Gestalt psychology

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Gestalt psychology or gestaltism (German: Gestalt "shape, form") is a theory of mind of the Berlin
School. The central principle of gestalt psychology is that the mind forms a global whole with selforganizing tendencies. This principle maintains that the human mind considers objects in their entirety
before, or in parallel with, perception of their individual parts; suggesting the whole is other than the
sum of its parts. Gestalt psychology tries to understand the laws of our ability to acquire and maintain
meaningful perceptions in an apparently chaotic world.
In the domain of perception, Gestalt psychologists stipulate that perceptions are the products of complex
interactions among various stimuli. Contrary to the behaviorist approach to understanding the elements
of cognitive processes, gestalt psychologists sought to understand their organization (Carlson and Heth,
2010). The gestalt effect is the capability of our brain to generate whole forms, particularly with respect
to the visual recognition of global figures instead of just collections of simpler and unrelated elements
(points, lines, curves...).
In psychology, gestaltism is often opposed to structuralism. The phrase The whole is other than the sum
of the parts is often used when explaining gestalt theory,[1] though there is a common mistranslation of
Kurt Koffka's original phrase to "The whole is greater than the sum of the parts".[2] Gestalt theory
allows for the breakup of elements from the whole situation into what it really is.[3]

Contents
1 Origins
1.1 Gestalt therapy
2 Theoretical framework and methodology
3 Support from cybernetics and neurology
4 Properties
4.1 Emergence
4.2 Reification
4.3 Multistability
4.4 Invariance
5 Prgnanz
5.1 Gestalt laws of grouping
6 Gestalt views in psychology
6.1 Fuzzy-trace theory
7 Gestalt and Design
8 Uses in humancomputer interaction
9 Quantum cognition modeling
10 Criticism
11 See also
12 References

12 References
13 External links

Origins
The concept of gestalt was first introduced in philosophy and psychology in 1890 by Christian von
Ehrenfels (a member of the School of Brentano). The idea of gestalt has its roots in theories by David
Hume, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Immanuel Kant, David Hartley, and Ernst Mach. Max
Wertheimer's unique contribution was to insist that the "gestalt" is perceptually primary, defining the
parts it was composed from, rather than being a secondary quality that emerges from those parts, as von
Ehrenfels's earlier Gestalt-Qualitt had been.
Both von Ehrenfels and Edmund Husserl seem to have been inspired by Mach's work Beitrge zur
Analyse der Empfindungen (Contributions to the Analysis of Sensations, 1886), in formulating their very
similar concepts of gestalt and figural moment, respectively. On the philosophical foundations of these
ideas see Foundations of Gestalt Theory (Smith, ed., 1988).
Early 20th century theorists, such as Kurt Koffka, Max Wertheimer, and Wolfgang Khler (students of
Carl Stumpf) saw objects as perceived within an environment according to all of their elements taken
together as a global construct. This 'gestalt' or 'whole form' approach sought to define principles of
perceptionseemingly innate mental laws that determined the way objects were perceived. It is based
on the here and now, and in the way things are seen. Images can be divided into figure or ground. The
question is what is perceived at first glance: the figure in front, or the background.
These laws took several forms, such as the grouping of similar, or proximate, objects together, within
this global process. Although gestalt has been criticized for being merely descriptive, it has formed the
basis of much further research into the perception of patterns and objects (Carlson et al. 2000), and of
research into behavior, thinking, problem solving and psychopathology.

Gestalt therapy
The founders of Gestalt therapy, Fritz and Laura Perls, had worked with Kurt Goldstein, a neurologist
who had applied principles of Gestalt psychology to the functioning of the organism. Laura Perls had
been a Gestalt psychologist before she became a psychoanalyst and before she began developing Gestalt
therapy together with Fritz Perls.[4] The extent to which Gestalt psychology influenced Gestalt therapy is
disputed, however. In any case it is not identical with Gestalt psychology. On the one hand, Laura Perls
preferred not to use the term "Gestalt" to name the emerging new therapy, because she thought that the
gestalt psychologists would object to it;[5] on the other hand Fritz and Laura Perls clearly adopted some
of Goldstein's work.[6] Thus, though recognizing the historical connection and the influence, most gestalt
psychologists emphasize that gestalt therapy is not a form of gestalt psychology.[7]

Theoretical framework and methodology

The school of gestalt practiced a series of theoretical and methodological principles that attempted to
redefine the approach to psychological research. This is in contrast to investigations developed at the
beginning of the 20th century, based on traditional scientific methodology, which divided the object of
study into a set of elements that could be analyzed separately with the objective of reducing the
complexity of this object.

