Methodology

Mathematical Competence
of people with Down Syndrom *)
Mag. Bernadette Wieser
Anita Hotter

*) Translation Linda Ferguson

"This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This publication [communication] reflects the views only of the
author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein."
YwC - Grant Agreement number 2009 4586 / 001 001.
502241-LLP-1-AT-GRUNDTVIG-GMP

Index of contents

1. Summary and introduction

1.1 Learning with enthusiasm
1.2 Everything is number
1.3 Motivation through emotion
2. Methodology
3. Communication
3.1 Fundamental Cognitive Skills
3.1.1 Tactile-kinaesthetic and vestibular perception
3.1.2 Development of Body Language
3.1.3 Visual Perception
3.1.4 Invariability
3.1.5 Spatial and Temporal Orientation
3.1.6 Seriality and Sequential Perception
3.1.7 Intermodality
3.1.8 Abstraction
3.1.9 Auditory Perception
3.1.10 Attentiveness Control
3.1.11 Memory Skills
3.2 Counting and Calculating with the Fingers
3.2.1 Number Sense
3.2.2 Pre-numerical and counting skills
3.2.3 Numbers as numerical symbols and functional signs
3.2.4 Comprehension of the rules of the decimal system
3.2.5 Memory
3.2.6 Reliance on technical aid
3.2.7 Transferal into daily life
4. Advantages of finger-orientated counting and calculating techniques for the development
of numerical cognition
4.1 History
4.2 Orientation from left to right
4.3 Representational forms for numbers
4.4 Representation of quantities
4.5 Ordinality and Cardinality
4.6 Decimal system of numbers
4.7 Attentiveness Control
4.8 Generalized aid and independence
4.9 Development of abstractive powers
4.10 Mimicry skill
4.11 Motor memories
4.12 Rebuilding
5. Conclusio
6. References

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1. Summary and Introduction

Yes we cancalculate. As part of the Grundtvig Program Lifelong Learning,
individuals with Down Syndrome now for the first time have the opportunity to receive
instruction according to individually tailored plans that aim to improve their numerical
skills.
Specialist literature old and new broadly affirms that individuals with Down Syndrome
generally show deficiencies when it comes to calculating or reckoning.
Likewise the results of the multilateral questionnaire distributed as part of the
Grundtvig project offers a somewhat bleak picture: According to the parents and
specialists who participated in the inquiry, approximately 50% of individuals with
Down Syndrome are aware of the mathematical demands in their daily lives, yet
more than half display neither the interest nor the motivation to busy themselves with
the mathematical problems they confront daily.
On the other hand, another 80% are capable, either alone or with assistance, of
understanding and verbalizing numbers, and more than two-thirds are capable of
writing the symbols.
The individuals queried also report on accomplishments in counting forward to 100,
in solving simple problems of addition and subtraction, in the application of visual
aids and in dealing with money and measurements.
The gate to the world of numbers is ajar, and yet it seems to jam, for the
questionnaire further indicates that less than 30% of professional respondents make
use of a specific didactical approach to communicate calculating skills.
More than half of the respondents (exactly 283) are motivated to utilize new
didactical methods in their instruction of calculating. (For detailed results of the
questionnaire see Project Report on Analysis of Need.)
The method presented here for counting by using the fingers should assist to open
wide the gate to the world of numbers, so that as many as possible with Down
Syndrome may pass through and thus navigate the path towards day to day
mathematics.

1.1 Learning with enthusiasm

In the pedagogical diagnostics of the Down Syndrome Competence Centre Leben
Lachen Lernen/Live Laugh Learn we have collected data on the development of
calculating and the basic skills that support it, on memory capacity and on
attentiveness control. These data clearly testify to heterogeneous performance
profiles of the children, adolescents and adults with Down Syndrome who have come
to us, and this in turn requires the utmost of individual approaches.
The most important principal to evolve: The greater the personal contact to the
events of his daily life, the greater the motivation of the individual with Down
Syndrome to apply that which he has newly learned, at the same time the more
quickly his attention will be focussed. What interests the individual with Down
Syndrome, what are his hobbies, what identifies him, in what personal context can he
experience mathematics? Where lie his passions for collecting? Whether comic
figures, movie stars, sports giants or music idols: Entry into the world of numbers
coincides exactly with the point of inspiration and requires the didactical fantasy of
instructors.

