reduced. If water supply is of hard water or acidic water a solar water heater will
be rendered useless after a while because the interiors of the solar collector may get corroded.
4. The defects of solar water heater is the installation is complex. If the installation of solar
water heater is improper, it will affect the appearance of housing, quality, and the city's face
of the city. As solar heat collector is installed outdoors, the maintenance is troublesome.

1.6 CHAPTER PLAN

1.6.1 Introduction
In this chapter firstly we discussed about renewable and non renewable energy sources. Non
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renewable sources, these are limited sources. Examples of the non renewable sources are like
petroleum, coal, natural gas, nuclear energy and certain aquifers.
Later we discussed about renewable sources. These sources have infinite. No shortage occurs.
In these sources have no emission problem occurs and availability occur everywhere.
Solar energy, tidal energy, wave energy, bio energy, geothermal energy, ocean energy, wind
energy is examples of renewable sources. And we described about these energy sources.

1.6.2 Review of literature

In this chapter we discussed about the solar water heating system. Solar water heating system
is a device that uses solar energy for hot water production. Later we discussed that production
of solar water heater and where it uses.
After that we described about types of solar water heating system. It mainly two types
1. Natural circulation systems and
2. Forced circulation system

Natural circulation system

In a natural circulation system natural fluid flows. This system works on the thermosyphon
solar system.

Forced circulation system

If the thermosyphon system cannot be used for climate, structural, or architectural reason a
forced circulation required. So that in this system we need pressure for flowing water.
After that we discussed about the components of solar water heater using secondary fluid.
Solar collector
Tubes
Heat exchanger
Water container
10

Solar collector
solar radiations fall on the solar collector. So that secondary fluid flows in the solar collector
channels. Fluid will be heated. It is upper surface pained from black color. And lower surface
is attached to the insulating material.
After that in it described about types of collector
Tubes
We took two types tubes Plastic tube and copper tube.
Heat exchanger
It is made of insulating material like plastic.
Water container
Use of container is store the water.

1.6.3 Materials and methods

In this chapter we discussed about material properties those we used.
We discussed about mild steel, which use for making solar collector And we discussed about
properties of copper tube.
Later on we discussed about secondary fluid. In this system we used distilled water because
of higher specific heat and higher boiling point.
And no scaling problem occurs.
After that in a calculation part we assume the all efficiencies and design the solar collector
and heat exchanger.
We found the total heat to heat water.

1.6.4 Result and discussion

In this topic we have discussed about all our calculation result. Final analysis has been made
11

in this topic which is further tested by special techniques and devices. All the calculation and
results are discussed in this topic.
We have discussed the result of following calculation as follows
Collector area
Collector dimension and material
Channel dimension
Stand design
Tube design of heat exchanger
Storage tank dimension

1.6.5 Conclusion and suggestion

In this topic we have concluded what we have studied and what the final result we obtained.
In this we have suggested some points to improve the efficiency, to increase the capacity, to
maintain accuracy etc.

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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 SOLAR WATER HEATING
A solar water heating system (SWH) is the device that uses solar energy for hot
water production. Solar water heating system (SWH) is renewable energy technology
and has been used in many countries of the world. This natural energy is absolutely free and
the supply is unlimited in the day whenever there is sunlight. The usage of this Energy does
not produce any pollutant and therefore is most Environment Friendly. In Residential
countries, energy consumption in the building sector need of high energy Budget. Most
energy is needed production of hot water and space heating. Hot water is important for
bathing and for washing, utensils and other domestic purpose in urban as well as in country
areas. Heating water is usually burning by firewood in the country areas and by fossil fuel
energy such as kerosene oil, petroleum gas (LPG), coal and electricity in metropolitan areas.
In this consider, consumption of solar energy through solar water heating (SWH) systems can
be replace to reducing energy amount required.(Staff, D., and Campbell, S., 1978)
SWH is approve and readily available technology use renewable energy for Conventional
water heating. A lot of types of SWH are available and can be used in much application.
Domestic hot water usually uses small system applications while larger systems are used in
industrial applications. There are two types of water heating systems based on the type of the
circulation: natural circulation and forced circulation. Natural circulation solar water heaters
are simple in design and low cost. Forced circulation water heaters are used in freezing
climates and for commercial and industrial process heat. (Staff, D., and Campbell, S., 1978)
[5]
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Suitable design of solar water heating system is will give maximum benefit to the user,
mainly for a large system. Designing solar hot water system need suitable sizing of different
components and must considering on solar insulations and hot water demand. In this review,
the effect of sizing of part on the system is studied and a novel strategy for the system part is
proposed to improve the design and performance of solar water heating systems.

