Metal-Cavity Nanolasers

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
Since the invention of the first laser by Maiman in 1960, different lines of development have
yielded lasers the size of buildings, or as small as a few tens of nanometers. Perhaps the
greatest impact on society has been had with making lasers smaller. In particular, the
invention of the semiconductor laser has allowed small, electrically driven lower power
coherent light sources. One of the later developments in the miniaturization of the laser has
been the vertical cavity surface-emitting laser or VCSEL.
The VCSEL was the first laser with dimensions which approached the wavelength
scale. The VCSEL has found many applications due in part to the following characteristics:
electrical pumping, room temperature operation, reasonable efficiency, small threshold
current, useful output beam characteristics, and ease of test and manufacture owing to the
surface normal output.
With the increase of demand for internet bandwidth, photonic devices have gained a lot
of attention in the past decades and much significant progress has been made. A few years
ago, researchers only considered two types of small lasers: micro disk lasers and photonic
crystal lasers (PhCs). The former have been developed for many years and are the most
mature among small lasers. Moreover, shows the feasibility of integrating micro disk lasers
with straight waveguides using wafer boding. However, one of their disadvantages is
whispering gallery mode operation, with light circulating around the edge. A waveguide
needs to be placed right next to it to couple light out. Thus, the other design parameter, the
gap between the waveguide and micro disk, has to be optimized, thus increasing the
challenge in fabrication.

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 1

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers

Fig1.1: A nanoscale laser.

Nanoscale lasers possess advantages such as low power consumption, an ultra small
footprint, and ultrafast switching. Potential applications include biochemical sensing,
imaging, and intrachip and interchip short-distance optical interconnects. Practical
nanolasersrequire electrical injection operation at room temperature in continuous-wave
mode. Independent nanolasers can form dense arrays of sub wavelength pitch for possible
near-field scanning and optical atom traps. The smallest laser based on dielectric cavities
requires an optical cavity with a dimension of half a wavelength in all three directions, which
is often called the diffraction limit.
During the last decade, photonic crystal lasers have been extensively studied as
candidates for small lasers. However, to have a large quality factor for laser action, many
periods of photonic crystal are required, making the size on the order of several wavelengths.
To produce a laser breaking the diffraction limit, one approach is to use the plasmonic effect
formed at the interfaces between the metal and semiconductor. In this case, both the physical
and effective volume of the optical cavity can be reduced, although it would be at the
expense of modal absorption due to the metal loss.

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 2

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers
By positioning the active materials such as quantum dots or quantum wells (QWs) at
the peak of optical fields with an emission wavelength near the cavity resonance, it is
possible to enhance the spontaneous and stimulated emission and reduce the lasing threshold.
There has been excellent progress in micro- and nanolasers, especially metallic and
plasmonic nanolasers. Plasmonic nanolasers via optical pumping have been reported by using
a CdS nanowire as the gain medium on top of a silver surface with a 5-nm insulator gap.
Nanoparticles with a gold core and dye-doped silica shell have been used to realize spaserbased nanolasers via optical pumping

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 3

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers

*****

CHAPTER II

HISTORY

In 2010, significant progress on micro- and nanolasers has been made, i.e., sub wavelength
nanolasers via optical pumping, nanopillarlasers on silicon substrate, electrical injection
FabryPerot metal-cavity lasers at 240 K, and substrate-free metal-cavity surface emitting
micro lasers at room temperature.
At the University of California at San Diego, metallo-dielectric sub wavelength lasers
using an InGaAsP multiple quantum well (QW) active layer disk surrounded by an
aluminum/silica bilayer shield as the cavity were made by optical pumping at room
temperature. The importance of the optimized thickness of the insulating silica is emphasized
to reduce the threshold gain for optical pumping at room temperature. The feedback is
provided by a mode cutoff plug-in structure which forbids the propagating mode inside, thus
achieving a high reflectivity mirror.
At University of California at Berkeley, sub wavelength nanopatch lasers using top and
bottom metals (gold) to form the nanocavity with InP/InGaAsP/InP materials with a physical
volume were demonstrated at 78 K by optical pumping. Due to their resemblance to patch
antennas in microwave technology, the structures emit light from the sidewalls with
constructive/destructive interferences in the surface normal direction and are suitable for
beam divergence control.