The early construct of actual possible applications in the personal life style of the
individual with Down Syndrome can yield positive access to the problem-oriented
world of mathematics.

1.2 Everything is number

Learning functions autobiographically, observed the noted brain specialist Gerhard
Roth. It works most easily when it has something to do with me and with my
situation. If the individual with Down Syndrome enjoys numbers and is allowed to
discover their meaning with respect to his own life, his inner, or so-called intrinsic
motivation will increase and subconsciously propel him towards the use of
mathematics. From life for the sake of life!
It is the pedagogical responsibility of parents and professionals to ferret out the
individual foreknowledge of their fellow-man with Down Syndrome and to find
meaningful anchors of association, to combine the teaching materials with what is
already known! The phrase That is, for instance, like can open the door to the
realm of numbers. With respect to mathematical content there are many points of
reference to be found in the everyday, familiar world of the individual with Down
Syndrome, from shopping to reading the time in a TV program, from the use of a cell
phone to the correct apportionment of strawberries among siblings. His own pocket
money for the cinema, or self-earned funds for an excursion: Everything is number,
as Pythagoras already knew.
Instructional content that nevertheless cannot be linked either to pre-existing
knowledge or to actual situations in life, to the interests and hobbies of the pupil with
Down Syndrome, flow through his brain as through a sieve.

1.3 Motivation through Emotion

Accordingly, the learning achievement of individuals both with and without Down
Syndrome is decidedly dependent upon motivation and emotion, which control the
ability to concentrate, the lack of which in turn separates the wheat from the chaff
with respect to instructional offerings. In no case do we constantly learn, or learn
everything. Rather, our emotions help us to cull out that which is important and to
employ our resources meaningfully and economically for its processing and storage.
Emotions are thus not our adversary; rather, in most cases they assist our critical
intellect. (Spitzer, 2005, p. 96) Instructional offerings that are rejected by the
individual with Down Syndrome do not link up to his world.
A crucial prerequisite for successful learning is likewise the attitude of positive
expectation from those who escort individuals with Down Syndrome through the
world of numbers.
Confidence in their curiosity, capabilities and interests nourishes the social effect of
the positive prophecy of self-fulfilment, whereby individuals with Down Syndrome will
behave so that those expectations we place upon them will be met in kind. Our faith
in their abilities lays the foundation for their competency!
The catch-word LearnExpectationAchievements describes the successful learning
process as a consequence of these expectations.

2. Methodology
The theory of method introduced as part of the EU-project Yes we can is described
in detail in a handbook and DVD; the supporting materials are contained in a toolbox.
In the following, the essential elements of the concept are briefly summarized.
The concept of calculating with the fingers is based on the system of using the
fingers to count from left to right.
Beginning with the fists, that represent naught or zero, and with verbal
accompaniment, the number sequence is built consecutively up and down from the
little finger of the left hand to the little finger of the right hand.
The left little finger represents 1.
The left ring finger represents 2.
The left middle finger represents 3
The left index finger represents 4.
The left thumb represents 5.
The right thumb represents 6.
The right index finger represents 7.
The right middle finger represents 8.
The right ring finger represents 9.
The right little finger represents 10.

The tens are initially represented by small sticks and, as internalization progresses,
by the knuckle bones. Elimination of the use of the fingers and hands then proceeds
step by step until visual controls are entirely abandoned.
Within the number series through 10, counting upwards enables addition; counting
downwards, subtraction. By splitting up the numbers and by analogy, one can extend
the series step by step to 100.
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Multiplication and division tables are embedded in long-term memory by means of

the loci technique. This is a method where calculations and their results are
associated with specific body-parts.

3. Communication
From social psychologist Kurt Lewin we have the assessment: Nothing is as
practical as a good theory.
The successful application of calculating with the fingers as explained herein builds
upon a well-founded theoretical documentation that describes both
neuropsychological aspects and current scholarly studies in brain research with
respect to the influence of counting on fingers on the development of numerical
cognition. The concept numerical cognition embraces all of those mental processes
that have to do with the understanding and processing of numbers (verbalized
numerical expressions or written Arabic numerals) as well as with mathematical
operations (figuring in ones head or written calculations). (Landerl et al., 2008,
p. 14)
The didactical starting point for the effective pedagogical communication of numerical
competence lies first of all in the additional honing of the supporting skills, and
secondly in the communication of counting and calculating skills based on the
premise of finger calculation.