2.2 SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM

Energy application from the sun to heat water is nothing new. Solar water heaters have been
use since the 1800s. The difference in configuration is most modern solar water heaters are
placing in the roof with resembles to sky. Solar water heaters are an environmentally and to
reduce energy bills. (Staff, D., and Campbell, S.,1978)
Solar water heaters come in different configurations in the design, cost,
performance, and level of system. Most systems have auxiliary sources such as electricity or
gas. A solar water heating system has a part of a insulated water storage tank, a solar
collector, a back-up energy source, and a pump and controls. (Staff, D., and Campbell,S.,
1978)

2.3 TYPES OF SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM

There are basically two types of solar water heating system(D. Yogi Goswami, Jan F.Kreider,
1999)

2.3.1 Natural Circulation Systems (thermosyphon solar system)

The natural tendency of a less dense fluid to rise above a denser fluid can be used in a simple
solar water heater to cause fluid motion through a collector. The density difference is created
within the solar collector where heat is added to the liquid. In the system shown in Figure 2.1
as water gets heated in collector, it rises to the tank and the cooler water from the tank moves
to the bottom of the collector, setting up a6 natural circulation loop. It also called a
14

thermosyphon loop. Since these water heaters not use a pump, it is a passive water heater. For
the thermosyphon to work, the storage tank must be located higher than the collector. (D.
Yogi Goswami, Jan F. Kreider, 1999)

Figure 2.1: Natural circulation system (thermosyphon)

[D. Yogi Goswami, Jan F. Kreider, 1999]
Since the driving force in a thermosyphon system is only a small density difference and not a
pump, larger-than-normal plumbing fixtures must be used to reduce pipe friction losses. In
general, one pipe size larger than normal would be uses with a pump system are satisfactory.
Since the hot-water system load vary little during a year, the angle of tilt is that equal to the
latitude, that is, 40 . The temperature difference between the collector inlet water and
collector outlet water is usually 8-11C during the middle of a sunny day. After sunset, a
thermosyphon system can reverse its flow direction and lose heat to the environments during
the night. To avoid reverse flow, the top header of the absorber should be at least 30cm below
the cold leg fitting on the storage tank, as shown; otherwise a check valve would be needed. .
(D. Yogi Goswami, Jan F. Kreider, 1999) Several features inherent in thermosyphon design
unit utility. If its to be operated in a freezing climate, a non freezing fluid must be used,
which in turn requires heat exchanges between collector and portable water storage. (If
portable water is not required, the collector can be drained during cold period instead). Heat
exchanger of either the shell-and-tube type or the immersion-coil type required higher flow
rates for efficient operation than a thermosyphon can provide.

15

usually limited to non freezing climates. For mild freeze climates, a heat exchanger coil
welded to the outer surface of the tank and filled with antifreeze may work well. .(D.Yogi
Goswami, Jan F. Kreider, 1999)

2.3.2 Forced-Circulation System

If a thermosyphon system cannot be used for climatic, structural, or architectural reason, a
forced- circulation system is required. In order to accommodate the thermal expansion of
water from heating, a small(about 2 gallon capacity) expansion tank and a pressure relief
valve are provided in the solar loop. Because water always stays in the collector of this
system, antifreeze (propylene glycol or ethylene glycol) is required for location where
freezing condition can occur. During stagnation condition (in summer), the temperature in the
collector can become very high, causing the pressure in the loop to increase. This can cause
leak in the loop unless some fluid is allowed to escape through a pressure-release valve.
Whether the result of leaks or of draining, air enters the loop causing the pumps to run
dry. This disadvantage can be overcome in a closed loop drain back system which is not
pressurized. In this system, when the pump shut off, the water in the collector drain back into
a small holding tank while the air in the holding tank goes up to fill the collector. The holding
tank can be located where freezing does not occur, but still at a high level to reduce pumping
power. In all three configuration differential controller measures the temperature differential
between the solar collector and the storage, and turns the circulation pump on when the
differential goes below a set limit (usually 2C).
Alternatively, a photovoltaic (PV) panel and d DC pump may be used. The PV panel
turns on the pump only when the solar radiation is above a minimum level. Therefore,
the differential controller and the temperature sensors may be eliminated. . (D. Yogi
Goswami, Jan F. Kreider, 1999)