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 4

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers
Polarization controllability has been demonstrated by tuning the geometry of the
nanopatches. Silver nanopanplasmonic lasers have also been demonstrated at 8 K with a
subnanometerlinewidth by optical pumping. Whispering gallery modes in silver defined
cavity were identified in nanopanplasmonic lasers. Nanolasers using InGaAs nanopillars
grown on silicon substrate by optical pumping at room temperature have also been reported
by UC Berkeley.
Until recently, the electrical injection of metal-cavity semiconductor lasers has
demonstrated significant progress, such as high-temperature (240 K) continuous-wave (CW)
operation using a FabryPerot type with emission from the bottom aperture by Arizona State
University and Technical University of Eindhoven, as well as CW room temperature surface
emitting micro laser bonded on silicon by the University of Illinois and the Technical
University of Berlin.

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 5

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers

*****

CHAPTER III

NANO LASERS
A nanolaser, also referred to as a miniature laser is a laser, namely a light amplifier by
stimulated emission of radiation that has nanoscale dimensions. While the word nano
originated from Greek which means dwarf, the international system of units has adapted the
prefix as a quantifier equal to ten raise to the power of minus nine. The nanolaser concept
was developed by mark stockman at Georgia state university in 2003.

Fig 3.1: Nano lasers

This tiny laser can be modulated quickly and combined with its small footprint, makes
it an ideal candidate for onchip optical computing. the intense optical fields of such a

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 6

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers
nanolaser also enables the enhancement effect in non linear optics or surface enhanced
Raman scattering, and the therefore paves the way toward integrated nanophotonic circuitry.
In 2012, researchers at northwestern university published a description of a working
room temperature nanolaser based on three dimensional Au bowite(nanoparticles) supported
by an organic gain material, constructs which were thought to be suitable for inclusion in
photonic circuit architectures.
For a long time it was thought that direction effects made it impossible for lasers and
other photonic devices to be small than about half the wavelength of the light they emitted or
processed. Between 2000-2005 years many intriguing designs of microscopic lasers based on
tiny pillars, nanowires and photonic crystals have all approached this limit but exceeded it.
For example, using a photonic crystal, it is possible to construct a nanometer scale laser
shown in figure with a modal volume close to the direction limit of light. Nanolasers are
small size laser which goes beyond the direction limit by using special mechanisms and
geometric. By nanolaser we are not only achieve small size laser, but also we can obtain
almost all threshold less laser.
Nanolasers are important partner in light and matter interaction. That is why many
research from the world wide devoted to that important subject. Actually this is hot topic for
researchers in the end of the nanophoton ICs.
The advantages of nanolasers lie not only in their low power consumption due to high
single-mode spontaneous emission coupling into the cavity mode, but also in their high
modulation bandwidth. One of the figures of the merit for a laser is the energy per bit, which
is defined as the ratio of the supplied power at which the maximum bandwidth is reached to
the maximum bandwidth. Obviously, a smaller value indicates better energy efficiency. To
evaluate the energy per bit of nanolasers, however, a rigorous treatment of the rate equations
is needed to guide the future direction.

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 7

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers

Fig 3.2: A typical view of nanolaser

*****

CHAPTER IV

Metal-Cavity Lasers and the State of the Art

One new small laser is the metal cavity laser. The permittivity of real metal is negative in the
frequency domain and this characteristic can allow the plasmonic mode to exist. The most
important feature of the plasmonic mode is that it can be confined at the interface and
behaves as a surface wave. Therefore, the optical modal volume of the plasmonic mode can
3
(
break the diffraction limit, which is defined as 2n ) , where is the wavelength in free
space and n is the refractive index of the material surrounded by PEC. However, metal is
dispersive and has great loss at room temperature; therefore, researchers used to think the
metal could not be used to form the semiconductor laser cavity, especially in infrared regime.
In 2007, Hill et al. successfully demonstrated the first metal-cavity nanolaser with

