Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
1998
TECHNICAL REPORT
PES-TR7
Formerly TP133
1) Power Electronics
2) Slow Transients
3) Switching Transients
4) Fast Front Transients
5) Very Fast Front Transients
(Siemens)
6) Protection and Controls
7) Bibliography
Editors:
A. M. Gole, J. Martinez-Velasco, A. J. F. Keri
Abstracting is permitted with credit to the source. For other copying, reprint, or republication permission, write to the IEEE
Copyright Manager, IEEE Service Center, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08855-1331. All rights reserved. Copyright 1998
by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
99TP133-0
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
1.
Background
1-1
2.
Power Electronics
2-1
3.
Slow Transients
3-1
4.
Switching Transients
4-1
5.
6.
6-1
7.
7-1
8.
..
..
..
5 -1
8-1
This documentis written in order to provideguidelines for the modeling of power system apparatus for use in
time - domain solutionof electromagnetic transientphenomenon. This publication has been arranged in the following
eight (8) parts.
Part 1 :Background
Part 2 :PowerElectronics
Part 3:Slow Transients
Part 4 :Switching Transients
Part 5 :Fast Front Transients
Part 6 :Very Fast Front Transients
Part 7 :Protection And Control
Part 8 :Bibliography
1.1 BACKGROUND
The objective of this section is to provide an explanation of the phenomena of very fast transients, in the frequencyrange of 100 kHz to 50 MHz. This type of transients
typically occur in the gas insulated substations (GIS).
Effects and modeling guidelines for GIS are presented. An
example of a GIS calculationwith detailed input data is provided. A simulation accuracyis verifiedwith field measurements.
1.2 POWERELECTRONICS
The guideline presentsthe basic issuesthat are critical for successfully modeling of power electronics devices
and the interfacebetweenpower electronics and the utility or
industrial system. Modeling aspects are presentedfor simulation of the semiconductor switching devices, power electronics system, snubber treatment, and simulation errors and
control. A number of simulation examples, including
FACTS modeling, are presented.
General guidelines for modeling of protection systems is presented. Because digital modeling of protection
systemsin the electromagnetic transients programs is a relatively new procedure, this section describes the advantages
and limitations of the protection system modeling. Modeling of instrument transformers, relays - electromechanical,
static and microprocessor based are summarizedand models
are presented.
Modeling guidelines are presented for investigations of small signal torsional oscillations, large -signalshaft
transient stresses, turbine -blade vibrations, fast bus transfer,
controller interactions, harmonics interaction, and resonance
phenomena. Sample test systems and simulationresults are
provided.
1.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY
A comprehensive list of references on the subjectare provided.
i-I
1. INTRODUCTION
Transient phenomena in power systems are caused by
switching operations, faults, and other disturbances, such as
lightning strokes. They involve a frequency range from DC to
several MHz. A rough distinction is usually made between
electromechanical transients, traditionally covered by transient
stability studies, and electromagnetic transients. The latter type
of transients can occur on a time scale that goes from
microseconds to several cycles; they are a combination of
travelling waves on lines, cables and buses, and of oscillations
in lumped-element circuits ofgenerators, transformers and other
devices. Some electromechanical transients, such as
subsynchronous resonance, for which detailed machine models
are needed, are usually included in this class of transients.
Several tools have been used over the years to analyze
electromagnetic transients. At early stages, miniature power
system models, known as Transient Network Analyzers (INA),
were used. At present, the digital computer is the most popular
tool, although INAs are still used; in addition, the new
generation of real-time digital systems are probably the most
adequate tool in some applications for which either a very
high-speed or a real-time simulation is required.
Many techniques have been developed to solve electromagnetic
transients using a digital computer. They can be classified into
two main groups : frequency-domain and time-domain
1-1
2. SOLUTION METHODS
Linear,
tim e invariant
Netwo rk
I
I
Vk m
I
I
@
Nonlinear
equatio r.~
Vk m
lklll
--+
II
,IT
/'
"-
/~
<
~----<:
<,.....
; UJ ......
'0
i~
:o'
'-.
Netw~~k'
e q u a ti on
' ::l
(4)
1-2
----~------]
1-3
, (..,el
2.3 INITIALIZATION
The solution of a transient phenomenon is dependent on the
initial conditions with which the transient is started. Although
some simulations can be performed with zero initial conditions,
for instance some lightning surge studies, there are many
instances for which the simulation must be started from powerfrequency steady-state conditions. Capabilities to obtain the
initial steady-state solution are of great importance in emtps. In
addition, an initialization procedure can be a useful tool on its
own, for instance to calculate resonant voltages due to coupling
effects between parallel transmission lines.
The steady-state solution of linear networks at a single
frequency is a rather simple task, and can be obtained using
nodal admittance equations [5]
[Y]
where [V]
[V]
[I]
[V]
[I]
(5)
[VA]
= [I A] -
[YAB]
[VB]
(6)
1-4
1976 [37]. Although the main goal was the simulation ofHVDC
converters, it soon became obvious that TACS had many other
applications, such as the representation of excitation of
synchronous generators, dynamic arcs in circuit breakers, or
protective relays .
Control systems are represented in TACS by block diagrams
with interconnection between system elements. Control
elements can be transfer functions, FORTRAN algebraic
functions, logical expressions and some special devices. The
solution method used by TACS is also based on the trapezoidal
rule. A control block in the s-domain can be described by the
following relationship
= G(s) U(s)
X(s)
(7)
where U(s) and X(s) are respectively the input and the output in
the Laplace domain, and G(s) a rational transfer function
G ( s)
=K
+Ns+ +Ns m
m
Do + D1 S + + Dns
msn
(8)
(9)
[Ax)
[x]
+ [Ax)
[u]
(10)
[hist]
solution from
t-tIt to t
"'-"
- -----____.
'-""Z
V;ifJe
voltage and
( de_l~Y
c u r r en t. sources,
" U
lime -varying resistan~:
...'<,
8S
input to NETWORK in
'
--...~
TACS
solution from
t M to t
L
I
-_
TACS
1 -5
3. MODELING OF COMPONENTS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
An accurate simulation ofevery transient phenomenon requires
a representation of network components valid for a frequency
range that varies from DC to several MHz. An acceptable
representation of each component throughout this frequency
range is very difficult, and for most components is not
practically possible.
3.4
POWER TRANSFORMERS
3.3
INSULATED CABLES
1-7
~etal-~xide v~stors
3.6
1-8
NETWORK EQUIVALENTS
ROTATING MACHINES
systems.
The simulation oftorsional interactions between the mechanical
turbine-generator system and the power system needs a very
detailed representation of the generator and the power system.
Several dynamic three-phase synchronous generator models
were developed and implemented in the BPA EMTP at mid
1970's [143], [144]. All those models were based on the Park's
transformation for solving the electrical equations. They
incorporated a detailed representation of mechanical and
electrical parts, used a sophisticated solution method to solve
machine-power system interface, and included interface to
control systems.
Although its development was raised by SSR problems, those
models could also be used for other studies, such as loss of
synchronism, load rejection or transmission line reclosure.
Magnetic saturation effects were not included at early stages. A
simple and efficient representation of magnetic saturation was
added to one model in the late 1970's [145].
Interests in the analysis and simulation of renewable energy
sources motivated the demand for other machine models. A very
powerful and flexible module, known as Universal Machine
(UM), was implemented in the BPA EMTP in 1980 [146]. The
UM module allowed the representation ofup to twelve different
machine models and expanded the applications ofthe program,
for instance to the simulation of adjustable speed drives. The
first UM release had several limitations that were solved in
subsequent versions [147]. Two interface methods,
compensation and prediction, are currently used with this
module.
All the machine models above mentioned are based on the
transformation of phase-quantities into dqo-quantities. The
matrix of self and mutual inductances becomes then constant.
With models based on compensation methods no more than one
machine connected to the same nodes can be simulated. This
limitation is avoided with a prediction-based interface.
However, with this solution method, the prediction of several
electrical variables is needed. This can originate numerical
instability.
The development of a synchronous generator model using
phase-domain equations instead of Park's transformation to
solve the electrical equations has been recently presented [148].
This solution is numerically stable, as no prediction of any
electrical variable is made, and simplifies the inclusion of
saturation effects. With this approach, the matrix of self and
mutual inductances changes with the rotor position, then the
admittance matrix of the network has to be recalculated at each
time step, which generally increases the simulation time.
1-9
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
1 dg _ ( 1
g dt
"1[1 i I
g]
P [j i
vi
g]
- 1
)
(11)
1-10
OTHER COMPONENTS
4. MODELINGGUIDELINES
The followingaspectsareto be consideredin digitalsimulations
of electromagnetic transients [184] :
a) Very often only approximated or estimated values are used
for some parameterswhose influenceon the representation
of a component can be important or very important. In
general, this happens with some basic parameters and
frequency-dependent parametersin simulations of fast and
very fast front transients. In addition, it is important to
take into account that some parameters may change due to
climatic conditions or be dependenton maintenance.
b) In many overvoltages studies it is the maximum peak
which is of interest. This maximum usually occurs during
the first oscillation after the transient phenomenon starts.
Large differences in peak values are mainly due to a poor
representationof losses, while deviations in inductances or
capacitances will lead to time shifting of the peak but not
to importantdifferences betweenthe maximumvalues.
c) The more components the system in study has, the higher
1-11
5. CONCLUSIONS
Time-domain simulations of electromagnetic transients using
digitalcomputers were started in early 1960's.Currently, most
transientsprograms are based on the Dommel'sscheme which
combines the trapezoidalrule and the Bergeron'smethod.
Muchworkhas been doneto solvesomeofthe main drawbacks
and limitations of the originalscheme,i.e solution of nonlinear
networks, elimination of numerical oscillations. In addition, a
significanteffort has been dedicatedto the developmentof new
models, specially frequency-dependent models for the most
importantpower components.
The development of the first tools was mainlymotivatedby the
calculation of overvoltages. Presently most emtps can be used
for simulating a broad spectrum of transient phenomena in
power systems : subsynchronous resonance, power quality
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
6. REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
[50]
[62]
[63]
[64]
[65]
[66]
[67]
[68]
[69]
[70]
[71]
[72]
[73]
[74]
[75]
[76]
[77]
[78]
[79]
[80]
[81]
[82]
[83]
[84]
[85]
[86]
[87]
[88]
[89]
[90]
[91]
[92]
[93]
[94]
[95]
[96]
[97]
[98]
[99]
[100]
[101]
[102]
[103]
[104]
[105]
[106]
[107]
[108]
[109]
[110]
[111]
[112]
[113]
[114]
[115]
[116]
[117]
[118]
[119]
[120]
[121]
[122]
[149]
[150]
[151]
[152]
[153]
[154]
[155]
[156]
[157]
[158]
[159]
[160]
[161]
[175]
[176]
[177]
[178]
[179]
[180]
[181]
[182]
[183]
1-19
[184]
[185]
[186]
[187]
[188]
[189]
[190]
1. INTRODUCTION
As a consequence of the advances in power electronics technologies over the last two decades, power electronics applications have quickly spread to all voltage levels,
from EHV transmission to low voltage circuits in end user
facilities. Commonly observed power electronics applications include HVDC terminals, various static var compensation (SVC) systems, high power AC to DC converter for DC
arc furnaces, static phase shifter, isolation switch, load transfer switch, converter/inverter based drive technologies,
active line conditioning, energy storage and instantaneous
backup power systems, renewable energy integration, and
numerous others covered under subjects of Flexible AC
Transmission Systems (FACTS) and Custom Power Systems
(CPS). The need for power electronics modeling and simulation is driven by both existing and new applications.
Digital computers can only simulate circuit phenomena at discrete frequencies or at discrete intervals of time
(step size M or ~t). This leads to discretization errors. Compared with the time domain calculation, a frequency domain
simulation is more robust because a circuit solution is found
at each individual frequency and these errors are not accumulated. The programs using this solution method often treat
the nonlinearity of a system as known current sources. For a
harmonic evaluation, the frequency domain solution usually
requires less computation time compared with a time domain
solution. However, most available frequency domain solution programs have difficulties in handling the system
dynamics, control interfaces and fast transients. The time
domain solution is based on the integration over a discrete
time interval. The numerical methods applied in different
programs can use either iterative techniques or direct solu tion methods. The solution stability and accuracy achieved
are closely related to the time step size selection. Because
discretization errors can accumulate , the solution may
diverge from the true solution if an improper time step is
selected. The time domain simulation has great advantages
over a frequency domain simulation in handling the system
dynamics, power electronic models , non-linearities and transients .
type programs may be less efficient for detailed power electronics modeling. However, these programs are very attractive for an application oriented power electronics simulation
because these programs offer tremendous capability and flexibility in characterizing various types of power system components , inc lu d in g power electronics switches with
reasonably simplified characteristics. As graphic interfacing
features are gradually incorporated in these programs, a level
of difficulty in using these tools will decrease.