The theoretical principles are the following:

Principle of TotalityThe conscious experience must be considered globally (by taking into
account all the physical and mental aspects of the individual simultaneously) because the nature of
the mind demands that each component be considered as part of a system of dynamic
relationships.
Principle of psychophysical isomorphism A correlation exists between conscious experience
and cerebral activity.
Based on the principles above the following methodological principles are defined:
Phenomenon experimental analysisIn relation to the Totality Principle any psychological
research should take phenomena as a starting point and not be solely focused on sensory qualities.
Biotic experimentThe school of gestalt established a need to conduct real experiments that
sharply contrasted with and opposed classic laboratory experiments. This signified experimenting
in natural situations, developed in real conditions, in which it would be possible to reproduce, with
higher fidelity, what would be habitual for a subject.[8]

Support from cybernetics and neurology

In the 1940s and 1950s, laboratory research in neurology and what became known as cybernetics on the
mechanism of frogs' eyes indicate that perception of 'gestalts' (in particular gestalts in motion) is perhaps
more primitive and fundamental than 'seeing' as such:
A frog hunts on land by vision... He has no fovea, or region of greatest acuity in vision, upon
which he must center a part of the image... The frog does not seem to see or, at any rate, is not
concerned with the detail of stationary parts of the world around him. He will starve to death
surrounded by food if it is not moving. His choice of food is determined only by size and
movement. He will leap to capture any object the size of an insect or worm, providing it moves
like one. He can be fooled easily not only by a piece of dangled meat but by any moving small
object... He does remember a moving thing provided it stays within his field of vision and he is
not distracted.[9] Cyberneticist Valentin Turchin points out that the gestalts observed in what we
usually imagine are 'still images' and are exactly the kind of 'moving objects' that make the frog's
retina respond:
The lowest-level concepts related to visual perception for a human being probably differ little
from the concepts of a frog. In any case, the structure of the retina in mammals and in human
beings is the same as in amphibians. The phenomenon of distortion of perception of an image
stabilized on the retina gives some idea of the concepts of the subsequent levels of the hierarchy.
This is a very interesting phenomenon. When a person looks at an immobile object, "fixes" it with
his eyes, the eyeballs do not remain absolutely immobile; they make small involuntary
movements. As a result the image of the object on the retina is constantly in motion, slowly

drifting and jumping back to the point of maximum sensitivity. The image "marks time" in the
vicinity of this point.[10]

Properties
The key principles of gestalt systems are emergence, reification, multistability and invariance.[11]

Emergence
Emergence is the process of complex pattern formation from simpler rules. It is demonstrated by the
perception of the dog picture, which depicts a Dalmatian dog sniffing the ground in the shade of
overhanging trees. The dog is not recognized by first identifying its parts (feet, ears, nose, tail, etc.), and
then inferring the dog from those component parts. Instead, the dog is perceived as a whole, all at once.
However, this is a description of what occurs in vision and not an explanation. Gestalt theory does not
explain how the percept of a dog emerges.

Reification
Reification is the constructive or generative aspect of
perception, by which the experienced percept contains
more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus
on which it is based.
For instance, a triangle is perceived in picture A, though no
triangle is there. In pictures B and D the eye recognizes
disparate shapes as "belonging" to a single shape, in C a
complete three-dimensional shape is seen, where in
actuality no such thing is drawn.

Reification

Reification can be explained by progress in the study of

illusory contours, which are treated by the visual system as
"real" contours.

Multistability

the Necker Cube and the Rubin vase, two

examples of multistability

Invariance

Multistability (or multistable perception) is the tendency of

ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth
unstably between two or more alternative interpretations.
This is seen for example in the Necker cube, and in Rubin's
Figure/Vase illusion shown here. Other examples include
the Three-legged blivet and artist M. C. Escher's artwork
and the appearance of flashing marquee lights moving first
one direction and then suddenly the other. Again, gestalt
does not explain how images appear multistable, only that
they do.