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Figure 2.2: Three configurations of forced circulation systems: (1) open loop, (2) closedloop,
and (3) closed loop with drain back.
[D. Yogi Goswami, Jan F. Kreider, 199]
Figure 2.2 show in an open loop system the solar loop is at atmospheric pressure, therefore,
the collectors are empty when they are not providing useful heat. A disadvantage of the
system is the high pumping power required to pump the water to the collector every time the
collectors become hot. This disadvantage is overcome in the pressurized closed loop system
since the pump has to overcome only the resistance of the pipes. In this system, the solar loop
remains filled with water under pressure. (D.Yogi Goswami, Jan F. Kreider, 1999)

2.4 COMPONENTS OF SOLAR WATER HEATER USING

SECONDARY FLUID

Solar collector
Tubes
Heat exchanger
Water container

2.4.1 SOLAR COLLECTOR

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1. Solar collector: Solar collector is a device for the absorption of solar radiation for
the heating of water or buildings or the production of electricity.
2. Types of solar collector:

SOLA
R
THER
NONMAL
CONCENTR
COLL
A T IN G
C O L L E C T OE C T O
RS
R

CONCEN
T R A T IN G
CO LLEC
TORS

Figure- 2.3

2.4.1.1 Non-concentrating collectors or flat plate collectors

Flat-plate collectors are very common and are available as liquid-based and airbased collectors. These collectors are better suited for moderate temperature applications
where the demand temperature is 30-70C and/or for applications that require heat during the
winter months. The liquid-based collectors are most commonly used for the heating
of domestic and commercial hot water, buildings, and indoor swimming pools. The airbased collectors are used for the heating of buildings, ventilation air and crop-drying.

18

Figure 2.4

In this type of collector a flat absorber efficiently transforms sunlight into heat. To
minimize heat escaping, the plate is located between a glazing (glass pane or transparent
material) and an insulating panel. The glazing is chosen so that a maximum amount of
sunlight will pass though it and reach the absorber.

Figure 2.5- solar flat plate collector

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2.4.1.2 Concentrating solar collectors

By using reflectors to concentrate sunlight on the absorber of a solar collector, the size of the
absorber can be dramatically reduced, which reduces heat losses and increases efficiency at
high temperatures. Another advantage is that reflectors can cost substantially less per unit
area than collectors. This class of collector is used for high-temperature applications such as
steam production for the generation of electricity and thermal detoxification. These collectors
are best suited to climates that have an abundance of clear sky days and therefore are not so
common in Canada. Stationary concentrating collectors may be liquid-based, air-based, or
even an oven such as a solar cooker. There are four basic types of concentrating collectors:
1. Parabolic trough
2. Parabolic dish
3. Power tower
4. Stationary concentrating collectors

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Figure 2.6

Figure 2.7-Parabolic concentrating collector

2.4.2 TUBES
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In a solar water heating system using secondary fuel use two types of tubes.
i.

Plastic tube

ii.

Copper tube

2.4.2.1 Plastic tube

In plastic tube there is advantage of reduction of heat loss due to insulation.

2.4.2.2 Copper tube

Copper is an excellent electrical conductor. Most of its uses are based on this property or the
fact that it is also a good thermal conductor. However, many of its applications also rely on
one or more of its other properties. For example, it wouldn't make very good water and gas
pipes if it were highly reactive. On this page, we look at these other properties:

a good electrical conductor

a good thermal conductor

corrosion resistant

antibacterial

easily joined

ductile

tough

non magnetic

attractive colour

easy to alloy

recyclable

catalytic
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2.4.3 HEAT EXCHANGER

Heat exchangers work because heat naturally flows from higher temperature to lower
temperatures. Therefore if a hot fluid and a cold fluid are separated by a heat conducting
surface heat can be transferred from the hot fluid to the cold fluid.

Figure 2.8-Simplified Heat Exchanger

2.5 SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

2.5.1 Poles of the earth
The ends of the axis of rotation of the earth mark two important points on the earths surface.
they are called the poles of the earth, one as north, while the other as south.

2.5.2 Earths equator

An equator is the intersection of a sphere's surface with the plane perpendicular to the
sphere's axis of rotation and midway between the poles. The Equator usually refers to
the Earth's equator: an imaginary line on the Earth's surface equidistant from the North
Pole and South Pole, dividing the Earth into the Northern Hemisphere and Southern
Hemisphere. Other planets and astronomical bodies have equators similarly defined.
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2.5.3 Meridian
A meridian (or line of longitude) is the half of an imaginary great circle on the Earth's
surface terminated by the North Pole and the South Pole, connecting points of
equal longitude.

2.5.4 Longitude
Longitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the east-west position of a point on the
Earth's surface.

2.5.5 Latitude
In geography, latitude () is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north-south position
of a point on the Earth's surface. Latitude is an angle (defined below) which ranges from 0 at
the Equator to 90 (North or South) at the poles. Lines of constant latitude, or parallels, run
eastwest as circles parallel to the equator. Latitude is used together with longitude to specify
the precise location of features on the surface of the Earth.