3. MODELING GUIDELINES
3.1. Representation ofPower Electronics Switching Devices
For a power level application, the commonly used
switching devices are power diode , Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR), Gate Turn-Off thyristor (GTO) and Insulated
Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT). The diode is a two-terminal, uncontrollable device and the rest are three terminal controllable devices.
Representing the reverse recovery characteristic,
leakage current, and forward voltage drop of a diode is often
not necessary for an application study. For an application
simulation, some details of a device characteristic can be
reduced. In many cases, a simplified device model is acceptable. For example, instead of trying to represent a power
electronic diode device using its switching characteristic as
shown on the left in Fig. 1, a simplified or an idealized characteristic, shown by solid and dotted lines respectively on the
right , can be used. In commonly used simulation programs,
the simplified diode model may be available as a built-in
device or it can be realized with a voltage controlled switch.
Real Device
Characteristic
Simulated Device
Characteristic
-==---t"- - - v
Cathode
--t<:J-
Anode
The tools of the first group may offer the best productivity if a detailed application topology and complicated
operation controls need to be simulated and if the main interest of the study is the power electronics subsystem. These
tools often have difficulties when an extensive utility network needs to be included in the simulation or when the main
interest of the study is overall system dynamics and transients. In such cases, the EMTP type programs are usually
more suitable. The currently available versions of the EMTP
2-2
..
For numerical simulations, if the gating circuit power requirement is excludedfrom the study, there is very little difference
between modelinga GTO, IGBT or any other three-terminal,
controllable, unidirectional current flowing device. The device can all be represented by an simplified switch with gate
tum-on and tum-off controls. The different switchingcharacteristics can be realized by applying different firing controls.
In the simulation, additional errorscan accrue becausethe gating pulses can only be applied at integral time-step multiples,
which may not be the case in reality.The impactof this can be
minimized if the program allows a variable time-step or uses
interpolation [60].
..
Rf
.....+-. .R-==:::::::=:::::(-J
Rb
~ ~t--e
Catho~de
Gate
Vsb
X I -----.I
Rl
Fig. 3. Power Diode Characteristic Realization
(1)
The switching characteristics of an actual, a simplified and an idealized SCR are shown in Fig. 4. To represent
the simplified SCR device, the tum-on control is added on
the simplifieddiode model. If the controlis applied continuously, this switch simulates the diode which allows unidirectional current flow when the switch is forward biased.
Delaying the gate pulse allows control over the tum-on
instant of the forward biased switch.
Real Device
Characteristic
Lu
Simulated Device
Characteristic
(2)
(3 )
Igl IgO
--::::=~-+-..-.:====..
Vbo
DC
Battery
---=-+-=-----
Cathode~ Anode
AC
Supply
2-3
consisting of six reversal diodes. However, if the ideal bidirectional switches are used, while the UPS is idling, the battery will not be charged by the AC supply.
~~
J---=3=- Voltage
Load
~O"'"'---+-...l..-_------'
To Firing Control
Fig. 8. An Example Circuit to Show GTO Simulation.
1
,
--,--------,-----..-----1\
"
"
"
type-l l
switch
An example circuit given in Fig. 8 is used to illustrate how this module is used in a circuit simulation. In this
example, the GTO device is used to regulate the voltage at a
resistive load terminal. By controlling the GTO tuning-on
and off, the average voltage across the resistor can be
adjusted.
2-4
]~J I
type-I 3
switch
GTO
"
I1
Snubber
R ond C
6OO1t---+---I---t-+-+--++-+
100111-----+-,-------1--'---+--'---1----+---1
AC Output
DC Supply
~---;-----, - -
0.'"
o.>f---+--r----l-t-+-+-+-H-t-+-+--'-I
0.00
Fig. 13. The GTO Firing Signal fortheSix Step Converter Operation
2-5
L; n e- : o - G r o i.J ~ C1
600
' 00
....
100
-100
i
,
:
- '00
VOllcge
"
~- i-I
I ii
L-.
-600
JO
'0
Time mS
"
. . I~-f~==q
~;
I
'
C10'&>"il'JS&-~I~ ej
"
Time (mS)
Harmonic cancellation when multiple loads are represented by their lumped equivalent
Existing system distortion.
Appropriate source topology for PE subsystem representation
System unbalance
Effects of a DC link or the inverter side connection on
the front end interface with the power supply system
Current or voltage sharing among the parallel or series
switching devices
Switching loss prediction
3.3.Representation ofPowerSystems
tL
- " JO
. ----c------,;:----~---____;
Similar to the situation in a power electronics subsystem, a power supply system can easily extend to a large
electrical and geographic radius and become too complicated
to model. Therefore, the power system needs to be simplified . The proper level of system reduction depends on the
study objectives.
If the purpose is to characterize the harmonics generated by a particular type of power electronics application,
the power system model can be significantly reduced. When
a pre-existing voltage distortion level at a power electronics
interfacing bus is low, the rest of the power system can be
2-6
satisfactorily represented by one or a set of first orderequivalents connected to the bus at a higher system voltage level.
For an example, if the power electronics application interfaces with the system at the low voltage bus of a step-down
transformer, the equivalent of the system can be placed on
the high voltage bus of the transformer. When a pre-existing
voltage distortionlevel is greater than 2%, one needs an adequate harmonic source to properly represent the background
distortion.
If the objective is to evaluate effects of the power
electronics on a connected utility system, the model shall be
extended to cover all sensitive loads (i.e. rotating machines
and all other major power electronics) within a concerned
electrical radius. Special attention is needed if an unbalancedsystem conditionis involved.
Extensivepower systemmodel is requiredfor a harmonic propagation and resonant study. The main system
components and dominant topology need to be kept in the
power system model. Filter banks, nonlinear passive circuit
components, and all other harmonic injection sources should
be represented. Frequency dependent characteristics of the
systemcomponents might need to be considered.
3.4. Representation ofSystem Controls
The system control is one of the most important
aspectof a power electronics simulation. As illustrated in this
paper, a switching device is greatly simplified. The proper
switching performance of a device is realizedvia appropriate
gate controls. Modelingof power electronic controls consists
of three steps:
1. Monitoring and sampling
2. Signalprocessingand controlreference derivation
3. Device gating signal generation.
Most simulation tools provide some means to
implement system controls. In some later developed programs, the control block diagram and flow-chart structures
are supported for modeling different levels of system controls. Using these tools, a user can define the specified controls in a simulated system with great flexibility. Some key
issues ensuring a correct control modeling is briefly mentioned below. These issues are more thoroughly treatedin the
guideline with illustration examples.
For a time domainsimulation, the highestresolution for
a signal samplingis determined by a selectedtime step.
In general, this presentsno problemfor analog control.
However, for digitalcontrolsimulation, if the selected
time step is too large and if the simulated sampling resolution is significantly differentfrom the real systemsampiing resolution, significant errorscan be introduced and
even lead to instability.
For a time domainsimulation, the computation time
does not reflect the simulatedcontrollogic response
time. User should always rememberto introduce a rea2-7
Uref
Va
""
Vb
JOO
Vc
100
DO-PLLC>lACS - DU ~009(Type g)
100
10
'0
60
lime (mS)
+:t fI::: -+
i
/ I /
....-....__....
10
1/
10
Iime (mS)
00
4()
Iime(mS)
i /
"'
DO-PLLO>lACS -DUMD13(lype g)
v ,
-urseo ,
:
o
-i-.:---f-!I----+--------,,-j
0.0500
-0.1000
1/
0.1000
0.OO
17
1/
0.5 +-1--,---+--+--+L--+-
7f
Ii.
i --f-
.- ._... _...........
!/
10
40
60
Time mS
80
100
2-8
With Modified:
Kpro = 1000
Kint = 8.3E-4
ATRMNL
140.0
GTRMNL
SNUBBR
O----i
SNUBBC
SNUBBC
\...---i
The simulation programs using trapezoidal integration method are inherently prone to spurious oscillations
(also known as chatter) in capacitive and inductive circuits
when subjected to sudden changes such as step change in
voltage, current injection and switching. Some EMTP type
programs take special measures to detect and remove these
2-9
Induct ion
Motor
DC Link
s~
Six Pulse
Diode Rectifier
PWM
Inverter
<00
-f\ - J f~
200
.3
-~ w
Ii
J;
'\
\0
iO
lime (mS)
I-
vV
_400 1
-0
80
!
100
4.1. Simulation ofthe Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) AdjustableSpeedDrive (ASD)
The first example is a PWM- VSI AC drive simulation using EMTP. The AC drive (Fig. 30) consisting of a
three-phase diode bridge rectifier, capacitive DC link and
three-phase PWM output inverter. The switching losses of
the drive are a secondary order consideration in the analysis
and the idealized switching characteristics are used.
2-10
Fig. 32. Simulated Carrier and Reference Signals for A PWM- VSI
Adjustable Speed Drive Firing Control
PWMVSI>INVRTA- INVRTB(Type 8)
8:xJ
II II II
i
600,
' 00
slOO
rio
Ig -lOOt
-<00
i'
I
-600
-800
Ii
-0
I
I
60
i
i
Time mS
I,
~I
I
i
144 kV
74 MVA
Vvlv 10MVA
....
25 kV Bus
l-
rYjY' 7.87% /
f---80
2 km 266 MCM
100
7.5 MVA
VJ:A:)
t5
I
T
other
5.75% : T
4.16 kV
10km
!!!
1/0
TTT
harmonic
filters
5,7,11
ASD
6000 hp
~:.,_Iw, ~ -----.rrrn
4.7%
4.16kV_
u:IV
rrrn
1500 kVA
4 .7%
Motor Load
(650 hpj
~O
O.5uF
surge capacitors
loads
capacitors
(160 kvar)
800 hp
Fig. 34. One line diagram for the first example system.
Tim ~
Il"S
_ _ ----l
2-11
-6000
-8000
'~
I - -----:...-------cc----------I
ltl
1.6
1.5
,-..
Q)
eo 1.3
The third example is an illustration case for modeling of an HYDC system with shunt TscrrCR compensation
at the inverter bus [54]. The simulation example is made
using PSCAD/EMTDC. The schematic system shown in Fig.
37 is a modified version of the GlGRE Benchmark Model for
HYDC Control Studies [55].
Rectifier AC
System
1.2
~u
1.1
0.9
(/)
....
Q)
_ _* 1- - - - - - ,- - - - - - - YG:- - - - - - - - - t:Q) 1.0
>
s::
1.4
;:3
0.8
0.7
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Time (s)
Fig. 38 Inverter AC Voltage Followinga Permanent DC Block
Inverter AC
System
4.4. ModelingofRotatingMachines
Two possible situations can be considered for modeling a rotating machine when simulating a power electronic
system
1. The machine is a component of a larger system where
one or several power electronic devices are operating,
for instance a synchronous machine connected to a
transmission network where FACTS devices are used to
control power flows and improve transient stability.
2. The machine is part of the power electronic system, for
instance an adjustable speed drive.
Similar modeling guidelines for representing rotating machine in both situations can be used, however some
particular considerations can be taken into account in some
cases and studies. Modeling guidelines provided in this document assume that power electronic systems operate at low
frequencies, between DC and 3 kHz. Therefore only the representation of rotating machines for this frequency range is
discussed. Regardless of the application to be simulated a
2-12
2-13
sssc
12=
_v,
~~ii2
~ i;
E",
1DC2
VSI2
ES22
ES2
t.Cl
C9!rtr:'ol~
BUS1
ii,
12=
_~~ii2
v,
~ i;
ii,
E,.
MS3 -
P.C1
.
'DC2
VSl1 MS4\ISI2
ES22
ES2
t.Cl
CQntr:QI~~
2-14
3-Levellnverter Pole
O.5voc~
O.5voc ~
At-
A",
1VIC
I>r
AtI>r
c=a:cJ
A",cNJ
aT
aT
aT
rav
aT
COl
o.5v<t:~
-27t
Vf!(j
1t-l'y
'""'Y
Oy
..{).5v<t: -
1t-"( 1t
VE, 1, Ve,1
and
VF,1 and are 120 apart and the funda mental voltage phasor set of the DEF inverter lags the funda-
fA 0, n
= n
7/DC ccsn ):
consists of only a fundamental component and odd harmonic components (n) given by the equation (1) where n =6k
1 for k = 1,2,3, etc.