Invariance is the property of perception whereby simple geometrical objects are recognized independent
of rotation, translation, and scale; as well as several other
variations such as elastic deformations, different lighting,
and different component features. For example, the objects
in A in the figure are all immediately recognized as the
same basic shape, which are immediately distinguishable
from the forms in B. They are even recognized despite
perspective and elastic deformations as in C, and when
depicted using different graphic elements as in D.
Computational theories of vision, such as those by David
Marr, have had more success in explaining how objects are
classified.
Emergence, reification, multistability, and invariance are
not necessarily separable modules to model individually,
but they could be different aspects of a single unified
dynamic mechanism.
Invariance

Prgnanz
The fundamental principle of gestalt perception is the law of prgnanz (in the German language,
pithiness), which says that we tend to order our experience in a manner that is regular, orderly,
symmetric, and simple. Gestalt psychologists attempt to discover refinements of the law of prgnanz,
and this involves writing down laws that, hypothetically, allow us to predict the interpretation of
sensation, what are often called "gestalt laws".[12] These include:

Gestalt laws of grouping

A major aspect of Gestalt psychology is that it implies that the
mind understands external stimuli as whole rather than the sum
of their parts. The wholes are structured and organized using
grouping laws. The various laws are called laws or principles,
depending on the paper where they appearbut for simplicity's
sake, this article uses the term laws. These laws deal with the
Law of proximity
sensory modality vision. However, there are analogous laws for
other sensory modalities including auditory, tactile, gustatory and
olfactory (Bregman GP). The visual Gestalt principles of grouping were introduced in Wertheimer
(1923). Through the 1930s and '40s Wertheimer, Kohler and Koffka formulated many of the laws of
grouping through the study of visual perception.[13]
Law of ProximityThe law of proximity states that when an individual perceives an assortment of
objects they perceive objects that are close to each other as forming a group. For example, in the figure
that illustrates the Law of proximity, there are 72 circles, but we perceive the collection of circles in
groups. Specifically, we perceive there is a group of 36 circles on the left side of the image, and three
groups of 12 circles on the right side of the image. This law is often used in advertising logos to
emphasize which aspects of events are associated.[13][14]

Law of SimilarityThe law of similarity states that elements

within an assortment of objects are perceptually grouped together
if they are similar to each other. This similarity can occur in the
form of shape, colour, shading or other qualities. For example,
the figure illustrating the law of similarity portrays 36 circles all
equal distance apart from one another forming a square. In this
depiction, 18 of the circles are shaded dark and 18 of the circles
are shaded light. We perceive the dark circles as grouped
together, and the light circles as grouped together forming six
horizontal lines within the square of circles. This perception of
lines is due to the law of similarity.[14]
Law of ClosureThe law of closure states that individuals
perceive objects such as shapes, letters, pictures, etc., as being
whole when they are not complete. Specifically, when parts of a
whole picture are missing, our perception fills in the visual gap.
Research shows that the reason the mind completes a regular
figure that is not perceived through sensation is to increase the
regularity of surrounding stimuli. For example, the figure that
depicts the law of closure portrays what we perceive as a circle
on the left side of the image and a rectangle on the right side of
the image. However, gaps are present in the shapes. If the law of
closure did not exist, the image would depict an assortment of
different lines with different lengths, rotations, and curvatures
but with the law of closure, we perceptually combine the lines

Law of similarity

Law of closure

into whole shapes.[13][14][15]

Law of SymmetryThe law of symmetry states that the mind
perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a
center point. It is perceptually pleasing to divide objects into an
even number of symmetrical parts. Therefore, when two
symmetrical elements are unconnected the mind perceptually
connects them to form a coherent shape. Similarities between symmetrical objects increase the
likelihood that objects are grouped to form a combined symmetrical object. For example, the figure
depicting the law of symmetry shows a configuration of square and curled brackets. When the image is
perceived, we tend to observe three pairs of symmetrical brackets rather than six individual
brackets.[13][14]
Law of Common FateThe law of common fate states that objects are perceived as lines that move
along the smoothest path. Experiments using the visual sensory modality found that movement of
elements of an object produce paths that individuals perceive that the objects are on. We perceive
elements of objects to have trends of motion, which indicate the path that the object is on. The law of
continuity implies the grouping together of objects that have the same trend of motion and are therefore
on the same path. For example, if there are an array of dots and half the dots are moving upward while
the other half are moving downward, we would perceive the upward moving dots and the downward
moving dots as two distinct units.[16]
Law of ContinuityThe law of continuity states that elements of objects tend to be grouped together,
and therefore integrated into perceptual wholes if they are aligned within an object. In cases where there
is an intersection between objects, individuals tend to perceive the two objects as two single