cavity size 0.018

3
, equivalent to 0.38 ( 2n ) , breaking the diffraction limit and

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 8

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers
dispelling the belief that metal is too lossy to be the laser cavity. Indeed, metal used to be a
mirror to provide high reflectivity, but it has never been considered a candidate for a laser
cavity able to confine light in a sub wavelength region. Some papers studied plasmonic
effects on metal-coated waveguides before 2000; since then, related work on theory and
experiments has been more intensive. The advent of Martins laser finally demonstrates the
feasibility of metal-cavity lasers and paves the way for future practical application, such as
optical interconnection, although this first-generation metal cavity nanolaser operates at
cryogenic temperature and the output power goes through the substrate so that the power is
too small to measure.
Due to Martins success, more and more groups started to develop different types of
metal-cavity lasers and theoretically and experimentally demonstrated their work. We
summarize the performance of the experimentally demonstrated state-of-the-art 4 devices in
Fig 4.1. We notice the volume and operation condition is from cryogenic temperature to
room temperature according to the cavity volume. The laser with the smaller cavity volume
only works at lower temperatures.

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 9

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers
Fig 4.1: state of the art: The operation temperatures and conditions for recent
experimentally demonstrated metal cavity laser.

The reason is that although metal can shrink the optical field in a sub wavelength
volume, more and more field penetrates into the metal, and the field suffers from more metal
loss. The metal loss can be larger than the loss in conventional dielectric materials by two
orders. It implies that when we work on metal-cavity lasers, higher material gain has to be
overcome and many parameters, such as the optical confinement factor and the quality factor,
have to be well designed and optimized. Those concerns are also related to the polarization of
the optical mode excited.
Use of HE11 modes, in which the Ezcomponent is present and can couple to the
plasmonic mode. Such a mode suffers high material loss in a diameter smaller than a
subwavlength radius, and can only work at cryogenic temperature due to the suppression of
metal loss in that condition. But it can behave as conventional fiber modes in micro cavity
(radius larger than 1 m) with considerably small material loss and work at room
temperature.
In addition, TE modes in metal cavities cannot couple to plasmonic mode and, thus, the
material loss is much smaller than others and can operate at room temperature. The smallest
cavity volume at room temperature, which is TE mode. Because of being decoupled to
plasmonic loss, TE mode has the cutoff condition, which means that there is a bottom limit
on the volume reduction. As for, the modes presented in their work are purely TM modes,
i.e., plasmonic modes, except to one TE mode found in their devices. Due to plasmonic
modes and the small cavity volume, those devices have to work at cryogenic temperature.

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 10

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers

*****

CHAPTER V

DEMONSTRATION
A demonstration of a metal cavity surface-emitting micro laser with metal on the top and
surrounding sidewall and a bottom distributed Bragg reflector (DBR), which lases at room
temperature under CW operation. The active region consists of 14 pairs of GaAs/AlGaAs
QWs. Multiple QWs uniformly distributed in the active region are used to provide enough
optical gain without worrying about the longitudinal standing wave (node/peak) effects. A

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 11

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers
17.5 pair n-doped quarter-wavelength DBR acts as both the feedback and the electron
injector.

(a)

(b)

Fig 5.1: A metal cavity nanolaser.

The figure shows a fabricated device having an active region of 14 GaAs/Al0.2Ga0:8 as
quantum wells. Optical feedback is from the bottom silver and top hybrid/DBR mirrors with
the surrounding metal sidewall. Silver encapsulation helps mode confinement and scattering
reduction.
The integration to silicon was demonstrated by flip chip bonding to a gold coated
silicon substrate with the complete removal of the GaAs substrate to allow its surface
emission. The physical size after substrate removal is only 2.0 m in diameter and 2.5 m in
total thickness, including the overall p i (QWs) n (DBR) regions. Flip chip bonding with
Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 12