VNO'
-e,
(1)
InverterOEF
-300
3)0
~~F
O.5Va::~
V0,1
VE,1
Vx
r---o:-
f----c:>--
Vy
MAGNETIC
t-
ORCUIT
O.5Va::~
l lJc
Vz
r-
zf--c:>VC,1
VA,1
Table 1 shows the time shifted A and D pole voltages, first twenty five harmonic components, final phase
angles after appropriate phase shift. The pole voltages from
the ABC inverter exhibits a 6-pulse harmonic neutralized
waveform with harmonic components n = 6k 1 for k = 1, 2,
3, etc. Similarly, the pole voltages from the DEF inverter
exhibits a 6-pulse harmonic neutralized waveform whose
harmonic components (n 6k 1 for k 1,2, 3, etc .) have
the same magnitudes as the corresponding harmonic components of the ABC inverter's 6-pulse harmonic neutralized
waveform. However, the harmonic components (n 6k 1
for k = 1,3,5, etc.) are in opposite phases while the harmonic
components (n = 6k I for k = 2, 4, 6, etc.) are in phases with
the corresponding harmonic components of the ABC
inverter's 6-pulse harmonic neutralized waveform. Therefore, if all the outputs from each 6-pulse inverter are combined by connecting the corresponding phases in series, a 12pulse harmonic neutralized waveform is obtained. The result-
2-15
Note that the inverter side ( winding has J3 times the turns
as the inverter side Y winding has. This is needed in order to
keep the same volts per turn in both windings. The line side
inverter windings can have any turns ratio other than 0.5 to
increase or decrease the output voltage.
n
time shift
5
7
11
13
17
19
23
25
pole A
-5*(0)
+7*(0)
-11*(0)
+13*(0)
-17*(0)
+19*(0)
-23*(0)
+25*(0)
phase
shift
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
final
phase
angle
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
time shift
phase
shift
poleD
-5*( -1tI6)
+7*(-1tI6)
-11*(-1tI6)
+ I3*(-1tI6)
-17*( -1tI6)
+19*(-1t/6)
-23*(-1t/6)
+25*(-1tI6)
+1t/6
+1t/6
+1t/6
+1tI6
+1tI6
+1t/6
+1t/6
+1t/6
IGeneral
final
phase
angle
Qlnsta1Is
ConboI/TACS
Inverter
Voltages
1t
1t
0
0
Brmch
Transnission Li1e
Tn. ISformeI
1t
1t
0
0
Solrnes
TAC CooboIIed
.1CIepeI1dert
ri
VF
Ve
Vo
Vx
Vy
VA
~t}
VB
~~I
Vz
Vc
2-16
A. STATCOM
The controller of a STATCOM is used to operate the
inverter in such a way that the phase angle between the
inverter voltage and the line voltage is dynamically adjusted
so that the STATCOM generates or absorbs desired VAR at
the point of connection [56]. Fig. 47 shows the control block
diagram of the STATCOM. An instantaneous 3-phase
V,A
(PU)
1
I
I
I
V1
I
I
I
I
IL
Gale
PatIem
1...cJge
I
-1-
2-17
-1-
means the STATCOM should "see" the system as a capacitive reactance and the inverter current in phase a, i la, leads
the line voltage at phase a, VIa, by almost 90. The inverter
voltage set, el, is less than the line voltage set, VI. At 250
the quadrature current demand, IIq *, of the inverter is set
to one per unit capacitive and the transition takes place in a
subcycle time. The phase angle, a, between the inverter
voltage and the line voltage is dynamically adjusted so that
the inverter maintains proper DC link capacitor voltage.
IDS,
V,A
(pu)
1-
V1
-1-
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
IL
1-
(ms)
B. SSSC
An SSSC controller uses a solid-state voltage source
inverter to inject an almost sinusoidal voltage, of variable
magnitude, in series with a transmission line. This injected
voltage is almost in quadrature with the line current. A small
part of the injected voltage which is in phase with the line
current provides the losses in the inverter. Most of the
injected voltage which is in quadrature with the line current
emulates an inductive or a capacitive reactance in series with
the transmission line. This emulated variable reactance,
inserted by the injected voltage source, influences the electric
power flow in the transmission line. If an SSSC is operated
with an energy storage system, the controller becomes an
impedance compensation controller which can compensate
for the transmission line resistance as well as reactance. The
reactance compensation controller is used to operate the
2-18
neous DC link capacitor voltage is proportional to the amplitude of the inverter voltage.
Therefore, when an SSSC emulates a reactance in
series with the transmission line, the power flow in the transmission line always decreases if the emulated reactance is
inductive. Also, the power flow always increases if the emulated reactance is capacitive.
Fig. 52 shows the expanded view of the two sections of Fig.
51. The inverter voltage show the presence of 24-pulse harmonic components.
1-~~P
o~~~
/i a
4-
Pq
1-
-1
X*q
I
-2-
200
400
tiTle
(ms)
600
e2a,
age, e2a, lags the line current, ia, by almost 90 . At 450 ms,
the capacitive reactance demand is increased to 0.15 per unit.
As the capacitive reactance demand increases, the line current, i a, and the power flow, Pq and Qq, in the transmission
line increase. In reality, the SSSC would encounter power
losses in the valves and in the magnetic circuit. Therefore,
there will always be a small part of real current component,
lId, flowing into the inverter and the inverter voltage will be
C. UPFC
The stand alone operations of the STATCOM and
the SSSC, as just described, only allow the inverters to
exchange almost exclusively reactive power at their terminals. However, ifboth the inverters are operated from a common DC link capacitor, the injected voltage by the SSSC can
be at any angle with respect to the line current. The real
power exchanged at the terminals of the SSSC appears at the
terminals of the STATCOM through the DC link capacitor.
The STATCOM can still be used to control the reactive current flow through it independently [58]. The current injected
by the STATCOM has two components. First, a real or direct
component, which is in phase with the line voltage, absorbs
or delivers the real power exchanged by the SSSC with the
line. Second, a reactive or quadrature component, which is
in quadrature with the line voltage, emulates an inductive or
a capacitive reactance at the point of connection with the
transmission line.
2-19
Vd:I
vo:; -t------'
P-t--
--,
-1-
ia
Fig. 54 Performance of a Unified PowerFlow Controllerwith a 24PulseQuasi Harmonic Neutralized Inverterwith 3-Level Poles Operatingin a VoltageInjectionMode
V,A,P,Q
(pu)
Va:
O t---~::---+-------.:....A'-----~
time
(ms)
-1-
2-20
V,A
(PU)
-1ia
1-
-1-
:D)
time
(ms)
Fig.55 Waveforms froma UnifiedPowerFlowController witha 24PulseQuasiHarmonic Neutralized Inverterwith 3-LevelPolesOperatingin a Voltage Injection Mode
4.5.4 SUMMARY
FACTS devices - STATCOM, SSSC, and UPFC,
have been modeled using an EMTP simulation package. The
UPFC consists of two voltage source inverters - one injects
an almost sinusoidal voltage in series with the transmission
line and the other injects an almost sinusoidal current at the
point of connection . The injected voltage can be at any angle
with the line current. The injected current has two parts.
First, the real part , which is in phase with the line voltage,
delivers or absorbs real power to the line that is exchanged by
the injected voltage source plus losses in the UPFC. Second,
the reactive part, which is in quadrature with the line voltage,
emulates an inductive reactance or a capacitive reactance at
the point of connection . The SSSC model has been operated
injecting a voltage in series with the transmission line. The
STATCOM model has been operated regulating the reactive
current flow through it and the transition from one mode of
operation to the other mode takes place in a subcycle time .
The operation of the model is verified with the model connected to a simple transmission line which can easily be
replaced by the utility's existing more complex power system
network.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The appropriate characterization of the power electronics is
very important in power system simulations involving power
electronics operations. In most of these simulations, detailed
representations of the power electronics are not necessary.
Depending on the objective of a study, the involved power
electronics subsystem can be always reduced to some extend
with minimal loss of accuracy.
Numbers of the digital computation tools are capable of simulating power electronics cases. However, in power systems
The important considerations for simulating power electronics applications have been summarized in this guidelines .
Several modeling examples including a comprehensive treatment of voltage source inverter based FACTS device and its
modeling techniques using EMTP type of programs were presented. The procedures used to implement power electronics
models in these examples are valuable for using other digital
simulation tools.
6. REFERENCES
1. CIGRE Working Group 02 (SC 33), "Guidelines for Representation ofNetwork Elements when Calculating Transients", 1990.
2. J. Blanes, A. Quijano, S. Catal n, "Simulation of induction motors behaviour during voltage disturbances using
an aggregated model", European EMTP/ATP Users
Group Meeting, November 9-11,1997, Barcelona.
3. P. F. Ribeiro, "Distribution system and other elements
modeling", Chapter 3 of Tutorial on Harmon ics Modeling and Simulation, IEEE TP-125-0, 1998.
4. "Symposium on Synchronous Machines Modelling for
Power System Studies", IEEE Power Engineering Society, Publication 83THOIOI-6-PWR, 1983.
5. P. M. Anderson, B. 1. Agrawal and J. E. Van Ness, Subsynchronous Resonance in Power Systems, IEEE Press,
1990.
6. "IEEE Guide: Test Procedures for Synchronous Machines", IEEE Std. 115, 1983.
7. F.1. Alvarado and C. Canizares, "Synchronous machine
parameters from sudden-short tests by back-solving",
IEEE Trans. on Energy Conversion, Vol. 4, no. 2, pp.
224-236, June 1989.
8. I. M. Canay, "Modelling of alternating-current machines
having multiple rotor circuits", IEEE Trans. on Energy
Conversion, vol.8, no. 2, pp. 280-296, June 1993.
9. "IEEE Guide: Test procedure for polyphase induction
motors and generators", IEEE Std. 112-1978.
10. G. J. Rogers and D. Shirmohammadi, "Induction machine modelling for electromagnetic transient program",
IEEE Trans. on Energy Conversion, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 622628, December 1987.
11. "IEEE Standard Procedures for Obtaining Synchronous
Machine Parameters by Standstill Frequency Response
Testing", IEEE Std.l15A, 1987.
12. I. M. Canay, "Determination of the model parameters of
machines from the reactance operators xd(P), xq(P)
(Evaluation of standstill frequency response test)", IEEE
Trans. on Energy Conversion, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 272-279,
June 1993.
2-21
2-22
46. S. Lefebvre, R. D. Rangel, "Modeling of power electronics devices in EMTP-TACS", Proceedings of First International Conference on Power Systems Transients
(IPST'95), Lisbon (Portugal), pp. 511-516.
47. G. A. Capolino, H. Henao, D. Leduc, V. T. Nguyen
Phuoc, "CAD of field-oriented induction motor drives
using a general purpose program", Proceedings PC1M,
1989, Munchen.
48. E. Bassily, G. A. Capolino, H. Henao, "Simulation ofdiscrete DC drive using sliding mode control", 22nd European EMTP Users Group Meeting, Paper 92R-018,
November 9-10, 1992, Leuven.
49. E. Bassily, G. A. Capolino, H. Henao, "Simulation and
design of brushless motor drive control with fuzzy pi regulator", Proceedings of First European Conference on
Power Systems Transients (EPST'93), Lisbon (portugal),
pp 84-91, June 1993.
50. A. K. Khan, R. Dwyer, M. Mcgranaghan, L. Tang, "Evaluation of Harmonic Impacts from Compact Fluorescent
Lights on Distribution Systems", IEEE PES 95 WM 1057-PWRS.
51. J. A. Martinez, "EMTP simulation of digitally-controlled
static Var system for optimal load compensation", IEEE
PES Summer Meeting, Paper 94 SM 452-3 PWRD, July
24-28, 1994, San Francisco.
52. J. A. Martinez and G. A. Capolino, "EMTP simulation of
power electronics and drives using data modularization",
Proceedings First International Aegean Conference on
Electrical Machines and Power Electronics, Kucadasi
(Turkey), May 27-29, 1992.
53. L. Tang, M. F. McGranaghan, R. A. Ferraro, S. Morganson, b. Hunt, "Voltage notching interaction caused by
large adjustable speed drives on distribution systems with
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
2-23
1. INTRODUCTION
This report is intended for practicing power system engineers
who are involved in system analysis, system control, and system planning. To use the report efficiently, adequate understanding of the physical phenomenon of interest and
familiarity with the concepts and techniques of digital computer simulation approaches are necessary.
2. LOW-FREQUENCY ELECTROMECHANICAL
DYNAMICS
This section provides modeling and analysis guidelines for low-frequency dynamics which involve electromechanical oscillations. The phenomena which are covered in
this section are torsional oscillations, transient torques, tur-
phenomena of 60 Hz power systems in the LF range are divided into the following categories:
3-1
2.1 DEFINITIONS
2.1.1 Torsional Oscillations [2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5J
Shaft system of a steam turbine-generator experiences torsional oscillations when one or more of its natural oscillatory
modes, usually at subsynchronous frequencies, are excited.