2.5.6 Prime meridian

The prime meridian is the planets line of zero degrees longitude. Slicing the earth along the
circle of the prime meridian would divide it into the Eastern and Western hemispheres.

24

Figure 2.9-Geometetry of earth

2.6 BASICS EARTH SUN ANGLES

2.6.1 Declination
The declination is the angular position of the sun at solar noon, with respect to the plane of
the equator. Its value in degrees is given by Coopers equation:
= 23.45 * sin [360 / 365 * (284 + n)]
Where n is the day of year (i.e. n =1 for January 1, n =32 for February 1, etc.). Declination
varies between -23.45 on December 21 and +23.45 on June 21.

2.6.2 Solar hour angle and sunset hour angle

The solar hour angle is the angular displacement of the sun east or west of the local
meridian; morning negative, afternoon positive. The solar hour angle is equal to zero at solar
noon and varies by 15 degrees per hour from solar noon. For example at 7 a.m.(solar time2)
the solar hour angle is equal to 75 (7 a.m. is five hours from noon; five times 15 is equal to
75, with a negative sign because it is morning).
The sunset hour angle is the solar hour angle corresponding to the time when the
sun sets. It is given by the following equation:
= 15 (12-Time)

Where is the declination, calculated through equation and is the latitude

of the site, specified by the user. Solar time is the time based on the apparent
motion of the sun across the sky. Solar noon corresponds to the moment.

2.6.3 Slope
It is the angle between horizontal and the plane. It is denoted by s.

25

2.6.4 Incident angle

Incident angle is the angle being measured between the beam of the rays and normal to the
plane. It is denoted by.

2.6.5 Surface azimuth angle

It is an angular measurement in a spherical coordinate system. The vector from an observer
(origin) to a point of interest is projected perpendicularly onto a reference plane; the angle
between the projected vector and a reference vector on the reference plane is called the
azimuth.

Figure 2.10- Surface azimuth angle

2.6.6 Altitude angle or solar altitude

Solar Altitude is the angular height of the sun measured from the Horizon. Above the horizon
is positive, below is negative. The sun directly in the centre of the sky has a Solar Altitude of
90 degrees.

26

Figure 2.11- Altitude angle

2.6.7 Zenith angle

The solar zenith angle is the angle measured from directly overhead to the geometric centre
of the sun's disc, as described using a horizontal coordinate system. The solar elevation
angle is the altitude of the sun, the angle between the horizon and the centre of the sun's disc.
If we write s for the solar zenith angle, the solar elevation angle s = 90 s.
The solar zenith angle, s is estimated using results from spherical trigonometry.

Where

s is the solar zenith angle

h is the hour angle, in the local solar time.

is the current declination of the Sun

is the local latitude.

27

Figure 2.12

28

CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 DESCRIPTION OF SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEMS
A solar water heater consists of a solar collector to collect solar energy, an insulated storage
tank to store the hot water, and piping. Broadly, the solar water heating systems are of two
types, namely, closed loop system and open loop system. In the first one, heat exchangers are
installed to protect the system from hard water obtained from bore wells or from freezing
temperatures in the cold regions. In the other type - either thermosyphon or forced circulation
system- the water in the system is open to the atmosphere at one point or other. The
thermosyphon systems are simple and relatively inexpensive. Thermosyphon system relies on
the natural circulation of water between the collector and the storage tank. They are more
suitable for domestic and small institutional systems, provided the water is treated and
potable in quality. The forced circulation systems employ electrical pumps to circulate the
water through collectors and storage tanks. The choice of system depends on heat
requirement, weather conditions, heat transfer fluid quality, space availability, and annual
solar radiation, etc. The schematic of hot water systems are shown in figures 3.1 and 3.2
respectively.

Collection
Solar radiation is captured by a solar collector.
Transfer
Circulating fluids transfer this energy to a storage tank circulation can be natural
(thermosiphon systems) or forced using a circulator (low-head pump).
Storage
Hot water is stored until it is needed at a later time in a mechanical room, or on the roof in the
case of a thermosiphon system.

29

Figure 3.1- Schematic of thermosyphon type solar water heating system

Figure 3.2: Schematic of indirect active open loop solar water heating system

3.2 MATERIAL OF FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR

30

We have chosen mild steel for flat plate collector.