3.1 Fundamental Cognitive Skills

The maturing of the cognitive skills in all their diversity lays the foundation for the
appropriation and application of knowledge in general as well as for the acquisition of
cultural skills in particular. They control the reception, organisation and processing of
information.
The Israeli psychologist Feuerstein (1985) labelled these fundamental skills as
cognitive framework or tools of learning, which are dynamic and therefore ever
changing throughout life. His methods for the step-by-step communication of learning
support the student in the network of his experience. Through analogy, learning
experiences in numerous aspects of life may be transferred and the student thereby
assisted to apply his knowledge flexibly to diverse situations.
According to Feuerstein, the appropriation of a cognitive repertoire through specific
experiences leads to inner motivation, to the forming of concepts, to insight into
cause and effect (if-thus) as well as to logical thinking and in turn to analytical and
integral perception.
As basic skills underlying this process (Feuerstein) are comparison and
categorization, environmental orientation, and systematic, structured tasks.
The majority of individuals with Down Syndrome have difficulties achieving numerical
cognition. This may be attributed not only to the genetic complication of 47
chromosomes, but also to environmental influences, such as ineffective didactical
measures or absence of stimulation.
Neuropsychological impairments in visual or aural perception, compromised
attentiveness and memory dysfunctions are stumbling blocks for individuals with
Down Syndrome as they struggle with calculating.

The impairment of the fundamental, elementary processes of perception,

imagination, coordination and memory has far-reaching consequences on more
complex accomplishments and on the acquisition of cultural skills, reading, writing
and calculating.
Upon stimulation via receptors and further transmission along nerve paths, the brain
filters impressions for processing. The reaction, i.e. the resulting behaviour, allows us
to single out perceptions that are more extraordinary in nature.
Neuropsychologists presume a so-called set of fundamental skills that represent a
stabile foundation for a systematic, step-by-step learning process that can be
developed only in combination with the diverse areas of perception.
The structure of numerical cognition depends on diverse neuropsychological
maturing processes, the most fundamental of which is described in the following. The
perception of information either consciously or subconsciously via the motor, visual
or auditory senses is of utmost importance here.

3.1.1 Tactile-kinaesthetic and vestibular perception

Tactile-kinaesthetic and vestibular perception together lay the foundation for the
development of a sophisticated body language.
The sense of touch provides information about the surface characteristics of
objects (soft/hard, rough/smooth, cold/warm etc.) and their size and form. Following
the oral phase, in which the mouth plays the central sensory role, the hands slowly
take over the grasping by means of holding, touching and feeling.
Sensitivity to feel and touch is particularly pronounced in the finger tips, which have
many sensory receptors.
The initial processing level of sensory perceptions in the brain is the somatic-sensory
cortex (cortex = coating). In this area the tactile perceptions of the body are
processed. For finely tuned sensory and motor areas of the body, such as the
fingers, mouth and face, very large sections of the cortex are utilized. The
dominance of the direct influence of the cortex on the muscles of individual fingers
is the basis for the great flexibility of the hand and the relatively independent
movement of its individual fingers. (Wehr et. al., 2009, p. 48)
Counting and calculating by means of finger movement and simultaneous
verbalization strengthens the close functional correlations between fine motor skills,
speech and the brain.
In addition, the sense of touch plays a notable role in the creation of spatial mental
images; the hands deliver information with respect to form and area.
Studies conducted with the blind (Kennedy, 1997) document their abilities to create
two- and three-dimensional representations on the basis of tactile information alone.