Sustained or negatively damped torsional oscillations occur
when a turbine-generator shaft system exchanges energy with
an electrical system at the shaft oscillatory modes. This exchange of energy can exist if the electrical system is equipped
with either series capacitors or HVDC converter stations. The
phenomenon of torsional oscillations can also exist as a result
of interaction between the shaft system of a steam turbinegenerator and
The phenomenon of torsional oscillation is referred to as subsynchronous resonance (SSR) when it is a result of interaction
between a shaft system and a series capacitor compensated
transmission line. The problems associated with the phenomenon of small-signal torsional oscillations are:
i)
3-2
fer means are normally provided to allow transferring the motors and other loads from one power source to the other.
However, upon loss of the preferred power source, the motors
and other loads are automatically transferred to the alternate
power source. This automatic transfer is necessary to allow
uninterrupted operation of the motors and other loads important to personnel safety and process operation. This report
does not address the concept ofbus transfer by means of semiconductor switches [2.23].
The normal and alternate power source connections are always selected such that they are in phase. Therefore, manual
transfers can be accomplished in a make-before-break, i.e.,
the motors and loads are connected to the second power
source before the first power source is disconnected. In this
overlapping transfer, the power supply is not interrupted and
the motors are not subjected to transients. However, during
automatic transfers, the motors may be disconnected from
both power sources for a short duration depending on the type
oftransfer and the associated circuit breakers operating times.
The time during which the motors are disconnected from both
power sources is termed the "dead time". Dead time is usually
between two cycles to 12 cycles. If the relative angle between
the motor residual voltage and the power source voltage becomes large enough at the time of reconnection with significant residual voltage remaining, the resultant voltage
mode which propagates almost through the entire of an interconnected electric network, the phenomena described in Section 2.1 are experienced only within a limited part of the
network. The section of the network which experiences the
phenomenon of interest, and must be represented in adequate
detail for the study of the phenomenon, is referred to as the
"Study Zone" The rest ofthe network is referred to as the "external system" The external system is represented by an
equivalent model. Identification of border nodes of the study
zone for a meshed network requires significant familiarity
with the network, as well as engineering judgment. As of
now, there is no straightforward and systematic approach to
identify the border nodes. One approach involves multiple
harmonic analyses of the system under investigation as
boundaries are extended to identify if new resonant frequencies (at the frequency range of interest) with low dampings exist.
Proper determination of the study zone can exert a major impact on the investigations of torsional dynamics and transient
torques. Comparatively, the impact of the study zone on the
vibrations of turbine blades is less significant. Identification
of the study zone for bus transfer studies is relatively straightforward.
between the power source and the motor will produce an inrush current. The inrush current may be significantly largely
than the normal full voltage staging current. Such high inrush
currents cause high winding stresses and transient shaft
torques which can damage the motor and/or the driven equipment.
Table 1 identifies the study zone components and their equivalent models for investigations of slow transient phenomena.
Further explanation ofthe system components are given in the
following sections.
The most common bus transfer scheme is the fast bus transfer
scheme. In this scheme, opening of the normal power source
breaker initiates closing of the alternate power source breaker
without intentional time delay. Fast bus transfer operations
result in the motors being disconnected from both power
sources for a duration of as short as two cycles to as long as
12 or more cycles.
Component
Torsional
Oscillations
Second-Order
Model and
Preferably ThirdOrder Model (d-q-o
Model)
Mass-SpringDashpot Model
Transient
Torques
Third-Order
Model (d-q-o
Model)
Including
Saturation
Mass- SpringDashpot Model
Power
Transformer
Conventional
Low-Frequency
Model including
Saturation
Characteristic
Turbine-Blade
Vibrations
Third-Order Model
(d-q-o Model)
Including
Saturation
Fast Bus
Transfer
Not
applicable
Not
Applicable
Conventional
Low-Frequency
Model including
Saturation
Characteristic
Detail
Mass-SpringDashpot Model
Conventional
Low-Frequency
Model including
Saturation
Characteristic
Equivalent-a
Model
Ideal Capacitor
Equivalent-a
Model
Ideal Capacitor
Equivalent-a
Model
Ideal Capacitor
Series R-L
Series R-L
Series R-L
Fixed Impedance
Load
Fixed Impedance
Load
Fixed Impedance
Load
d-q-o Model of
Electrical System,
Mass-SpringDashpot Model of
Shaft System
Voltage Source
Behind Fixed
Impedance
Voltage Source
Behind Fixed
Impedance
HVDC Converter
Station
Detailed Model of
Converter and
Linearized
(Simplified)
Model of Controls
Detailed Model of
Power Circuitry and
Linearized
(Simplified)
Model of Controls
Ideal Switch
Unimportant
Detailed Models of
Converter and
Controls
Detailed Models of
Converter and
Controls
Detailed Model of
Power Circuitry
and Contro Is
Detailed Model of
Power Circuitry
and Controls
Not
Applicable
Ideal Switch
Unimportant
Ideal Switch
Unimportant
Unimportant
Series Capacitor
Overvoltages
Protection System
Ideal Switch
Not
Applicable
Not
Applicable
Synchronous
Generator's
Electrical System
Turbine-Generator
Shaft System
Series/Shunt
Capacitor
Series/Shunt
Reactor
Static Load
SVC
Circuit Breaker
Generator
Controls
Protection System'
3-4
Conventional
LowFrequency
Model
including
Saturation
C harac terist ic
Not
Applicable
Ideal
Capacitor
Series R-L
Fixed
Impedance
Load
d-q-o Model
of
Electrical
System,
Mass- SpringDashpot
Model of
Shaft System
Not
Applicable
In most studies, the power plant under consideration is composed of more than one turbine-generatorunit. If all the turbine-generator units are nominallyidentical,and under almost
equal loading conditions, they can be representedby a single,
equivalent turbine-generator unit. Otherwise, each turbinegeneratorunit must be separately represented.
d-axis
Lt
STATOR
Rlq
q-axis
1.(
LfJd
~q
HP
IP
LPA
LPB
EXC
LId RId
STAToJl:-
HEW
Fig. 2.2. Turbine-generator shaftsystemand its mass-spring-dashpot mode
d-axis
STATOR
FinalStageBlade
t ,
q-axis
2.lll
Fig. 2.2 shows a six-mass shaft system and its equivalent
mass-spring-dashpot model. The mass-spring-dashpot model
of Fig. 2.2 assumesthat (1) the high-pressure turbine(HP),the
intermediate-pressure turbine (IP), the low-pressure turbines
(LPA and LPB), the generator rotor (G), and the excitor
(EXC) are rigid masses, and (2) each shaft section is composed of a spring constant (Kij) and a cyclic damping (Dij).
The main shortcoming of the model is that neither the shaft
cyclic dampings (Dijis) nor the viscous dampings (Diis) can
be directlymeasured or calculated. Neglectingthe dampings
providesthe most pessimisticdynamicresponse, which is often the objectiveof an investigation. The discussion of [2.11 ]
provides further descriptionof the mass-spring-dashpot model. Figure 2.3 shows a mass-spring-dashpot model of the turbine-generator set of Fig. 2.2 for investigation of turbineblade vibrations. This model representsbladesof turbinesections as lumped masses [2.6].
Fig. 2.3. Mass-spring dashpotmodelof the turbine-generator for turbinebladevibrational studies(mechanical dampingis neglected)
2 2 2 3 power Transfonner
Classical low frequency transformer model with proper connections at both HV and LV sides is adequate for representation of each powertransformerwithin the Study Zone. Figure
2.4 shows the classical model of a single-phase transformer
for simulationof low frequencydynamics. No-load V-I magnetic saturationcharacteristic can be used as a fair approximation of core saturationfor the phenomenaof interest. A threephase transformer model is developed based on proper connections of primary and secondary windings of the singlephase model of Fig. 2.4.
3-5
L2
R2
Nl:N2
2 2 2 4 Transmission Ijne
Shaft dynamics of a turbine-generator can be excited as a result of interaction between the turbine-generator and either
rectifier current-control or the inverter extinction angle (voltage) control of an HYDC link. Thus, ifboth the rectifier and
the inverter stations are within the study zone, both converter
stations, de line, and the associated controls, with adequate
level of sophistication, must be represented in the system
model.
2 2 2 6 Shunt Reactor
Shunt reactors can have a noticeable impact on the steadystate operating conditions, e.g. voltage profile, which can impact the dampings of the low frequency dynamics. Thus, representation of shunt reactors, particularly under light loading
conditions, is recommended.
When the inverter station is not within the Study Zone, the inverter station and the de line can be represented by an equivalent controlled voltage source, and only the rectifier station
and its controls must be modelled in details. Similarly, the
rectifier station and the de line can be modelled as an equivalent controlled current source and only the inverter station and
its control system be represented in detail, if the rectifier station is not within the Study Zone.
"Fixed Impedance" model is an adequate load representation when turbine-generator shaft dynamics are of concern.
However, if an induction motor load or a synchronous motor
load is comparable to the MVA rating of the turbine-generator
under consideration, fixed impedance representation of the load
may result in erroneous conclusions. Under such conditions, the
load is best represented by either an equivalent induction motor
or an equivalent synchronous motor.
3-6
station [2.16]. However SVCs have been recognized as effective countermeasures for shaft torsional dynamics. A conventional SVC is composed of thyristor-switched capacitors
(TSCs) and thyristor-controlled reactors (TCRs) [2.17]. During small-signal dynamics, e.g. torsional oscillations, an SVC
can be approximated as fixed capacitors (FCs) and TCRs.thyristor valves in each arm of either the TCR or the TSC are
modelled as two equivalent ideal switches including the parallel snubber branch. The three-phase transformer model of
Section 2.2.2.3 can adequately represent an SVC transformer
for low frequency studies. Controlled reactor, switched capacitor and the SVC filter components are represented in the
time-domain simulation model by proper combinations of
lumped RLC elements. Chapter 9 of [2.15] and reference
[2.18] provide details of the controls of an SVC for time-domain simulation. Similar to an HVDC converter station, an
SVC may be equipped with auxiliary controls, e.g. supplemental SSR damping control. Thus, all the closed-loop controls must be represented in the simulation model to attain a
realistic time-response of an SVC.
Time-domain simulation and frequency-domain eigen analysis are widely used as complementary approaches for reciprocal verification of torsional studies.
2 2 2 10 Generator Controls
Conventional generator controls, i.e. automatic voltage regulator (AVR), power system stabilizer (PSS), and governor
system generally do not have major (positive or negative) effects on turbine-generator shaft dynamics. Although there are
reports oftorsional excitation as a result ofPSSs and electronically controlled governors, the adverse effect can be prevented by introducing filters in the control circuitry. Thus, the
dynamics of excitation and governor systems are neglected,
and the input mechanical power and the generator field voltage are considered as constant values for time-domain investigation of shaft dynamics. For those particular cases where
either AVR, PSS or governor may aggravate torsional oscillations [2.1,2.2,2.3,2.4,2.5], they can be represented by their
linearized models in the system model.
2 2 2 11 Protection System
A qualitative verification of the simulation results can be obtained based on the comparison ofthe frequencies of the blade
vibrations, deduced from FFT of the simulation results, with
those provided by the turbine manufacturer.
2.3.4 Bus-Transfer
The simplified system introduced in [2.7], is recommended as
the test system for bus transfer studies. Typical motor load
data for simulation studies are available in [2.19].
2.3 TESTSYSTEMS
2.3.1 Torsional Oscillations
The IEEE Working Group on Subsynchronous Resonance has
introduced two benchmark models for time-domain simulation of turbogenerator torsional oscillations [2.12, 2.13]. The
benchmark models have been extensively used for time-domain as well as frequency-domain investigation of the phe-
To establish the dead time and a range of the expected accuracy,it is recommended to performa fastbus transfertestwith
a few motorsconnected and simulating the test conditions using motor models based on the manufacturer supplied data.
Since measuring the transient variations in the motor shaft
torque is a complextask, it is suggested to monitor, simulate
and compare the following parameters:
3.3 DEVICEMODELS
businstantaneous voltage
Appendix A provides further information regarding fast bustransferand typical time-domain simulation results.
3. CONTROL SYSTEM INTERACTIONS
3.1 DEFINITION
3-8
3.3.9 GeneratorControls
"Fixed Impedance" modelof loads withinthe studyzoneprovides accurate representation of the loads for investigation of
controllerinteractionphenomenon. Very large load areas can
also be representedby an "infinite bus" with proper phase angle to draw the requiredpower at the fundamental frequency.
The impacts of various load models on the phenomenon of
controller interactions have been neither adequately investigated nor reported in the literature.
All the steady-state continuouscontrolsof rectifierand inverter stations, e.g. DC current control, DC voltage control, AC
voltage control or reactive power control,real power control,
and frequency control must be representedin the model. The
control model must adequately represent firing and synchronization schemesused for the convertervalues.