Mild steel is a type of steel that contains only a small amount of carbon and other elements.
It is softer and can be shaped more easily than higher carbon steels. It also bends a long way
instead of breaking because it is ductile. It is used in nails and some types of wire, it can be
used to make bottle openers, chairs, staplers, staples, railings and most common metal
products. Its name comes from the fact it only has less carbon than steel.

Some mild steel properties and uses:

Mild steel has a maximum limit of 0.2% carbon. The proportions of manganese
(1.65%), copper (0.6%) and silicon (0.6%) are approximately fixed, while the proportions
of cobalt, chromium, niobium, molybdenum, titanium, nickel, tungsten, vanadium and
zirconium are not.

A higher amount of carbon makes steels different from low carbon mild-type steels. A
greater amount of carbon makes steel stronger, harder and very slightly stiffer than a low
carbon steel. However, the strength and hardness comes at the price of a decrease in the
ductility of this alloy. Carbon atoms get trapped in the interstitial sites of the iron lattice
and make it stronger.

What is known as mildest grade of carbon steel or 'mild steel' is typically low carbon
steel with a comparatively low amount of carbon (0.16% to 0.2%). It has ferromagnetic
properties, which make it ideal for manufacture of many products.

The calculated average industry grade mild steel density is 7.85 gm/cm3. Its Young's
modulus, which is a measure of its stiffness, is around 210,000 MPa.

Mild steel is the cheapest and most versatile form of steel and serves every application
which requires a bulk amount of steel.

The low amount of alloying elements, also makes mild steel vulnerable to rust.
Naturally, people prefer stainless steel over mild steel, when they want a rust free
material. Mild steel is also used in construction as structural steel. It is also widely used
in the car manufacturing industry.
31

Mild steel is used in almost all forms of industrial applications and industrial manufacturing.
It is a cheaper alternative to steel, but still better than iron.

3.3 SECONDARY FLUID

We will use distilled water as a secondary fuel.

3.3.1 Definition
The pure, distilled water is missing a lot of components. Compared to conventional water, for
example, with river water, the distillate water is missing a whole range of dissolved salts and
gases with river water, the distillate water is missing a whole range of dissolved salts and
gases.
And to be more precise, there is no pure water in the nature, even though water is the most
common compound on the Earth. This paradox is explained quite simply: everything that we
call water is nothing more than aqueous solutions of various substances. Water is a perfect
solvent, and this kills it in a chemically pure form the water is nowhere to be found. Even
the rainfall on its short way to the ground has time to dissolve the oxygen and carbon dioxide,
mix with dust and smoke. The transparent raindrops contain up to 0.005% impurities.
In the rivers the impurities are more. In the average city river, the dry residue can be 0.0124
oz or 350 mg per liter. In the oceans, the salt concentration can be up to 4%, but in the
underground brine more than 20%.
With few exceptions, the ordinary water is not such a deficiency thing. But for the distillate
water, indeed, there is a demand. Its needed in scientific laboratories and in pharmacy, for
car owners in content of different chemicals and cleaners, and in household for steam irons.
Finally, without the distilled water, many technological processes in chemical production
wouldnt be possible. For example, only the technical needs for the production of one
kilogram of PET plastic require up to 4.62 gallons or 17.5 liters of pure water.

32

This is the distillate of the highest quality, containing tiny amounts of impurities. However,
sometimes the acceptable impurity level is up to 0.05%. However, this water also should be
obtained.

3.3.2 PROPERTIES
3.3.2.1 Heat capacity and heats of vaporization and fusion
Water has a very high specific heat capacity the second highest among all the heteroatomic
species (after ammonia), as well as a high heat of vaporization (40.65 kJ/mol or 2257 kJ/kg at
the normal boiling point), both of which are a result of the extensive hydrogen
bonding between its molecules.

3.3.2.2 Density of water

The density of water is approximately one gram per cubic centimeter. It is dependent on its
temperature. When cooled from room temperature liquid water becomes increasingly dense,
as with other substances, but at approximately 4 C (39 F), pure water reaches its maximum
density. As it is cooled further, it expands to become less dense.

3.3.2.3 Miscibility and condensation

Water is miscible with many liquids, for example ethanol in all proportions, forming a single
homogeneous liquid. On the other hand, water and most oils are immiscible usually forming
layers according to increasing density from the top.
As a gas, water vapor is completely miscible with air On the other hand the maximum water
vapor pressure that is thermodynamically stable with the liquid (or solid) at a given
temperature is relatively low compared with total atmospheric pressure. For example, if the
vapor partial pressure is 2% of atmospheric pressure and the air is cooled from 25 C,
starting at about 22 C water will start to condense, defining the dew point, and
creating fog or dew.