Tactile and kinaesthetic perceptions are closely coupled. The deliberate and
coordinated finger movements of counting and calculating first of all impart
information about the position and conduct of the fingers, and secondly about the
direction and speed of their movement. Likewise the energy with which the individual
fingers are extended and withdrawn must be carefully measured.
These motor-coordinative achievements support not only graphomotoric
development, but also the proper holding of writing utensils; they likewise control the
accuracy of precision movements.
Balance perception via the vestibular system contributes substantially to eye-hand
coordination (which is trained by means of deliberate finger movements) and to the
comprehension of spatial relationships. A. Jean Ayres (2002) refers to tactilekinaesthetic and vestibular perception as the sensomotoric foundation of
development.
Individuals with Down Syndrome frequently display contradictory reactions when
processing stimuli from the tactile system. On the one hand, a hypo-sensibility may
give the impression that they are insensitive to pain. On the other hand, a hypersensibility causes them to object to contact with materials such as sand, cream or
modelling clay.
Likewise, their fine motor skills in the use of their fingers and hands are in many ways
only modestly developed. In addition to everyday activities, the execution of the
requisite motion models for counting and calculating with fingers quite specifically
supports the development of hand language; furthermore, the perception of physical
stimuli is heightened.

3.1.2 Development of Body Language

Recognizing and naming our own body parts and those of others while noting their
physical symmetries, the relationship of the parts to another and their possible
movements, are milestones towards the development of a sophisticated body
language.
Of particular significance here are the development of a sophisticated hand language
and an assured laterality through dominance of one hand over the other. The refined
control of finger motions, as required when counting or calculating, develops
bimanual hand coordination. The resulting, requisite quick communication between
the two halves of the brain leads in turn to more rapid nerve conductivity. Prerequisite
for this are regular and consistent exercises and their repetition.
The demands placed upon the hand are supported by the interaction of the near and
far senses.
Finger movements are experienced on a multisensory level, i.e. by way of the
tactile-kinaesthetic, visual and through verbalisation acoustical channels of
perception.

The recognition and isolated use of individual fingers enhances self-perception,

which is a crucial prerequisite for spatial perception and consequently for the
comprehension of number space in mathematics.

3.1.3 Visual Perception

Optical comprehension of shape is considered a core skill of individuals with Down
Syndrome. Through the sense of sight, memory aids particularly pictures
substantially increase the power of memory.
Visual perception falls primarily into the following categories: perceptual constancy,
therein the ability to recognize objects even if they have changed in size, colour etc.;
figure-field perception, which concerns the filtering of foreground and background
events as well as the organisation of quantities; and visual memory, therein the
ability to note and remember optical images and impressions.
The finger movements involved in counting and calculating can be controlled visually
at any time; the simultaneous comprehension of individual finger images supports
quantitative perception. Labelling the individual fingers with numbers gives immediate
information about the relationships between quantity, number and finger image.
With the aid of visual perception and on the basis of experiences involving touch,
comparisons are also made possible.
Likenesses, similarities and differences between objects, persons, images, ideas and
information are recorded, analyzed and summarized according to specific criteria,
such as patterns or relationships. From the resulting groups, it is possible to make
classifications.
Along with the individual classification that describes a single object, group
classification concerns the attributes of multiple objects as they relate to one another.
Comparative classification juxtaposes related categories.
On the basis of performance, groups and categories crystallize, and if the student
with Down Syndrome is verbally capable, broader concepts will be assigned names.
The foundation for understanding comparisons is laid at this stage and the symbol =
(is equal to) introduced at the graphic, concrete level of performance.
Systems of classification based on the environment of the individual with Down
Syndrome, such as his clothes closet or associations with relatives, create practical
opportunities to file and firmly embed experiences and information about those things
which are related and those things which are not.
The next step of comparative thinking calls for the classification of similar and
dissimilar objects, pictures or concepts. The phrase is equal to is modified through
comparisons such as is larger, wider etc. than. Experience based on the requisite
knowledge of sequences lays the foundation for the comprehension of cardinal and
ordinal numbers. The cardinal number describes the totality of a quantity (there are
five); the ordinal number establishes the position of an element within a sequence
(it is the third).

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3.1.4 Invariability
Invariability, which is described as a quantitative constant, provides us with the
faculty to recognize that which changes and that which remains the same. It is a
component of comparative thinking and is experienced when procedures reverse.
Understanding constancy (invariability) is possible only if one recognizes the
connection between those attributes that remain constant and those that do not.
(Garner, 2009, p. 64)
Exercises to determine volume, quantity, length, weight, number and area prepare
individuals with Down Syndrome to form mental images and likewise assist in the
further processing of abstract concepts. Reverse procedures are subject to imagery
and are internalized.