3.3.10HarmonicFilters
When the inverterstation is not withinthe StudyZone, the inverter station and the dc line can be representedby an equivalent controlled voltage source, and only the rectifier station
and its controls be modelled in detail. Similarly, the rectifier
station and the de line can be modelled as an equivalentcontrolled current sourceand only the inverterstationand its control system be represented in details, if the rectifier station is
3-9
4.2 STUDYZONE
230kV
250km
220km
68kV
180km
'I
(b)
Operation of power electronic converters, e.g. an HVDCconverter station,is characterized by generation of currentand!or
voltageharmonics. These harmonics are classified as characteristic and noncharacteristic harmonics. In contrastto characteristic harmonics, amplitudes and orders of
noncharacteristic harmonics cannot be accurately predicted
by conventional analytical techniques, e.g. Fourier analysis.
Time-domain simulation methods provide an alternative approach for the analysis of noncharacteristic harmonics. References [4.1] and [4.2] provide a comprehensive description
of the physicalphenomena resultingin harmonic interactions.
The main concerns with the presenceof noncharacteristic harmonics are (1) harmonic interactions and/or resonance [4.1],
and (2) the interference phenomenon [4.2].
Radio and telephone interference as a result of dc side harmonics of HYDC converters is a well known phenomenon.
Also, secondand third harmonic instability of ac systemsdue
to harmonic modulation characteristic of HYDC converter
has been encountered in the existinginstallations [4.1].
dynamics do not play any noticeable role in the harmonic interaction phenomenon. Thus, the shaft model can be readily
discarded from the overallsystem model.
4.3.3 Power Transformer
Both stray capacitances and magnetic saturation characteristics of powertransformers withinthe study zone can have significant impact on power system harmonics. The magnetic
saturation characteristic has a deterministic impacton the second harmonic instability and can be fairly represented by the
no-load V-I characteristic in the magnetization branch of the
transformer. The winding stray capacitances to the tank have
a noticeable effecton the interference phenomenon[4.2]. The
stray capacitance can be adequately modelled by a single capacitance from the windingterminal to the ground [4.2].
4.3.4 Transmission Lines
Seriesand shunt capacitors have deterministic impactson series and parallelresonantfrequencies of the system and must
be represented in the overallsystemmodel for harmonicstudies. Both series and shunt capacitors are adequately representedby lumpedthree-phase capacitorbanks.
3-10
Similarto series and shunt capacitors, shunt reactors also influence the system natural resonant frequencies and must be
represented in the systemmodel. A shuntreactoris adequately represented by a three-phase lumpedreactorbank.
4.3.7 Loads
cs
The HVDC-AC system of Fig. 4.2 is proposedas the test system for the investigation of harmonic interactions phenomena
and the secondharmonic instability issues.
The model used for the valve firing circuitry should generate actual firing instants. Otherwise, the amplitudes and
orders of noncharacteristic harmonics will be noticeably
distorted as a result of improper firing instants [4.4].
modelling approach of [4.15] are reported in [4.14]. References [4.16,4.17,4.18] provide a comprehensive and fundamental description of the harmonic interactionphenomenon.
However, there are not that many measurements and investigationof the harmonic interaction phenomenon to establisha
method for verification of time-domain simulation studies.
Reference [4.19] introduces an alternative approachbased on
frequency scanning methodfor identification of harmonic instabilities in HVDCsystems. This approachmay be used for
qualitative verification of digital time-domain simulationapproach.
5. FERRORESONANCE
The inverterac system consists of a 230-kV ac source which
is connectedto the inverterstationthrougha 500-kV, 832-km
transmission system. The transmission line is equipped with
240/525-kV y - Y connectedtransformer at the source side.
The ac line is divided in three sections, Fig. 4.2. Each intermediate station is equipped with a 400 MVA capacitorbank
for voltageprofileimprovement. Loads#1, #2, and #3 arerated at 920-MVA, 400-MVA and 360-MVA respectively. The
inverter station is also equipped with an SVC which can adjust its reactive power from 180-MVAR inductive to 510MVAR capacitive. Electrical parameters of the inverter ac
systemare givenin [4.7]. The ESCR of the inverterac side is
2.2.
References [4.8] and [4.9] provide various HVDC/ac benchmarkmodelsthat also can be used for the analyses of harmonic interactions and resonance phenomena. The first HVDC
benchmark model [4.8] proposed by CIGREWG 14-02 also
exhibits second harmonic resonance and can be adopted for
investigation of harmonic instabilityphenomenon. This system is less complicated as compared with that of Fig. 4.2.
Reference [4.10]providesa very simple circuitconfiguration
which exhibits instability due to switching characteristic of
thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR). A set of time-domain
simulations results of the test systems of Fig. 4.2 is given in
[4.4].
4.5 VERIFICATION OF SIMULATION RESULTS
3-12
R~2
~
+
V,_",
R",.
LU
l~l
lEX
~ll
xc
IDEAL
HO
TRANSFOIUlER
1.0
0 .75
0 .5
0 .25
0 .0
>
-0 .2 5
-0.5
-0.7 5
III
Q.
::;
rt.
rt.
:l
0
t=
TIME
3-13
IiI
..f:
_:>r.
CDRE
roRW
(~ACKED )
~ ~~ 110
- 11:.t
"HELL
-se.e
P'OR
~ACK!lD)
Fig. 5.2. Same transformeras in Fig. 5.1, fed througha 7511F capacitance,operatingin ferroresonance. Solid waveformis terminal voltageof
transformer; dashed waveform is the current.
5-IBdOED WOUND CORE
I~
Fig. 5.3. Core configurations commonly used in three phase transformers.Only one set of windings is shown.
3-14
a}
,; v
s.
---------~-------
The five-legged wound core is made up of four concentrically-laminated cores. The unique feature ofthis core is that only
adjacent phases are directly linked via a magnetic path. Assuming no flux leakage between cores, the two outer winding
assemblies are not magnetically coupled. Tank heating is
minimized, since there are zero sequence flux paths in the
core. Because of its low cost, this type of transformer core is
widely used in distribution systems.
__L
- - - - - .. - - - -
....,
b)
,
1
8.1
-~----~------~--
c)
Ferroresonance in three phase systems can involve large power transformers, distribution transformers, or instrument
transformers (VTs or CVTs). The general requirements for
ferroresonance are an applied (or induced) source voltage, a
saturable magnetizing inductance of a transformer, a capacitance, and little damping. The capacitance can be in the form
of capacitance of underground cables or long transmission
... - 4 - -
- -
- ,..,
If one or two poles of the switch are open and if either the capacitor bank or the transformer have grounded neutrals, then
a series path through capacitance(s) and magnetizing reac-
3-15
]I)
Either overhead lines or underground cables connect transformers to the system. Cables have a relatively large shunt capacitance compared to overhead lines, so this type of
ferroresonance most often involves underground cables, but is
also possible due solely to transformer winding capacitance.
Three phase or single phase transformers can appear at the
end of a distribution line or at any point along the line. Three
phase transformers may have anyone ofthe several core types
discussed in the previous section.
3-16
3-17
combination of initialconditionandtransientmakeprediction
less than certain.
5.6.2 The Study Zone
Parts of the system that must be simulatedare the source impedance, the transmission or distribution line(s), the transformer, and any capacitance not already included. Source
representation is not generally critical. Unlessthe sourcecontainsnonlinearities, it is sufficientto use the steady-state thevenin impedance and open-circuit voltage. The distribution
line or transmission line can be assumed to be an RLC coupled pi-equivalent, cascadedfor longer lines. Shunt or series
capacitors may be represented as a standardcapacitance, paralleled with the appropriate dissipation resistance. Stray capacitance may also be incorporated eitherat the comers of an
open-circuited delta transformer winding or midway along
each winding. Other sources of capacitance are transformer
bushings and interwinding capacitances, and possiblybusbar
capacitances.
One of the most critical parts of any ferroresoriance study is
the transformermodel. The transformer containsthe nonlinearities, and modeling results are most sensitive to correct
representation of magnetic saturationand core loss. The rest
of this discussion focuses mainly on how the transformer
shouldbe modeled. Manyare dissatisfied with the transformer modeling capabilities in today'smodeling packages. There
has been much discussionrecently as to what improvements
can be made in modeling techniques [5.6,5.13,5.46].
5.6.3 More on Single Phase Transformer Models And
Parameters
For three phase transformers, it is possible to make a simplified model by connecting together three of the above single
3-18
pr imory : Delto
PA
R2
L2
SA
R2
L2
58
R2
L2
5C
PC
If the transformer does not have any delta windings, zero sequence effects may be included by adding a set of delta windings to the model whose total leakage impedance is equal to
the transformer's zero sequence inductance. This may work
for a three-legged core transformer that has an air path for
zero sequence flux, but is highly questionable in the case of
transformers having a saturable zero sequence flux path.
Factory three-phase excitation test reports will not provide the
information needed to get the magnetizing inductances for
this model. Note that standards require the exciting current to
be stated as the "average" value of the RMS exciting currents
of the three phases. Unless it is a triplexed core, this is meaningless, since the currents are not sinusoidal and they are not
the same in every phase . Therefore, the waveforms of the applied voltage and exciting currents in all three phase should be
given by the manufacturer for all levels of applied voltage.
The model might be improved by using a coupled inductance
matrix to model the short circuit characteristics of three phase
3-19
the core and leakages. Winding resistance and interconnection of the windings appears external to the coupling transformers . The advantage to this is that the derived core
equivalent can be used independently of winding configuration (delta, wye, zig-zag, etc.). Winding resistance, core losses, and capacitive coupling effects are not obtained directly ,
but can be added to this topologically-correct equivalent electrical circuit.
H1
LUKAGE X1- X!
LAKAcz: Xl-la
X1
LEAICACf: la-X!
Rx
X2
I/J
L[AIC
'Ill"
H3
CDI[
I~
~ ~II~ ~x
~III
X3
xc
HO
~I
...L
Fig. 5.9. Duality derived equivalent circuit with current sources replaced by
ideal coup ling transformers. Winding resistances have also been added
1/2 LlM X1X1
Fig. 5.8. Development of magnetic circuit for grounded-wye togrounded wye five-legged wound core transformer. At top, transformer core sectional
view used as a basis for duality derivation . Leakageflux paths are labeled.
Bold dividing lines mark division in corereluctances. Equivalent magnetic
circuit is shown at bottom.
A recent problem occurring in a 50-kV network in the Hafslund area near Moss, Norway, serves as an excellent example
[5.18]. The clearing of a short circuit removed the only remaining source of grounding on the system. After the fault
was cleared, the only remaining zero sequence impedance
was due to capacitive coupling to earth. After operating in
this way for only 3 minutes , ferroresonance had destroyed 72
of the VTs used for measurement and protective relaying. All
72 of the damaged VTs were from the same manufacturer.
The VTs of two other manufacturers that were also in service
during this time were not damaged.
Fig. 5.10 shows the typical VT arrangement used in this system. The VTs have two low voltage windings. The secondary
is used for measurement and protective relaying purposes.
The burden on that winding has a very high impedance and its
effects can be ignored when considering ferroresonance. It is
the tertiary windings which are shown in Fig. 5.10. These
windings are connected in open delta and loaded with a damping resistance RO. The purpose of this damping resistance is
to damp out ferroresonance, and this design has been com-
3-20
- ---t--.-.-.-.. -t------.-..I
MAX fLUX
L1111:+ AT Vr.'
&'.
-----------1---------------1-.- i
I
B.O
I----'---~__'__--'----+---'----'-___'_------I-~~.l..---~__'__--'----'
loll
I.~
-.
!
i
i
i
"A~1lI iTIZNG
1.1
c.n
Since some of the VTs were damaged and the others weren't,
the VTs of different manufacturers obviously must have different characteristics. The problem at Hafslund therefore
forced a re-evaluation of the specification and application of
voltage transformers. EMTP was used to simulate the system
conditions that caused the VT failures. VT model parameters
were obtained from the manufacturers. Parameters are shown
in Table 2. Saturation characteristics were calculated based
on core material B-H data, core dimensions, and number of
primary turns. Data for the damaged VTs are listed as VT #1.
VA
I
+--a~--..-----------
....
VB
I
(t-+-<J~--+-----..-----B
Vc
+--a~--+------+-----..--
....
Fig. 5.12.Reducedsystemequivalent, neglecting line impedances and lumping all VTsin each phase into an aggregatejXM.
Rp
Xp
XT
Nl:N3
BMAX
VT#1
32500
25000
0.010
20k:23
l.05T
VT#2
32180
30940
0.010
-36k:42
0.77T
VT#3
75880
48330
0.010
25k:29
0.83T
3-21
latedare very close for the periods one, two, and three. Period
five is generally correct, with slightly lower than actual peak
amplitudes predicted. The chaotic response predicted is slightly
higher than actual. Themodel useda simplistic linearresistance
to represent the core losses of each core. The model's accuracy
couldbe improved by implementing a more correct (complex)
corelossrepresentation.
600
zr400
!
x~
200
II)
-200
If>....i.j~erroresonance:
\
.~
r-;
-...,..