33

3.3.2.4 Compressibility
The compressibility of water is a function of pressure and temperature. At 0 C, at the limit of
zero pressure, the compressibility is 5.11010 Pa1.[29] At the zero-pressure limit, the
compressibility reaches a minimum of 4.41010 Pa1 around 45 C before increasing again
with increasing temperature. As the pressure is increased, the compressibility decreases,
being 3.91010 Pa1 at 0 C and 100 MPa.

3.3.2.5 Triple point

The temperature and pressure at which solid, liquid, and gaseous water coexist in equilibrium
is called that triple point of water.The triple point is at a temperature of 273.16 K (0.01 C) by
convention, and at a pressure of 611.73 Pa.

3.3.2.6 Electrical conductivity

Pure water containing no exogenous ions is an excellent insulator, but not even "deionized"
water is completely free of ions. Water undergoes auto-ionization in the liquid state, when
two water molecules form one hydroxide anion (OH) and one hydronium cation(H3O+).
Because water is such a good solvent, it almost always has some solute dissolved in it, often
a salt. If water has even a tiny amount of such an impurity, then it can conduct electricity far
more readily.

3.3.2.7 Electrolysis
Water can be split into its constituent elements, hydrogen and oxygen, by passing an electric
current through it. This process is called electrolysis. Water molecules naturally dissociate
into H+ and OH ions, which are attracted toward the cathode and anode, respectively. At
the cathode, two H+ ions pick up electrons and form H2 gas. At the anode, four OHions
combine and release O2 gas, molecular water, and four electrons. The gases produced bubble
to the surface, where they can be collected. The standard potential of the water electrolysis
cell is 1.23 V at 25 C.

3.3.2.8 Polarity and hydrogen bonding

34

Figure 3.3- the partial charges on the atoms in a water molecule

An important feature of water is its polar nature. The water molecule forms an angle, with
hydrogen atoms at the tips and oxygen at the vertex. This angle formed is 104.3 degrees as
opposed to the typical tetrahedral angle of 109 degrees.

3.3.2.9 Cohesion and adhesion

Water molecules stay close to each other (cohesion), due to the collective action of hydrogen
bonds between water molecules. These hydrogen bonds are constantly breaking, with new
bonds being formed with different water molecules; but at any given time in a sample of
liquid water, a large portion of the molecules are held together by such bonds. Water also has
high adhesion properties because of its polar nature. On extremely clean/smooth glass the
water may form a thin film because the molecular forces between glass and water molecules
(adhesive forces) are stronger than the cohesive forces.

3.3.2.10 Surface tension

Water has a high surface tension of 72.8 mN/m at room temperature, caused by the strong
cohesion between water molecules, the highest of the common non-ionic, non-metallic
liquids. This can be seen when small quantities of water are placed onto a sorption-free (nonadsorbent and non-absorbent) surface, such as polyethylene or Teflon, and the water stays
together as drops. Just as significantly, air trapped in surface disturbances forms bubbles,
which sometimes last long enough to transfer gas molecules to the water.

3.3.2.11 Capillary action

Due to an interplay of the forces of adhesion and surface tension, water exhibits capillary
action whereby water rises into a narrow tube against the force of gravity.
35

3.3.2.12 Water as a solvent

Water is also a good solvent due to its polarity. Substances that will mix well and dissolve in
water (e.g. salts) are known as hydrophilic("water-loving") substances, while those that do
not mix well with water (e.g. fats and oils), are known as hydrophobic ("water-fearing")
substances. The ability of a substance to dissolve in water is determined by whether or not the
substance can match or better the strong attractive forces that water molecules generate
between other water molecules. If a substance has properties that do not allow it to overcome
these strong intermolecular forces, the molecules are "pushed out" from the water, and do not
dissolve.

3.3.2.13 Acidity in nature

Pure

water

has

the

concentration

of hydroxide ions

(OH)

equal

to

that

of

the hydronium (H3O+) or hydrogen (H+) ions, which gives pH of 7 at 298 K. In practice,
pure water is very difficult to produce.

3.4 CALCULATION
3.4.1 FLAT PLATE SOLAR COLLECTOR DESIGN
3.4.1.1 COLLECTOR AREA
Collector area is specified by using energy equation and considering the efficiency of
trapping, transfer and heat exchanger.
Heat required to heat water
Qwater =( mC p T )
Total heat required
Qtotal

(mCp T )

Overall efficiency
= 1 x 2 x 3
Solar energy gain
Qs=I A s t
36

From energy balance

(mCp T )water
=I A s t

As=

(mCp T )water
It

Through this calculations area of flat plate collector can be designed. This area is the exposed
area to sun rays.