uninterrupted entities. Stimuli remain distinct even with overlap. We are less likely to group elements
with sharp abrupt directional changes as being one object.[13]
Law of Good GestaltThe law of good gestalt explains that elements of objects tend to be perceptually
grouped together if they form a pattern that is regular, simple, and orderly. This law implies that as
individuals perceive the world, they eliminate complexity and unfamiliarity so they can observe a reality
in its most simplistic form. Eliminating extraneous stimuli helps the mind create meaning. This meaning
created by perception implies a global regularity, which is often mentally prioritized over spatial
relations. The law of good gestalt focuses on the idea of conciseness, which is what all of gestalt theory
is based on. This law has also been called the law of Prgnanz.[13] Prgnanz is a German word that
directly translates to mean "pithiness" and implies the ideas of salience, conciseness and orderliness.[16]
Law of Past ExperienceThe law of past experience implies that under some circumstances visual
stimuli are categorized according to past experience. If two objects tend to be observed within close
proximity, or small temporal intervals, the objects are more likely to be perceived together. For example,
the English language contains 26 letters that are grouped to form words using a set of rules. If an
individual reads an English word they have never seen, they use the law of past experience to interpret
the letters "L" and "I" as two letters beside each other, rather than using the law of closure to combine
the letters and interpret the object as an uppercase U.[16]
The gestalt laws of grouping have recently been subjected to modern methods of scientific evaluation by
examining the visual cortex using cortical algorithms. Current Gestalt psychologists have described their
findings, which showed correlations between physical visual representations of objects and self-report
perception as the laws of seeing.[16]

Gestalt views in psychology

Gestalt psychologists find it is important to think of problems as a whole. Max Wertheimer considered
thinking to happen in two ways: productive and reproductive.[12]
Productive thinking is solving a problem with insight.
This is a quick insightful unplanned response to situations and environmental interaction.
Reproductive thinking is solving a problem with previous experiences and what is already known.
(1945/1959).
This is a very common thinking. For example, when a person is given several segments of information,
he/she deliberately examines the relationships among its parts, analyzes their purpose, concept, and
totality, he/she reaches the "aha!" moment, using what is already known. Understanding in this case
happens intentionally by reproductive thinking.
Another gestalt psychologist, Perkins, believes insight deals with three processes:
1. Unconscious leap in thinking.[12]
2. The increased amount of speed in mental processing.
3. The amount of short-circuiting that occurs in normal reasoning.[17]
Views going against the gestalt psychology are:

1. Nothing-special view
2. Neo-gestalt view
3. The Three-Process View
Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only
peripherally linked to gestalt psychology. A strictly gestalt psychology-based therapeutic method is
Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy, developed by the German gestalt psychologist and psychotherapist
Hans-Jrgen Walter.

Fuzzy-trace theory
Fuzzy-trace theory, a dual process model of memory and reasoning, was also derived from Gestalt
Psychology. Fuzzy-trace theory posits that we encode information into two separate traces: verbatim and
gist. Information stored in verbatim is exact memory for detail (the individual parts of a pattern, for
example) while information stored in gist is semantic and conceptual (what we perceive the pattern to
be). The effects seen in Gestalt psychology can be attributed to the way we encode information as
gist.[18]

Gestalt and Design

Composition showing the Gestalt Principles, graphic design (Gestalt Educational Program, 2011).

Central motif from the

Bauhaus logo, 192122

Gestalt in the Eye,

digital montage, 2011

Uses in humancomputer interaction

The gestalt laws are used in user interface design. The laws of similarity and proximity can, for example,
be used as guides for placing radio buttons. They may also be used in designing computers and software
for more intuitive human use. Examples include the design and layout of a desktop's shortcuts in rows
and columns. Gestalt psychology also has applications in computer vision for trying to make computers
"see" the same things as humans do.[19]

Quantum cognition modeling

Similarities between Gestalt phenomena and quantum mechanics have been pointed out by, among
others, chemist Anton Amann, who commented that "similarities between Gestalt perception and
quantum mechanics are on a level of a parable" yet may give useful insight nonetheless. Physicist Elio
Conte and co-workers have proposed abstract, mathematical models to describe the time dynamics of
cognitive associations with mathematical tools borrowed from quantum mechanics[20][21] and has
discussed psychology experiments in this context. A similar approach has been suggested by physicists
David Bohm, Basil Hiley and philosopher Paavo Pylkknen with the notion that mind and matter both
emerge from an "implicate order".[22][23] The models involve non-commutative mathematics; such
models account for situations in which the outcome of two measurements performed one after the other
can depend on the order in which they are performeda pertinent feature for psychological processes,
as it is obvious that an experiment performed on a conscious person may influence the outcome of a
subsequent experiment by changing the state of mind of that person.