/ t \
.. 1
.....
. ...
..... ..
~":
("' i..
....
> 400
Laboratory
Simulated
r-,
! ..
. ~J
'c........
I'............1....
['h,
L.
RJ.: \
.:
._-_.: ~
! \\~
-600
234
60-Hz Periods
X4H
X3H
hl---6owa""":":,~-:---+--:"=",""",,-++-,,,,
14.26 ml.
TO HAWTHORNE SOO TS
X2H
~ 38uF
LENNOX 230
:.
........................
KINGSTON y .
z:
,!,
.
"0
X"
~
~ :> -288 .8
::>
:i
5.8
1B .8
, "'
15.8
GAROINER TS
CATARA Q UI I S
HINCHINeROOKE TS
. ~~:~~..
28 .8
CAPACITANCE X I- H (uF)
Fig. 5.14 shows the result of one of the EMTP simulations and compares it to the actual measurements. The model
correctly predicts the existence of all modes of ferroresonance at
the correct values of capacitance. The actual waveforms simu-
SeveralEMTP simulations were run, with Y-connectedresistive loads of zero, 133kW/phase, and 266 kW/phase attached
to the tertiary ofT2. In each case, the 115-kVbreaker ofT2
was assumed to open last. Two double-circuit 230-kV lines,
an existing500-kVline, and a future 500-kVline were included in the corridor, resulting in an 18-phase coupled-circuit
transmission equivalent (Fig. 5.16).
3-22
!
2.oE+S :..
.. ......
'
.1
............. j
1.oE+S
MIV\~
-ine-s
...
-2.oE+S
-3.oE+S
-4.oE+S
1- .........
O.os
CATARAQJI12 FERRORESONANCE I,
EXTERNAL DAMPING = 133 k!N I phas eJ
--j
...:
...:
...:
~ 402kV peak
'1'
:
zoonms
300.oms
.:
...;
~I ii ..;
100.oms
400.om,
liME
5.8 RECOMMENDATIONS
Is seen that many different types of ferroresonance can and
do occur. Because of the nonlinear nature of ferroresonance,
it is difficult to predict if and where it might next occur. The
power system engineer should be aware, however, that it is
possible for lightly-loaded transformers operating in the presence of source or shunt capacitance to experience ferroresonance. Capacitance can be present in the form of cables, series
or shunt capacitor banks, or even stray capacitances in inadequately-grounded portions of the system.
Transient simulations are helpful in confirming or predicting the likelihood of ferroresonance, but only if a correct model is used. Per phase simulations of three phase systems will
not give correct results, due to various possible transformer
core configurations and winding connections. A complete
three phase model must be used. Therefore, the key to transient modeling is use of the proper transformer model. Development and use of acceptable transformer models should be a
priority task.
The development of improved topologically correct models is
a significant advancement, but model performance still depends on improving the way in which the cores are represented. Transformer core configuration must be considered and
saturation characteristics must be accurately known to operating levels well above rated voltage.
At this time, it is seen that modeling of ferroresonance is as
much an art as a science. As such, it is important if possible to
verify the results by checking the simulations against system
measurements. It is highly recommended that anyone active
in this area must continually monitor the literature for improvements in modeling techniques.
6. SUMMARY
This document provides a set of general guidelines for digitalcomputer time-domain simulation oflow-frequency (approximately 5 to 1000Hz) transients of electric power systems.
3-23
The report is intended for practicing engineers who are involved in analysis, control and system planning issues related
to electronic power systems. It is assumed that the reader has
(1) a fair understanding of the physical phenomena and (2) an
adequate knowledge of digital simulation techniques. The
guidelines are provided for seven transient torsional torques,
(3) turbine-blade vibrations, (4) fast bus transfer, (5) controller interactions, (6) harmonic interactions and resonance, and
(7) ferroresonance. For those phenomena which have extensively discussed in the literature, i.e. (1) to (4), general guidelines are provided and the reader is frequently referred to the
technical literature for further in-depth modeling and simulation issues. The emphasis of this document is on phenomena
(5), (6) and particularly (7).
7. REFERENCES
[1.I]CIGRE, "Guidelines For Representation of Network Elements When Calculating Transients", CIGRE Working
Group 33.02, 1990.
[2.1] IEEE Torsional Issues Working Group, "Fourth Supplement To A Bibliography For The Study of Subsynchronous
Resonance Between Rotating Machines and Power Systems",
IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRS-12, No.3, pp. 1276-1282, August
1997.
[2.2] IEEE SSR Working Group, "A Bibliography for the
Study of Subsynchronous Resonance Between Rotating Machines and Power Systems", IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-95, No.
1, pp. 216-218, Jan. - Feb. 1976.
[2.3]IEEE SSR Working Group, "First Supplement to a Bibliography for the Study of Subsynchronous Resonance Between Rotating Machines and Power Systems", IEEE Trans.,
Vol. PAS-98, No.6, pp. 1872-1875, Nov. - Dec. 1979.
[2.16]N. Rostamkolai, et al, "Subsynchronous Torsional Interactions with Static VAR Compensators - Influence of
HYDC", IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. PWRS-6, No.
1, pp. 255-261, Feb. 1991.
[2.5]IEEE SSR Working Group, "Third Supplement to a Bibliography for the Study of Subsynchronous Resonance Between Rotating Machines and Power Systems", IEEE Trans.,
Vol. PWRS-6, No.2, pp. 830-834, May 1991.
[2.6]T.P. Tsao, C. Chgn, "Restriction ofTurbine Blade Vibrations in Turbogenerators", lEE Proceedings, Vol. 137, Part C,
No.5, pp. 339-342, 1990.
[2.7]J.D. Gill, "Transfer of Motor Loads, Between Out-ofPhase Sources", IEEE Trans. on Industrial Applications, Vol.
1A-15, No.4, pp. 376-381,1979.
[2.8]T.A. Higgins, P.L. Young, W.L. Snider, H.I. Holley,
"Report on Bus Transfer: Part II, Computer Modelling for
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Studies", IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. PWRS-7, No.
1, pp. 11-19, 1992.
[2.19]H.J. Holley, T.A. Higgins, P.L. Young, W.L. Snider,
"A Comparison of Induction Motor Models for Bus Transfer
Studies", IEEE Trans. on Energy Conversion, Vol. EC-5, No.
2, pp. 310-319, 1990.
[2.20]EPRI Report, "Bus Transfer Studies for Utility Motors", EERI EL-4286, Vol. 2, Project 1763-2, October 1986.
[2.21]G.J. Rogers, D. Shirmohammadi, "Induction Machine
Modelling For Electromagnetic Transients Program", IEEE
Trans., Vol. EC-2, No.4, pp. 622-628, December 1987.
3-24
[3.1]A.J.P. Ramos, H. Tyll, "Dynamic Performance of a Radial Weak Power System with Multiple Static VAr Compensators", IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRS-4, pp. 1316-1325,
November 1989.
[3.4]M. Parniani, "Small-Signal Stability Analysis And Robust Control Design of Static VAR Compensators", Ph.D
Thesis, University of Toronto, 1995.
...[3.5]M. Parniani, M.R. Iravani, "Voltage Control Stability
and Dynamic Interaction Phenomena of Static VAR Compensators", IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRS-I0, No.3, pp. 1592-1597,
August 1995.
[3.6]G. Gross, C.F. Imparato, P.M. Look, "A Tool for Comprehensive Analysis of Power System Dynamic Stability",
IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-I0l, No.1, pp. 226-234, January
1982.
[3.7]R.M. Hamouda, M.R. !ravani, R. Hackam, "Coordinated
Static VAR Compensators and Power System Stabilizers for
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PWRS-2,pp. 1059-1067, 1987.
[3.8]M. Parniani, M.R. Iravani , "Computer Analysis of
Small-Signal Stability of Power System Including Network
Dynamics", Proceeding lEE, Gen-Trans-Distrib, Vol. 142,
No.6, pp. 613-617, November 1995.
[4.1]A.E. Hammad, "Analysis of Second Harmonic Instability for the Chateauguay HVDC/SVC Scheme", IEEE Trans.,
Vol. PWRD-7, No.1, pp. 410-415, January 1992.
[4.2]E.V. Larsen, M. Lublich, S.C. Kapoor, "Impact of Stray
Capacitance on HVDC Harmonics", IEEE Trans., Vol.
PWRD-4, No.1, pp. 637-645, 1989.
[4.3]A.S. Morched, J.H. Ottevangers, L. Marti, "Multi-Port
Frequency Dependent Network Equivalents for the EMTP",
IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-8, No.3, pp. 1402-1412, July 1993.
[4.4]A. Sarshar, M.R. Iravani, J. Li, "Calculation ofNoncharacteristic Harmonics of HVDC Station Using Digital TimeDomain Simulation Method", IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-l1,
[4.5]Manitoba HVDC Research Center, "EMTDC User Manual", pp. 12.44-12.50, 1988.
[4.10]L.A.S. Pilotto, J.E.R. Alves, E.H. Watanabe, A.E. Hammad, "A Non-Linear Switching Function Model for Static
VAR Compensators", Proceedings of International Power
Electronics Conference (IPEC), pp. 627-631, Yokohama,
April, 1995.
[4.11]N.L. Shore, G. Andersson, A.P. Canelhas and G. Asplund, "A Three-Pulse Model of DC Side Harmonic Flow in
HVDC Systems", IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-4, No.3, pp.
1945-1954, July 1989.
[4.12]D.L. Dickmander, K.J. Peterson, "Analysis of DC Harmonics Using the Three-Pulse Model for the Intermountain
Power Project HVDC Transmission", IEEE Trans., Vol.
PWRD-4, No.2, pp. 1195-1204, April 1989.
[4.13]T.F. Garrity, 1.0. Hassan, K.A. Adamson, J.A.
Donahue, "Measurement of Harmonic Currents and Evaluation of DC Filter Performance of the New England - Hydro
Quebec Phase I HVDC Project", IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-4,
No.1, pp. 779-786, January 1989.
[4.14]D.L. Dickmander, S.Y. Lee" G.L. Desilets, M. Granger, "AC/DC Harmonic Interaction in the Presence of GIC for
the Hydro Quebec - New England Phase II HVDC Transmission", IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-9, No.1, pp. 68-78, January
1994.
[4.15]H. Stemmler, "HVDC Back-to-back Interties on Weak
AC Systems - Second Harmonic Problems Analysis and Solution", CIGRE Symposium, Paper 300-08, Boston, 1987.
[4.16]R.H. Lasseter, L.J. Bohmann, "Harmonic Interactions
in Thyristor Controlled Reactor Circuits", IEEE Trans., Vol.
PWRD-4, No.3, pp. 1919-1925, July 1989.
[4.17]L.J. Bohmann, R.H. Lasseter, "Stability and Harmonics
in Thyristor Controlled Reactors", IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-
3-25
28-30, 1989.
[4.18]S.G. Jalali, R.H. Lasseter, "A Study of Nonlinear Harmonic Interaction Between a Single Phase Line-Commutated
Converter and a Power System", IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-9,
No.3, pp. 1616-1624, July 1994.
[5.15]J.G. Frame, N. Mohan and T. Liu, "Hysteresis Modeling in an Electro-Magnetic Transients Program", IEEE Trans.
PAS, vol. PAS-I0l, no. 9, pp. 3403-3411, September, 1982.
[5.16]J. Gleick, Chaos: Making a New Science, Viking, New
York, NY, copyright 1987.
[5.17]C. Hayashi, Nonlinear Oscillations in Physical Systems, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY, copyright 1964.
[5.18]T. Henriksen and O. Rervik, "Ferroresonans i 50-kV
Nett til Hafslund", Energiforsyningens Forskningsinstitutt AI
S, Trondheim, Norway, ISBN 82-594-0229-7, EFI TR 3779,
December 19, 1990 (in Norwegian),
[5.19]R.H. Hopkinson, "Ferroresonance During Single-Phase
Switching of3-Phase Distribution Transformer Banks", IEEE
Trans. PAS, vol. PAS-84, no. 4, pp. 289-293, April 1965.
[5.5]J.L. Blackburn, Protective Relaying Principles and Applications, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY, pp. 231-237,
9th printing, copyright 1987.
[5.6]M.H.J. Bollen, "The Search for a General Transformer
Model", 16th European EMTP Users Group Meeting, paper
89-07, pp. 1-20, May 28- 30, 1989.
[5.7]P. Boucherot, "Existence de Deux Regimes en Ferro-resonance", R.G.E., pp. 827-828, December 10, 1920.
[5.8]V. Brenner, "Subharmonic Response of the Ferroresonant Circuit with Coil Hysteresis", AlEE Transactions, vol.
75 I, pp. 450-456, September 1956.
[5.9]J.W. Butler and C. Concordia, "Analysis of Series Capacitor Application Problems", AlEE Trans., vol. 56, pp.