3.4.2 HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN

3.4.2.1 COPPER TUBE DESIGN
Area of copper tube is designed through using energy balance equation.
Heat available in hot fluid
p T t)fluid
Qf =( mC
Mass flow rate
AV )tube
m=(
Area of tube
2
A i= d i
4
Heat required for cold water
Qwater =(m C p T ) water
From energy balance
(mC p T )water
( T ) fluid=

= ( mC p T t) fluid

(mCp T )water
(m
Cpt) fluid

Heat transferred from hot fluid to cold water

Qnet =U A c T m t
Mean temperature difference
37

[ T ] mean=

T i +T f
2

] [

fluid

T i +T f
2

wat er

Overall heat transfer coefficient

U=

1
1 ln ( r 2 /r 1)
1
+
+
hf
k
c hw

From energy balance

U Ac Tm t

= (mC p T )water

Copper tube area required

A c=

(mC p T )water
U T m t

As area of copper tube

A c = d o Lc
Length of copper tube
Lc =

Ac
do

Where
m

= mass of water to heat in

Kg

= mass flow rate of hot fluid in

Cp

= specific heat in

Kg/ s

Kj/ KgK

3
= density in Kg/ m

As

2
= surface area of collector in m

Ac

2
= surface area of copper tube in m

2
U = overall heat transfer coefficient in W/ m k

r2

= outer radius of copper tube in m

38

r1

= inner radius of copper tube in m

do

= outer diameter of tube in m

di

= inner diameter of tube in m

Lc

= length of tube in m

= temperature difference in k

Tm

= mean temperature difference in k

= velocity of hot fluid in m/s

hf

2
= convective coefficient of fluid in W/ m k

hw

= convective coefficient of water in W/ m k

t = time required to heat water in seconds.

3.5 FABRICATION
3.5.1 COLLECTOR
The various process followed in fabrication of collector are as follows
1) We took the metallic sheet.
2) Sheet was cut as per the required specification.
3) First sheet is corrugated in the form of in built channel.
4) The channel dimension we taken was 1 4mm.
5) Second sheet was retained flat of size 2.5 6 feet.
6)
7)
8)
9)

After this the two sheets are placed on each other and made fold from side and joined.
The welding is made along the sideways to avoid leaking problem.
Than it is allowed to cool and tested for leaking.
Upper and lower side of formed sheet containing channel is prepared to make a single

passage.
10) Two sheets are taken and bended in such a way that they can be further

corrugated

and fit on the earlier to make a single passage through all channel.
11) Than the bend sheet pipe is adjusted on the ends of sheet.
12) Welding is made to avoid the leaking.
13) The fitting is made on ends of pipe to fill water and to circulate it.
14) Tee is joined on both ends.
15) One end of tee is closed to which was only used to empty tank and filling it.
39

16) On the other end of tee it is allowed to make connection.

17) Than black carbon spray is made on the collector to absorb sunlight.
3.5.2 STAND
We made stand for the solar flat plate collector with hollow metallic pipe using welding
process. The angle for the collector stand is designed through the solar incident radiation.
The following process are used to make stand
1) Firstly the drawing for stand is made as per requirement.
2) The angle of collector is designed through calculation of solar incident angle.
3) The hollow metallic pipe of brought required dimension.
4) The pipe is cut as per required dimension.
5) One side of stand is made and rest is joined through welding.
6) Collector is placed on that to check its size.
7) Two legs of stand are joined through welding at required position.
8) Other two legs are made bigger to provide the proper angle.
9) Legs are interconnected through on pipe welded in between to provide strength.
10) The stand is inspected.

3.5.3 COPPER TUBE

We have designed the copper tube using energy balance equation and bend it in helical form
on bending machine. The diameter of helical ring of copper is less than that of storage tank to
be inserted and providing proper heat conduction.
The following process is used in fabrication of tube
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Firstly we brought the copper tube of required dimension.

Tube is bended on machine using hydraulic mechanism.
Bending of tube is made in helical motion.
Diameter of tube is decided through the diameter of storage tank.
Tube is made out from tank and attached with coupling mechanism.

3.5.4 STORAGE TANK

We have used plastic tank of required capacity and in the plumbing shop we have made
connection in the storage tank. We have insulated the storage tank using insulating media as
thermocol.
The following process is used for fabrication of storage tank
1) Firstly we have designed the storage capacity of tank.
2) We brought the plastic tank of required dimension.
3) For the inlet valve we have used floating valve.