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers
metal allows the integration of our metal-cavity lasers to various substrates, including silicon
in our devices.
Metal serves as a multifunction medium for reflector, contact, and heat sink. The
round-trip resonance phase condition is satisfied by choosing the active layer thickness to
match the boundary conditions at both top metal and bottom DBR for the metal confined
fundamental optical mode. Also, with a broadband reflector using metal, the detuning of the
cavity mode with the gain peak can thus be reduced, compared with standard vertical-cavity
surface emitting lasers.
The devices were mounted on a thermoelectrically cooled copper heat sink for
measurements at 300 K under CW operation. Thermal management has been largely
improved as a result of efficient heat removal from the surrounding metal and the substratefree configuration with bonding. We have measured the light output power as a function of
the injection current at temperatures from 10 to 27C, showing temperature-stable operation
with a characteristic temperature of 425 K.
The light output power is up to 7.5 W at 4.5 mA. We have also measured the laser
line width and obtained a value of 0.67 A (full-width at half maximum) at a bias of 2.8 mA.
This is probably the narrowest measured laser line width among metal-cavity lasers with
electrical injection, which are typically hard to measure due to their low power. A kink at 3.2
mA bias current shows polarization switching behavior, which is confirmed by measuring the
polarization resolved LI curves and emission spectra at various bias currents.
We have also developed a rigorous theoretical model, which takes into account the
plasmonic dispersion in a nanocavity and pointed out the importance of using the energy
(instead of power) confinement factor. Our theoretical formulation and the resultant rate
equations have been applied to study nanolasers such as a nanobowtie laser and a metalcavity edge-emitting laser for the prediction of lasing threshold and light output power versus
injection current (LI curve).

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 13

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers
To compare our theory with experimental data, we first calculate the band structure of
the GaAs/AlGaAs QW lasers and the optical gain spectrum as a function of increasing carrier
density. We also compared the amplified spontaneous emission spectra in the metal cavity
with the measured asymmetrical electroluminescence spectra [see Fig] at various injection
currents below threshold and obtained good agreement.

Fig 5.2: Current dependent spectra of the device lasing under CW current injection at
300 K.
The band edge of the QW spontaneous emission spectrum and the cavity resonance
spectrum creates an asymmetrical line shape. Our model result of the quality factor Q of 556
of the cold cavity is close to the measured value of 580 at low injection current. We then
model the measured light output power as a function of the injection current based on our
rate equations and show our theory agrees well with the experimental data shown in Fig. 5.3.

We found that at a very small bias current below 0.5 mA, there is no light emission
until the spontaneous emission peak wavelength merges with the cavity resonance
wavelength. Above 0.5 mA, the spontaneous emission starts to amplify significantly with
increasing gain as the current increases. When the optical gain reaches threshold at 1.75 mA,
the laser action starts to occur.

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 14

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers

Fig 5.3: Light output power as a function of injection current (LI) curves at various
temperatures (10 C27 C) and the IV curve at room temperature (27 C)

We have further reduced the size of our metal-cavity surface-emitting lasers by either
shrinking the diameter or reducing the number of DBR pairs to only five or even zero, while
maintaining a reasonable quality factor for laser action.

5.1. THE RATE EQUATIONS OF NANO LASERS.

Although the rate equations have been discussed widely, most of them do not consider the
dispersive material and treat the normalization of the optical field properly. In this paper, we
introduce the rate equations based on our rigorous derivations, taking into account plasmonic
dispersion and negative permittivity of the metal plasma.
We should point out that these rate equations are applicable to both metal and dielectric
cavities, from nano-, to micro-, to macroscale lasers:

eqn 5.1, 5.2.

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 15

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers

Where
3

n = carrier density ( cm

I = injection current (A)

i = current injection efficiency
q = electron unit charge (Coulomb)
3

Va= active volume ( cm

3 1
Rnr(n) = nonradiative recombination rate ( cm s )
3 1
Rsp(n) = total spontaneous emission rate ( cm s )
1

Rst(n) = stimulated emission coefficient ( s

3
S = photon density ( cm )

E= optical energy confinement factor

sp(n) = spontaneous emission coupling factor
p= photon lifetime (ns)
Here, the optical energy confinement factor, E, is used to correctly account for the
negative permittivity and dispersive properties of the metal plasma:

.eqn 5.3, 5.4.