Criticism
In some scholarly communities, such as cognitive psychology and computational neuroscience, gestalt
theories of perception are criticized for being descriptive rather than explanatory in nature. For this
reason, they are viewed by some as redundant or uninformative. For example, Bruce, Green &
Georgeson[24] conclude the following regarding gestalt theory's influence on the study of visual
perception:
The physiological theory of the gestaltists has fallen by the wayside, leaving us with a set of
descriptive principles, but without a model of perceptual processing. Indeed, some of their "laws"
of perceptual organisation today sound vague and inadequate. What is meant by a "good" or

"simple" shape, for example?

See also
Structural information theory
Rudolf Arnheim
Wolfgang Metzger
Kurt Goldstein
Pl Schiller Harkai
Solomon Asch
Hans Wallach
Hermann Friedmann
James J. Gibson
James Tenney
Graz School
Important publications in gestalt psychology
Mereology
Optical illusion
Pattern recognition (psychology)
Pattern recognition (machine learning)
Amodal perception
Phenomenology
Topological data analysis
Fuzzy-trace theory
Laws of Association

References
1. ^ David Hothersall: History of Psychology, chapter seven,(2004)
2. ^ Tuck, Michael (Aug 17, 2010). "Gestalt Principles Applied in Design"
(http://sixrevisions.com/web_design/gestalt-principles-applied-in-design/). Retrieved 11/12/2011. Check date
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3. ^ Humphrey, G. (1924). The psychology of the gestalt. Journal of Educational Psychology, 15(7), 401412.
doi:10.1037/h0070207 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0070207)
4. ^ Bernd Bocian:Fritz Perls in Berlin 18931933. Expressionism Psychonalysis Judaism, 2010, p. 190,
EHP Verlag Andreas Kohlhage, Bergisch Gladbach.
5. ^ Joe Wysong/Edward Rosenfeld (eds): An Oral History of Gestalt Therapy, Highland, New York 1982, The
Gestalt Journal Press, p. 12.
6. ^ Allen R. Barlow, "Gestalt-Antecedent Influence or Historical Accident"
(http://www.gestalt.org/barlow.htm), The Gestalt Journal, Volume IV, Number 2, (Fall, 1981)

7. ^ Mary Henle noted in her presidential address to Division 24 at the meeting of the American Psychological
Association (1975): "What Perls has done has been to take a few terms from Gestalt psychology, stretch their
meaning beyond recognition, mix them with notionsoften unclear and often incompatible from the
depth psychologies, existentialism, and common sense, and he has called the whole mixture gestalt therapy.
His work has no substantive relation to scientific Gestalt psychology. To use his own language, Fritz Perls
has done 'his thing'; whatever it is, it is not Gestalt psychology". Gestalt theory
(http://gestalttheory.net/archive/henle.html). However she restricts herself explicitly to only three of Perls'
books from 1969 and 1972, leaving out Perls' earlier work, and Gestalt therapy in general. See Barlow
criticizing Henle: Allen R. Barlow: Gestalt Therapy and Gestalt Psychology. Gestalt Antecedent Influence
or Historical Accident (http://www.gestalt.org/barlow.htm), in: The Gestalt Journal, Volume IV, Number 2,
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8. ^ William Ray Woodward, Robert Sonn Cohen World views and scientific discipline formation: science
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9. ^ Lettvin, J.Y., Maturana, H.R., Pitts, W.H., and McCulloch, W.S. (1961). Two Remarks on the Visual
System of the Frog. In Sensory Communication edited by Walter Rosenblith, MIT Press and John Wiley and
Sons: New York
10. ^ Valentin Fedorovich Turchin The phenomenon of science a cybernetic approach to human evolution
Columbia University Press, 1977
11. ^ "Gestalt Isomorphism" (http://sharp.bu.edu/~slehar/webstuff/bubw3/bubw3.html). Sharp.bu.edu. Retrieved
2012-04-06.
12. ^ a b c Sternberg, Robert, Cognitive Psychology Third Edition, Thomson Wadsworth 2003.
13. ^ a b c d e f Stevenson, Herb. "Emergence: The Gestalt Approach to Change"
(http://www.clevelandconsultinggroup.com/articles/emergence-gestalt-approach-to-change.php). Unleashing
Executive and Orzanizational Potential. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
14. ^ a b c d Soegaard, Mads. "Gestalt Principles of form Perception" (http://www.interactiondesign.org/encyclopedia/gestalt_principles_of_form_perception.html). Interaction Design. Retrieved 8 April
2012.
15. ^ http://www.gizmodo.co.uk/2013/05/why-your-brain-thinks-these-dots-are-a-dog/
16. ^ a b c d Todorovic, Dejan. "Gestalt Principles" (http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Gestalt_principles).
scholarpedia. Retrieved 5 April 2012.
17. ^ Langley& associates, 1987; Perkins, 1981; Weisberg, 1986,1995"
18. ^ Reyna, Valerie (2012). "A new institutionism: Meaning, memory, and development in Fuzzy-Trace
Theory". Judgment and Decision Making 7 (3): 332359.
19. ^ Soegaard, Mads. "Gestalt principles of form perception" (http://www.interactiondesign.org/encyclopedia/gestalt_principles_of_form_perception.html). Interaction-design.org. Retrieved
2012-04-06.
20. ^ Elio Conte, Orlando Todarello, Antonio Federici, Francesco Vitiello, Michele Lopane, Andrei Khrennikov,
Joseph P. Zbilut: Some remarks on an experiment suggesting quantum-like behavior of cognitive entities and
formulation of an abstract quantum mechanical formalism to describe cognitive entity and its dynamics,
Chaos, Solitons & Fractals, vol. 31, no. 5, March 2007, pp. 10761088 doi:10.1016/j.chaos.2005.09.061
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chaos.2005.09.061), arXiv:0710.5092 (http://arxiv.org/abs/arXiv:0710.5092)
(submitted 26 October 2007)
21. ^ Elio Conte, Orlando Todarello, Antonio Federici, Francesco Vitiello, Michele Lopane, Andrei Khrennikov:
A Preliminar Evidence of Quantum Like Behavior in Measurements of Mental States, arXiv:quant-