40

4) We firstly introduced hot rod into the tank of required dimension into the tank to make
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)

the hole.
Than we filed the hole to the required dimension.
We brought the floating valve and inserted into it and made connection there.
We followed the same process and made connection for outlet.
We used plastic tap for the outlet connection.
The copper tube is also made out in the similar manner and used coupling mechanism

to prevent leaking.
10) We made stand to hold the tank integral with stand of collector to make it as a single
unit.
11) We used thick metallic wire to make stand of tank.
12) We took a wire and made it in circular form by beating to hold the tank in it.
13) Than we took three more wire and welded these wires on stand of collector and ring
to make stand.
14) The stand is checked for its strength to hold the filled tank.
3.5.5

FITTING

Fitting is done to assemble all the components to make it as single unit and effective
working.
The following process is used in fitting as follows
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

Firstly we brought the heat insulated pipe.

The pipe is cut as per the required dimension.
We brought the tees, elbow, reducer, connector etc to make the connection.
We joined the tee at the upper end of collector.
One end of tee is closed while the other end is attached to pipe.
The end of pipe is joined with elbow to give direction.
The end of elbow is attached to reducer which is attached to the copper pipe with

coupling mechanism.
8) The other end of copper pipe is connected to the pipe with coupling.
9) The pipe is attached to elbow and then connection is made for other end of collector.
10) The end of collector is attached with tee whose one end is used to empty the collector
and closed with cover .
11) Now the fitting is checked for leaking and other problems.

41

42

CHAPTER 4
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 RESULT
FROM PREVIOUS ASSUMPTION
1

= 60%

= 80%

= 80%

Velocity of fluid
V= .0007m/s
Density of fluid
3
= 1000Kg/ m

FROM CALCULATION
From the calculation we got the following result
Heat required to heat water
Qwater =1885000
Overall efficiency
`

= 38%

Solar energy gain required

Q=5387140 J
Collector surface area
A s =

2
.8 m

Mass flow rate

m=5.49
104 Kg/ s
Inner area of tube
43

A i=.785 cm

Outer area of tube

2

A o =1.1309 cm

Temperature difference of fluid

( T ) fluid=38
Mean temperature difference
[ T ] mean=13.5
Overall heat transfer coefficient
U=154 W /m 2 k
Copper tube area required
A c =.049 m

Length of copper tube

Lc =1.3 m

4.1.1 COLLECTOR DIMENSION

Material- mild steel
Length of the collector = 1524mm
Width of the collector = 609.6mm
Width of the channel = 40mm
Number of channel = 6
Height of channel = 1mm
Gap between channel = 50mm
4.1.2 TUBE DIMENSION
Material- copper
Length of the tube = 1500mm
Outer diameter of tube = 12mm
Inner diameter of tube = 10mm

44

4.1.3 STAND DIMENSION

Material- iron
FRONT SIDE
Length of tube = 304mm
Area of tube = 4 00 mm

No of tube = 2
Gap between tubes = 640mm
REAR SIDE
Length of tube =1324mm
2
Area of tube = 4 00 mm

No of tube = 2
Gap between tubes = 640mm
BASE
Length of base = 1525mm
2
Area of tube = 4 00 mm

No of tube = 4
Width of the base = 640mm

FIGURES OF SOLAR WATER HEATER

FIGURE- 4.1 Rear view of project

45

Figure- 4.2 Front wiew

Figure- 4.3 Side view

46

Figure- 4.4 Collector face

Figure- 4.5 Heat exchanger

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND SUGESSTION
There is a problem of scale precipitation and scaling when we directly heat the water through
sun radiation which causes following problems
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Scaling of collector
Decrease in heat transfer efficiency
Reduction in life of collector
Problem of removing the scaling
Improper heating
Lack of consistency

From this experiment and project analysis we have concluded that with the use of secondary
fluid as heat transfer media we can increase life of solar collector and hence reduce its
maintenance cost.
The problem associated with the conventional heater can be removed through this and we get
following advantage
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

No scaling in collector
Consistent working
Proper heating
Good efficiency
More life

47

We have designed the collector and heat exchanger using energy balance equation and found
a suitable design.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

The collector efficiency was 38%.

Temperature change of cold water was 45 degree.
Heat transfer efficiency was 60%
Solar angle of radiation was 42 degree.
Material for collector was metallic sheet with carbon black painted.
Secondary fluid used was distilled water.
Media means of transfer was through copper tube.

SUGESSTION
1) With the use of fine metallic powder in secondary fluid we can increase sensible
2)
3)
4)
5)

heat capacity.
We can use sensor trapping for better solar rays collection.
We can also use glycol for secondary fluid.
We can also use latent heat system for industrial purpose.
Covering with glass can increase its efficiency.

48

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