Where
R= the real part of the relative permittivity
Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 16

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers
g= the real part of the relative group permittivity
3
Veff = the effective optical modal volume ( cm ) (= Va/E)

m(r) = the phasor of the electric field

The subscript a indicates the active region. The nonradiative recombination rate
accounting for the surface recombination and Auger recombination is:

eqn 5.4
Where
1
Vs= the surface velocity (cm s )
2
Aa= the surface area of the active material ( cm )
6 2

C = Auger recombination coefficient ( cm s

The total spontaneous emission rate contains all of the discrete cavity modes and continuous
modes:

eqn 5.5

Here, the first term is from the discrete cavity modes and will be defined later. The
second term is from the continuous modes and modeled as the ratio of the carrier
recombination from the density of states available in the active material to a background
radiative time sp rad. Although there should exist only one cavity mode in a nanocavity, we
keep m to distinguish Rsp,m(n) from Rsp(n) and refer Rsp,m(n) to the single-mode spontaneous
emission rate.

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 17

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers
With a rigorous treatment of the stimulated emission and spontaneous emission, our
rate equations are derived for nanolasers and NanoLEDs with the dispersion.
The importance of our rate equations is the introduction of the optical energy
confinement factor to take into account the plasma dispersion and the negative permittivity of
metal; therefore, the optical energy is always positive.

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 18

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers

*****

CHAPTER VI

THE CHALLENGE OF METAL CAVITY

NANOLASERS

There are a few difficulties for the realization of metal-cavity lasers, especially in fabrication.
First of all, the purpose of using metal is to confine light in a sub wavelength cavity. In other
words, if the cavity size is much larger than a wavelength, metal helps little but incurs
material loss since in such a cavity the optical field is already well confined and the metal
imposes the loss upon the tail of the field. Therefore, metal-cavity lasers imply micro- or
nanolasers.
Fabrication of a wavelength dimension or nanostructure device is a great challenge.
Many considerations have to be addressed, such as how to produce smooth and conformal
surfaces of the semiconductor and metal at such a tiny size and the heuristic process is
inevitable. The uniformity in one chip is another issue, and the low yield can bar metal-cavity
lasers from practical applications.
In terms of device physics, work has to be done as well. Ideally, a metal-cavity laser
can have a small threshold current. To understand this, we start with the rate equations for a
single mode laser.

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 19

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers

..eqn 6.1, 6.2, 6.3

Where,

are carrier density, electron charge, active material volume, current injection efficiency,
spontaneous emission rate, single mode spontaneous emission rate, single mode spontaneous
emission coupling factor, nonradioactive emission rate, stimulated emission rate, optical
energy confinement factor, and resonant angular frequency respectively.
Further, the threshold current can be written as:
.eqn 6.4
Below the threshold, spontaneous and nonradiative emission rates are dominant and
the stimulated emission rate can be ignored. The nonradiative emission includes two terms:
one is surface or defect recombination and the other is Auger recombination. We can see that
once sp(n) is large or equal to 1, the threshold current can be significantly reduced and even
zero when i= 1 and Rnr= 0. If there is only one resonant mode in the cavity, then sp(n) is
unity theoretically. This is the purpose of metal-cavity nanolasers. The small cavity volume
reduces the number of resonant modes and enhances the sp (n) and, thus, reduces the power
consumption. When sp (n) is 1, it means the radiation from carrier recombination
completely couples to the stimulated emission and is not consumed in the spontaneous
emission. In this ideal case, the device is a threshold less laser.

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 20

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers

Fig 6.1: The internal structure of a metal cavity nano-scale laser.

In reality, however, the nonradiative emission cannot be zero. Nanostructures tend to
suffer from surface recombination because the surface recombination rate is proportional to
the ratio of the surface area to a volume of the active region, and this ratio is high in the
nanostructure. Therefore, good passivation in nanostructures is very important. Auger
recombination happens to the light-emitting device working at long wavelength and/or with
high carrier density operation since it is proportional to the cube of the carrier density. Due to
the nonradiative emission, the threshold current can be increased by these two leakage paths.
Other defects introduced by the fabrication can further deteriorate the device performance.
If the nonradiative emission is dominant in the injection current, it means the power
conversion efficiency is low and most of the input electrical power is converted to heat
instead of optical power. The generated heat raises the temperature inside the cavity and the
gain decreases with the temperature. Thus, more carriers are needed to compensate for the
reduction of the gain.
However, the increase in carrier density can further increase the temperature since
more current is consumed in nonradiative current and more power converts to heat. The close
cycle forms a positive feedback loop in terms of the temperature rise and prevents the
devices from working at high bias. If the device is working at cryogenic temperature, the
nonradiative emission can be reduced, but the device becomes less practical.