975-988, August, 1937.
[5.10]E.C. Cherry, "The Duality Between Interlinked Electric
and Magnetic Circuits and the Formation of Transformer
Equivalent Circuits," Proceedings of the Physical Society,
Part B, vol. 62, pp. 101-111, 1949.
[5.11]H.W. Dommel with S. Bhattacharya, V. Brandwajn,
H.K. Lauw and L. Marti, EMTP Theory Book, 2nd Ed., Microtran Power System Analysis Corporation, Vancouver, BC,
May 1992.
[5.12]L. Dube and B.A. Mork, "Variable Capacitances and
Inductance in ATP," EMTP News, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 33-36,
March 1992.
[5.13]G. Empereur, "Miscellaneous - Transformers", 16th
European EMTP Users Group Meeting, Paper 89-09, May
3-26
[5.30]A. Narang and R.H. Brierley, "Topology Based Magnetic Model for Steady-State and Transient Studies for Three
Phase Core Type Transformers," IEEE Trans. PWRS, vol. 9,
no. 3, pp. 1337-1349, August 1994.
[5.45]J.M.T. Thompson and H.B. Stewart, Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos - Geometrical Methods for Engineers and Scientists, John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY, (Reprinted
October 1987), copyright 1986.
[5.46]J. Usaola and G. Empereur, "Comparison Between Different Transformer Models in EMTP," EMTP News, vol. 2,
no. 2, pp. 25-34, June 1989.
[5.47]R.A. Walling, K.D. Barker, T.M. Compton, and L.E.
Zimmerman, "Ferroresonant Overvoltages in Grounded WyeWye Padmount Transformers with Low-Loss Silicon-Steel
Cores", IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 16471660, July, 199.
APPENDIX A
[5.36]R. Rudenberg, Transient Performance ofElectric Power Systems, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY,
chapter 48, copyright 1950.
[5.37]G.R. SIemon, "Equivalent Circuits for Transformers
and Machines Including Non-Linear Effects," Proceedings
lEE, vol. 100, part IV, pp. 129-143, 1953.
[5.38]D.R. Smith, S.R. Swanson and J.D. Borst, "Overvoltages with Remotely-Switched Cable-Fed Grounded Wye-Wye
Transformers", IEEE Trans. PAS, vol. PAS-94, no. 5, pp.
1843-1853, Sep/Oct 1975.
[5.39]P.L. Sorenson, "Simulation of Faults and Switchings in
Electrical Distribution Networks", ATV - NESA - Electrical
Engineering Department, DTH - DEFU, Industrial Research
Project EF186, pp. 1- 120, April, 1988.
[5.40]D.L. Stuehm, B.A. Mork and D.D. Mairs, "Ferroresonance with Three Phase Five-Legged Core Transformers",
Minnesota Power Systems Conference, Minneapolis, MN,
October 3, 1988.
[5.41]D.L. Stuehm, B.A. Mork and D.D. Mairs, "Five-Legged
Core Transformer Equivalent Circuit", IEEE Trans. Power
3-27
3-28
The account for the above considerations, the following fast bus transfer operations should be simulated and
analyzed.
A.2.6TransforDlers
Transformer dynamics have a little or no effect on
bus transfer operations. Therefore, a transformer may be
modeled as an ideal transformer in series with a lumped
resistance in series with a lumped inductance representing
the transformer equivalent impedance.
A.2.7 Cables/Lines
3-29
2. MODELING REQUIREMENTS
This sectiondiscusses general and specificmodeling requirements. General requirements include a discussion of the extent of the system to be modeled, frequency
ranges and simulation time-steps. Specific requirements
include the equipment models typically used for switching
transients simulation.
(1)
where [Iphase] is the phase current vector, [Ij] is the transformation matrix, and [Imode] is the modal current vector.
There is a similar expression for voltage, with transformation matrix [Tv]. Digital programs only work with real
matrices, so it is helpful if the components of the transformation matrices do not have large imaginary parts. The
transformation matrix for overhead lines is nearly real, but
for cables it may have a significant imaginary part. It is
also simplest if the transformation matricesare assumed to
be frequency independent over the range of frequencies
found in switching surges. For overheadlines, the assump-
Voltage
Level
Comments:
230kV
345kV
p-l00 n-m
p=100 n-m
p=100 Q-m
p=100 Q-m
Xl,Q!km
0.50
0.38
0.38
0.34
RI,Q!km
0.05
0.032
0.018
0.017
XO,Q!km
2.5
1.3
1.2
1.00
RO,Q!km
0.49
0.34
0.33
0.33
Cl, ~F/km
0.0088
0.012
0.013
0.013
CO, ~F/km
0.0041
0.0083
0.0075
0.0093
rz
zo = Vy
1
c, = 3(C
O + 2C t )
c; =
1
3(CO-C t )
(4)
1
= 3(X
O-Xt )
765kV
x, = 3(XO + 2X t )
Xm
500 kV
(5)
(2)
4-2
(6)
Since the correct phase shift is yL , the error in the
phase shift can be easily found.
2.2 TRANSFORMERS
For switching surge transient studies, the transformer model used is a reduced order representation with less
detail (i.e., as in the example in Fig. 21) in comparison with a
model used for insulation studies. Usually a lumped parameter coupled-winding model with a sufficient number ofR-LC elements gives the appropriate impedance characteristics at
the terminal within the frequency range of interest. The nonlinear characteristic of the core should usually be included,
although the frequency characteristic of the core is often
ignored. This may be an oversimplification as the eddy current effect prevents the flux from entering the core steel at
high frequencies thereby making the transformer appear to be
air-cored. This effect begins to be significant even at frequencies in the order of 3-5 kHz.
Statistical cases with pre-insertion resistors or reactors require a second set of three phase switches. The first set
is modeled as described above. The closing times of the second set (which shorts the resistors or reactors) are dependent
upon the first set plus a fixed time delay, typically one-half to
one cycle for pre-insertion resistors used with circuit breakers, and 7 to 12 cycles (depending on application voltage
class) for pre-insertion reactors used with circuit-switchers
closing in air through high-speed disconnect blades.
2.3 SWITCHGEAR
Switchgear includes circuit breakers circuitswitchers, vacuum switches and other devices which make or
4-3
100
90
80
Sometimes faults are modeled with flashover controlled switches to represent a gap. The switch is operated
typically, when the gap voltage exceeds a fixed value. More
sophisticated models include a volt-time characteristic.
70
~
60
50
""
40
'"2
30
20
10
0
1
1.2
1.4
1.8
1.6
Voll~g
2.
P.U.
pre-Strikjng' In the model described above, a normal distribution was assumed for the closing of the phase switches. In
reality, the withstand strength of the contacts decreases as the
contacts come closer. When the field stress across the contacts exceeds this withstand strength, pre-strike occurs. If this
is taken into account, the distribution of closing angles is
confmed to the rising and peak portions of the voltage waveshapes [13].
2.5 SURGEARRESTERS
Gapless metal oxide surge arresters are characterized with a nonlinear voltage versus resistance characteristic.
Two model types are used frequently in EMTP-type studies
[19]. The pseudo non-linear model, while easy to set up, can
cause computational problems with the solution as the char-
4-4
Load bus
IL
1r
-I
I
I
(ZS
_I
-I
---L
....,.....Xc
_-.J
2.6 LOADS
Power system loads are mostly resistive, indicative
of heating and lighting loads, and the active component of
motor loads. The reactive components of motor and fluorescent lighting loads are the other major contributors to power
system loads. In general, the power system load is represented using an equivalent circuit with parallel-connected
resistive and inductive elements. The power factor of the
load determines the relative impedance of the resistive and
inductive elements. Shunt capacitance is represented with the
resistive and inductive elements of the load if power-factor
correction capacitors are used. Whenever loads are lumped at
a load bus, the effects of lines, cables, and any transformers
downstream from the load bus need to be considered [5].
This is particularly important for the modeling of high- frequency transient phenomena. In such cases, an impedance Zs
b) Surge Impedance
Zsc
Actual power system loads are distributed throughout the system. Some concentration of loads occur in certain
areas. Loads close to the substation can be lumped. Distant
loads can be lumped based on load concentration and represented along lines or distribution feeders described by suitable line or cable models.
The first type a) represents the short circuit impedance (Thevenin equivalent) of the connected system. The XI
R ratio is selected to represent the damping (the damping
angle is usually in the range 75-85). The second type b)
represents the surge impedance of connected lines. This
equivalent may be used to reduce connected lines to a simple
equivalent surge impedance and where the lines are long
enough so that reflections are not of concern in the system
under study. If the connected system consists of a known
Thevenin equivalent and additional transmission lines, the
two impedances may be combined in parallel in the manner
of Fig. 3c. It should be noted however, that this approach
may yield an incorrect steady-state solution if the equivalent
impedance of the parallel connected lines is of comparable
4-5
3.1.2 Model
Source (1 pU,60Hz)
203 km transmission line
~---
One simple method for checking the suitable timestep is to check if no further gains in accuracy accrue from
any further time-step reduction.
3. CASE STUDIES
Typical case studies are now presented for a practical demonstrationof the modeling guidelines. Several different examples are considered: Line energization, transient
recovery voltage determination for line and transformer
faults and the switching of shunt as well as series capacitor
banks.
3.1 LINE ENERGIZATION
TR
CB
TR - Transformer
CB- Circuit breaker
3.1.3
Simulation Results
4-6
Phase A
Location
Phase B
pu
pu
the switching instant. The peak overvoltages are then determined using statistical switching.
Phase C
pu
Source end
1.272
2.164
2.413
Open end
1.442
2.839
2.784
3.2.2 Model
The first example that was done was a 345 kV pipe-type
(HPFF or high pressure fluid filled) cable. A drawing of the
cable is shown in Fig. 6. The 345 kV cable has 2500 kcmil
segmented conductors with a 1.824 inch diameter, 1.035 inch
of paper insulation with a dielectric constant c = 3.5. The
sheath is 0.01 inch.
From Table 2 it can be seen that the highest overvoltage magnitude due to the presence of trapped charges is
2.839 pu. The corresponding overvoltage magnitude in the
absence of trapped charges are 2.2 pu (Fig. 1). Typical energization waveforms are shown in Fig. 5.
......
,, ~~~
Additional studies (not shown) that can be con ducted on this model include the comparison of simultaneous
and non-simultaneous closing of breaker contacts, the effect
of including a closing resistance and including the effect on
surge arrester ratings.
Impregna t ed Paper
Insulation 1.035 inch
Thickness
c - 3.5
2.0
~ 1.0
.I.or------I
2.0
2.0
..:
0.0
.1.01------1
-2.0
2.0
..:
- 300
::i 1.0
Th lckne .s,~
0.0 --.----.
1.0
10
20
Timc, l'hS
30
HIN 1
20 km
tr'8.vellins
3.
83451
we-ve
Hour 1
Cable
c-
Q2
o.
-3.
15
3.
Cable Model
HIN
HOUT
2.30
2.35
ea,
o.
-3.
3
3.
2.30
2.25
2.05
2.10
2.05
2.10
pi-sections
pi-sections
2.40
=c-
0.
2.35
-3
0.
milliseconds
50.
tr'ave 1 Ii o
3.
wave
=0-
0.
-3.
15
3.
=0-
pi-sections
0.
-3.
3
3.
=-
0-
0.
-3 0
pi-sections
.
milliseconds
50.
3.3.1 Phenomena
8 1384
8 1381
HIN 1
20 km
Ca ble
Q2
01
3.3.2 Model
Ground Surface
0 .85 inch
insulati on
~ = 2 .3
500 mm 2 conductor
1.031 inc h diameter
0palyethe
. 11 inch
lene
Jacket
h eath
25 em
-i
HOUT
2.05
2.20
2.00
2.15
2.00
2.15
1.95
2.10
2.00
2.15
1.2 m
138SD.GCD
HIN
Cable Model
2.
t r av el l i n g
wave
0 .
-2 .
2 .
15
p i - s e c t i ons
o.
2 .
:3
p i - se c t i o n s
o.
mi l l i sec o n ds
so.
4-9
HIN 1
HOUT 1
o-e-e-------'-.;....;;;.,)-c
HIN 2
HOUT 2
o-e-e---------)-c
2.
:::::::I
c-
o.
-2.
15
2.
:::::::I
c-
3.
pi-sections
:::::::I
0..
o.
2.
c-
3.
pI-sectIons
:::::::I
0..
o.
-2 0
wave
- 1
-2.
:::::::I
travelling
100
pi-sections
- 1
.
milliseconds
50.
3.
15
pi-sections
Fig. 13. Results of energizing 138 SD cable with various 1000 Hz models.
:::::"
0..
1.
- 1.
3.
:::::::I
0..
pi-sections
-1
0.
milliseconds
2.