ph/0307201 (http://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0307201) (submitted 28 July 2003)

22. ^ B.J. Hiley: Particles, fields, and observers, Volume I The Origins of Life, Part 1 Origin and Evolution of
Life, Section II The Physical and Chemical Basis of Life, pp. 87106 (PDF
(http://www.bbk.ac.uk/tpru/BasilHiley/Frontiersoflife.pdf))
23. ^ Basil J. Hiley, Paavo Pylkknen: Naturalizing the mind in a quantum framework. In Paavo Pylkknen and
Tere Vadn (eds.): Dimensions of conscious experience, Advances in Consciousness Research, Volume 37,
John Benjamins B.V., 2001, ISBN 90-272-5157, pages 119-144 (http://books.google.com/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=CCX1NhhpQNQC&pg=PA119)
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ed.). LEA. p. 110.

Carlson, Neil R. and Heth, C. Donald (2010) Psychology the Science of Behaviour Ontario, CA:
Pearson Education Canada. pp 2022.
Smith, Barry (ed.) (1988) Foundations of Gestalt Theory
(http://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/book/FoGT/Contents.htm), Munich and Vienna: Philosophia
Verlag, 1988.
http://www.theoryofknowledge.net/ways-of-knowing/sense-perception/how-do-our-senses-work.php

External links
Gestalt psychology (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/232098/Gestalt-psychology) on
Encyclopdia Britannica
Gestalt principles (http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Gestalt_principles) article in Scholarpedia,
by Dejan Todorovi
Gestalt Society of Croatia (http://www.gestalt-drustvo.hr/)
International Society for Gestalt Theory and its Applications GTA (http://gestalttheory.net/)
Embedded Figures in Art, Architecture and Design
(http://www.bobolinkbooks.com/Gestalt/EmbeddedFigures.html)
On Max Wertheimer and Pablo Picasso
(http://www.bobolinkbooks.com/Gestalt/GestaltAndCamouflage.html)
On Esthetics and Gestalt Theory
(http://www.bobolinkbooks.com/Gestalt/HowFormFunctions.html)
The World In Your Head by Steven Lehar (http://cnsalumni.bu.edu/~slehar/webstuff/book/WIYH.html)
Gestalt Isomorphism and the Primacy of Subjective Conscious Experience by Steven Lehar
(http://cns-alumni.bu.edu/~slehar/webstuff/bubw3/bubw3.html)
The new gestalt psychology of the 21st century (http://www.enane.de/cont.htm)
The Pennsylvania Gestalt Center (http://www.gestaltcenter.com/)
Gestalt Theory (http://www.gestalttheory.com/)
Ecological Approach to Visual Perception (http://www.amazon.com/Ecological-Approach-Visual-

Perception/dp/0898599598)
James J. Gibson in brief (http://psychology.jrank.org/pages/281/James-Jerome-Gibson.html)
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