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 21

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers
Based on the above, in order for the metal cavity lasers to work well at room
temperature, the threshold material gain has to be as small as possible so that the carrier
density can be reduced. The challenge is that the modal loss increases as the cavity size
decreases. The design parameters such as insulator thickness, the active material thickness,
and mode polarization alternatives play important roles.

6.1. SIGNIFICANCE

Nanoscale lasers possess advantages such as low power consumption, an ultra small
footprint, and ultrafast switching.

Potential applications include biochemical sensing, imaging, and intrachip and

interchip short-distance optical interconnects.

Nanolasers will have a large impact on our technology if they are integrable to current
electronic architecture.

From an application point of view, nanolasers with integrability to current electronic

platforms (i.e., silicon) will lead to advanced photonic integrated circuits.

Several nanolasers have shown a promising future for integration either by direct
growth of nanopillars (without metal coating) on a silicon substrate or by stacking the
devices onto the electronic platform.

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 22

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers

*****
CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSION
We have demonstrated experimentally a room-temperature metal-cavity surface emitting
micro laser and developed a rigorous model for nanolasers with further reduction in size. Our
theory explains the observed asymmetrical optical emission spectrum below threshold and
the light output versus injection current (LI curve).
Nanolasers pose intriguing challenges for researchers in photonics, both intellectually
and technologically. Due to their compactness in size and substrate-free and/or silicon
compatibility, they are promising elements to bridge the gap between nanophotonics and
silicon electronics. They have potential applications for ultrahigh density photonic integrated
circuits with ultralow power consumption and footprint and ultrafast switching speed.
The ultrahigh modulation bandwidth of nanolasers has yet to be demonstrated
experimentally. Further research is necessary to reduce the metal losses in the cavity and to
overcome the technological challenges of nanofabrication of nanoscale semiconductor lasers
with electrical injection.

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 23

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers

*****

REFERENCE

[1]http//:www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/31032/NI_CHIYU.pdf
[2]IEEE PHOTONICS journal, volume 3, number 2, April 2011.Shun Lien Chuang
Dieter Bimber.
[3] R.G.Beausoleil, P.J.kuekes, G.S.Snider, S.Y.Wang, and R.S.Williams, BNanoelectro and
BNanoelectronic and nanophotonic interconnect. Proc.IEEE, vol.96,no.2,pp. 230-247,Feb
2008.
[4] M. T. Hill, BStatus and prospects for metallic and plasmonicnano-lasers,[ J. Opt. Soc.
Amer. B, vol. 27, no. 11, pp. B36B44, Oct. 2010.
[6] M. T. Hill, Micro and nanolasers for digital photonics, in Proc. Eur. Conf on Integr.
Optics ECIO, April 2007, pp. 2527.
[7] M. Loncar, A. Scherer, and Y. M. Qiu, BPhotonic crystal laser sources for chemical
Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 24

Metal-Cavity Nanolasers
detection,[ Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 82, no. 26, pp. 46484650, Jun. 2003.
[8] Y. Nakayama, P. J. Pauzauskie, A. Radenovic, R. M. Onorato, R. J. Saykally, J. Liphardt,
and P. D. Yang, BTunable nanowire nonlinear optical probe,[ Nature, vol. 447, no. 7148,
pp. 10981100, Jun. 2007.

[9] A. V. Maslov and C. Z. Ning, BSize reduction of a semiconductor nanowire laser using
metal coating,[ in Proc. SPIE, vol. 6468, Physics and Simulation of Optoelectronic
DevicesXV, M. Osinski, F. Henneberger, and Y. Arakawa, Eds., 2007, p. 64680I.

*****

Dept. of EC, Dr MVSIT.

Page 25