Fig. 15. Results from pulse energizing for 138 kV SD cable with various 60
Hz models
4-10
:=1
c..
travelling
wave
3.4.1 Phenomena
Consider the circuit in Fig. 17 which shows a fault
fed from a single line "L", which in turn is fed by a bus with
substantial capacity and seven connected long transmission
lines.When a fault at the remote end of a transmission line is
cleared, the receiving end voltage at the remote end oscillates
with a half period equal to the travel time of the line. The
peak magnitude in the lossless case, can be up to twice the
sending end voltage at the instant of fault clearing. This voltage now appears as the TRV across the open breaker. In the
actual case, the slope and magnitude of the TRV is dependent
on the damping present in the system.
- 1
3.
::::s
c..
100
pi-sections
- 1
3 .
15
pi-sections
3.4.2 Model
:=1
c..
The network equivalent (Fig. 18) is of type c) presented in section 2 2.7. The inductance value is obtained
from the short circuit current (30 kA) at the bus. The parallel
resistance is the combined surge impedance (parallel combination) of the 7 unfaulted lines. This representation is appropriate because the lines are long and no reflections affect the
protective device during the transient period under consideration. Note that as the fundamental frequency impedance of
the source (7.04 mH x 377 rad/s) is much smaller than the
equivalent parallel impedance of the transmission lines
(51.57 Q), the warning in section 2 2.7 does not apply. However, when considering unbalanced faults, a full model may
be necessary.
- 1
3.
::::s
c..
pi-sections
-1
0.
milliseconds
2.
Fig. 16. Results from pulse energizing for 138 kV SO cable with various
1000 Hz models.
Line"L"
Multiple Lines
For the HPFF cable, there was considerable difference in the switching surge results obtained with the 60 Hz
and 1000 Hz model. Therefore, if a frequency dependent
model is available, it should be used with the HPFF cable.
51.570
Line
360 0 SUrge Impedance
However, the SD cable results did not change appreciably from 60 to 1000 Hz. Therefore, it is probably acceptable to model the SD cable with a single frequency 60 Hz
model for switching surge simulations
OOO
pF
600 PF
-=-
The line "L" is represented as a low-frequency lossless line with lumped resistance at the midpoint and at the
end of the line. For a 138 kV substation, the available fault
current at the main bus is 30 kA and 3.7 kA at the fault loca-
4-11
Fig. 19 shows the resultant bus voltage, fault current, and protective device transient recovery voltage. The
protective device recovery voltage is a ramp whose magnitude, neglecting damping, would be 2 times 0.88 per unit
(since about 12% of the voltage is dropped across the source
impedance during the fault), or 1.76 per unit; circuit damping
would reduce this by about 5 to 10%. The time-to-peak of the
recovery voltage is the round-trip travel time of a voltage
wave on a single line supplying the fault. The rate-of-rise of
the voltage ramp is determined by the product of the surge
impedance of the line and the rate-of-change of the fault current. Since the first peak is typically reached in only a few
hundred microseconds, the rate-of-change of a symmetrical
fault current can be considered constant and equal to
Jilt .It should be noted that the TRV for a three phase to
138 kV/13.8 kV
80MVA
10.7k Z
20
:;-
Faultcurrent
l:!!-
Ie
~~
-20
(J
-100
eD
11:=
-60
~::s
l~
-140
-180
-gal
Fault
Switchtransientrecoveryvoltage
::s
3.5.2 Model
Fig. 19. Bus Voltage, Switch Recovery Voltage and Fault Current for a Single-line Fed Bus Fault.
4-12
other side. Representative frequencies for power transformers are reported by Hamer and Rodriguez [24]. For the 138kV winding, the frequency of oscillation is approximately 9.6
kHz, while that of the 13.8-kV winding is approximately
72 .3 kHz. The high-frequency capacitive coupling ratio
(i.e., Ch t / ( Chi + CI) ) is generally lower than 0.4 and was
0.5
/1
"e -D.5
:r
1
The effective terminal capacitances can be determined based on the frequency of oscillation of each winding
by using the equation C
= 1/[(21tj)2 LT]
"E
:
8:
-1
-1.5
-2
Fig. 22. Source, Transformer Side and 138kV substationBus Voltages for a
Secondary Side Fault on a 80 MVA 138kV/213.8 kV Transformer
C = C l+ Chi
Based on the winding frequencies, and the transformer leakage inductance of 67.48 mH (referred to the highvoltage winding), the winding terminal capacitances are:
= 2.64nF
Chi = 1.44 nF
C l = 5.75 nF
Ch
-1t~
RD
:I
,wherefis the
= InDF
where L is the effective leakage inductance of the transformer (referred to the winding of interest) and C is the effective capacitance of the winding of interest.
Based on the transformer leakage inductance of
67.48 mH and the terminal capacitances, the high-voltage
winding damping resistance is equal to 57.3 kO and that of
the low-voltage winding is 7.48 kU
4-13
j=
2rcJLsC
where:
h
~C
tant, as they have the potential for exciting transformer internal resonances.
As with other capacitor switching related transients,
these transients can be reduced by the use of synchronous
closing control, pre-insertion resistors, or pre-insertion
inductors.
(joules)
I
where: C = Capacitor Capacitance (farads)
Vp = Arrester Protective Level (volts)
Vs = Peak Line-to-Ground Voltage (volts)
= Vel f =
z '
2n~Leq
where:
I x
f =~
2nL eq
VCl
Z =Surge Impedance
10.0
x Ceq'
= J~eq,
L eq
=L1 + L2 + L3,
eq
DUTY
1.5
p~r ]
Cap
Mvar
5.0
2.5
1.5
1.8
2.1
2.4
2.1
3.0
Breaker
S~stem
L =
eq
Vel
2JZ(Ixf)
where:
VCl
,f= 21t
VCl
eq
Z= SurgeImpedance =
Leq = L1 + L3,
Breaker
L3
I
~
Ll
CiT
Vel
L2
JC2
~,
~~
S~5tem
Ceq = C1
L
eq
Vel
2 JZ(Ix f)
faul t
L3
Ll
I~
Cl
_-+-_SOURC
EQ138
TRTER
40 MVar
40 MVar
LOAD
TR138
13.8 kV
Loads: Two loads are modeled, each half the peak system
load. Both are modeled as parallel resistance and inductance
elements. The first load (90 +j40 MYA) is modeled at the 138
kV equivalent source bus. This load contains series as well as
parallel components to represent the impedances of transformers not explicitly modeled. The load fed from this bus is
assumed to have a uncorrected power factor of about 90% and
a corrected power factor of 100% when both 40 Mvar capacitors are in service. This full load condition is represented by
parallel resistive and reactive loads of 180 Mvars (105.8
ohms) and 80 Mvars (238.05 ohms) respectively. Full load is
represented by half this load when one 40 Mvar capacitor is in
service or to be switched into service.
The second load (1.8 + jl.8 MYA) is modeled on the
low side of the 138/13.8 kV transformer located at the same
equivalent source bus. This load has an uncorrected power
factor of 70.7% and a corrected power factor of unity. With a
3.6 Mvar capacitor placed at this bus, this means that the
resistive and reactive components of the load at this bus are
both equal to 3.6 Mvars (52.9 ohms).
Load modeling is very important because loads help
attenuate and damp out capacitor switching transients. Simulations with no loads modeled will produce transients that are
much higher than those found on the actual system. Similarly, models with the entire load modeled at higher voltage
busses rather than dispersed at lower voltage busses will simulate transients lower than those on the actual system.
Because of the limited size of the model used to illustrate
capacitor switching phenomena, accurate load modeling is
not possible. The model would have to be expanded about
two busses out in all directions to model loads with reasonable accuracy. To help compensate for this, loads half the size
ofthose described above are placed at the appropriate busses.
In a real study the effect of load modeling and
model size must be analyzed. The best way to optimize the
size and detail of a model is to keep adding to the modeled
area until the transients are no longer affected by additional
components. Because this can be time consuming, rules of
thumb, such as modeling the system one or two busses from
all locations of interest, are often used when assembling transient model.
TransfQnners: Two transformers are modeled. They both include 138/13.8 kV transformations, but their locations and
winding configurations are different. The transformer at the
equivalent source bus is an 18 MYA rated three winding
transformer with primary (138 kV) and secondary (13.8 kV)
grounded wye windings and a delta tertiary (4.8 kV). The
high, low, and tertiary impedances are represented as 39.44%,
0.01%, and 17.78% on a 100 MYA base. The transformer XI
R ratio was assumed to be 20. Saturation was modeled with a
knee point of approximately 1.15 pu. The remote transformer
is an 80 MYA rated two winding transformer with grounded
wye primary (138 kV) and delta secondary (13.8 kV) windings. The transformer impedances is 10.7% on its 80 MYA
4-17
200 kV
-200 kV
Fig. 28. Maximum 138 kV Cap Bus Voltage (HalfLoad)
Fault Model ' The fault model used in the outrush simulations is a 0.1 milliohm resistance in series with an ideal
switch. When the fault is initiated, the switch is closed and
when the fault is cleared the switch is opened.
20 kV
-40 kV
Fig. 29. Voltage Magnification (Half Load Model)
f, 1 -
1
_
1
= 544.IHz
2fffLC - 2~15.36mHx5 .571,tF
4-18
f =
2
2tNLC
2;r,j1.71lmH x50.l,tF
Juu kV
= 5416Hz
-200 kV
-JOO kV
600 kV
200 leV
400 kV
200 kV
o kV-f---'<---+f-t-
-300 leV
4-19
L=
200 kJ
Vmax
2 JZ(I x f)
= l18.3lkV = 0.942mH
2 JZ(2 X 10 7 )
100 kJ
okJ .J...-..-t-----+--+-~-_t_-_+__-+_____t-__+_-.....;
.885
.81
Seconds
.815
.82
.8Z5
Capacitor InDlsh During Back-to-Back Switching The concern during back-to-back switching is that capacitor inrush
currents will exceed breaker ratings. The magnitude and frequency of the inrush current can exceed breaker capabilities
if the impedance between the two capacitors is too low.
Breakers applied between two capacitor banks at a single bus
are usually definite purpose breakers. According to Table 3A
of ANSI/IEEE C37.06, the product of the breaker current
magnitude and frequency must be less than 6.8 x 107 (16 kA
times 4250 Hz) for definite purpose breakers.
An equation for calculating the inductance necessary to limit the I x f product to an acceptable level was given
in subsection 3.6.6. With Vmax equal to the peak line-toground voltage, times a conservative 1.05 pu voltage, the
inductance necessary to meet the 6.8 x 107 breaker rating can
be calculated to be 0.277 mH or 0.139 mH per capacitor as
shown below. Some of this inductance may be supplied by
the buswork between the two capacitors. Buswork rated for
use on 138 kV systems is usually considered to have an
inductance of 0.9 JlH per meter.
L=
Vmax
= 118.3lkV = 0.277mH
21Z{I x f) 21Z{6.8x 10 7 )
Back-to-back capacitor switching inrush currents are independent of load or nearby system components. Inrush currents
were simulated with a with a 0.15 mH reactor in series with
each 40 Mvar 138 kV capacitor. This resulted in a peak current of 12 kA at a frequency of5.5 kHz, giving an Ix/product
of 6.6 x 107, below the 6.8 x 107 limit.
Capacitor Outmsh into a Fault The concern during capacitor outrush into a fault is again breaker I x / ratings, but
because the fault current may go through a general purpose
breaker rather than a defmite purpose breaker, the breaker I x
frating will probably be a much lower 2.0 x 107 rather than
6.8 x 107. The equation derived in subsection 3.6.7 can be
used, but the I x f product will be different and the reactor
must placed so that the fault current discharged from both
capacitors will have to flow through the reactor to get to the
main bus, as shown between busses CAP40 and CPOUT in
3.7.1 Model
Fig. 34 shows a representative system to be studied.
The system model typically includes lines and transformers
at least one bus back from the switching locations of interest.
Transmission lines are modeled as distributed parameter
lines considering their positive and zero sequence characteristics. Transformers are modeled using the saturable transformer component model which represents each winding of
the transformer as well as its saturation characteristics. One
bus away are equivalent sources modeled as mutually-coupled elements considering their positive and zero sequence
characteristics. Series capacitors and other system components are modeled as lumped circuit elements with typical
quality factors represented. Also pertaining to series capaci-
4-20
4. CONCLUSIONS
This report presented general rules for the study of
switching surges using electromagnetic transients simulation.
The main goal is to have as simple a model as possible without a significant loss in accuracy. In addition to the modeling
representations, general concerns such as the time-step to be
used and the extent of the system to be studied were also
addressed. The modeling techniques were illustrated with
case studies on line energization, TRV, shunt capacitor bank
switchings and series capacitor bank switchings.
BUS 1
BUS2
115KV
115KV
69KV
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