3.1.5 Spatial and Temporal Orientation

Mathematical thinking demands orientation in an abstract number space, which
presupposes the superimposition of three- and two-dimensional space.
Material space as it actually exists is three dimensional. Newspapers, paintings or
photos represent this reality in two dimensions, just as numbers or numerals
represent quantities. Abstract space applies to imaginary images, whether locations
or figures. Virtual space is created by technology, for instance, on a computer
screen.
Spatial orientation proceeds from our own self; we perceive our physical presence
as mid-point and interpret our environment in relation to ourselves.
Problems in acquiring mathematical skills are often the result of impaired spatial
orientation.
The understanding of spatial relationships depends on the perception of position,
distance, direction and perspective. Numerous persons and objects are joined
together, and these in turn are superimposed upon an environment wherein their
positions are specified by spatial concepts such as in front of/behind, in/on etc., or
through measurements of length or direction, such as left/right, or via compass
points etc.
Reading and writing in our culture proceed from left to right, and therefore also
counting and calculating with the fingers. In mathematics particular attention is paid
to spatial relationships not only with respect to numbers but also with respect to their
value. Depending on its position, a recorded numerical symbol is assigned a specific
value.

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Temporal orientation allows us to determine when an event took place. Linear

progression of time embraces a series of events and thus lays the foundation for
sequential consciousness. Circular progression embraces recurring cycles, such as
days, weeks, years or festivals. Simultaneity embraces all events that occurred at a
given time.
Estimating the length of time required to attend to the practical obligations of life
assists the daily planning of individuals with Down Syndrome and indirectly supports
attentiveness by restraining and controlling behaviour that is, respectively,
excessively demanding or impulsive.
Since individuals with Down Syndrome face particular challenges in this area of
perception, the improvement of body language and spatial/temporal orientation have
the highest priority in the development of numerical cognition.

3.1.6 Seriality and Sequential Perception

Arranging the visual and acoustical stimuli of activities or events in a particular order
(according to height, size, colour etc.) is referred to as serial skill.
Sequences of numbers are part and parcel of serial progression and must be
observed in their spatial relationship to one another. The step-by-step procedure of
solving addition, subtraction, multiplication and, above all, division, requires a mature
awareness of the fundamental sequence.
Likewise the interplay of cause and effect and of planned activities in general is serial
in nature.
Children and adolescents with Down Syndrome frequently require assistance in the
conception and execution of the structured obligations of their daily life.
The movements necessary for counting and calculating with the fingers support the
development of serial awareness, as here a meaningful, expedient and sequentially
determined progression is required, which receives additional structure through
rhythm and verbal accompaniment.

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3.1.7 Intermodality
The interplay of all senses, the arranging of sensations and stimuli, is referred to as
sensory integration; the sequentially temporal linking of multiple sensory
impressions into a meaningful whole, as intermodality.
For individuals with Down Syndrome, the simultaneous processing of multiple pieces
of information and the ensuing structured processing present enormous challenges.
Through the demands of counting and calculating with fingers, the furtherance of
intermodality provides useful opportunities to practice and learn.
Intermodal performance requires the implementation of a connection and a flexible
exchange between individual areas of perception, as when hearing a number
(auditory perception) and in turn producing the appropriate number of fingers (tactile
and visual perception).

3.1.8 Abstraction
The word abstraction is derived from the Latin abstractus and means excluded.
Consequently, abstraction is used to designate the exclusion of concrete, tangible
and obvious details, in the sense of internalisation and generalisation.
According to Aebli, the internalisation of numerical cognition is achieved on the basis
of interaction with concrete materials. The resulting pictorial representation is
followed by the symbolic representation; the next step represents the
automatisation in the realm of symbolism.
The concrete use of finger material when calculating with the fingers slowly leads to
the ability to think in images.
Initially, quantities are represented pictorially and symbolically by labelling the fingers
with numbers and by the supplementary use of wooden sticks.
After sufficient practice and honing through repetition, based on an instruction using
exact models for imitation, the necessity of finger movement diminishes. The fingers
no longer need to be extended and withdrawn in their entirety; frequently one
observes a twitch. Thereafter, along the path from the concrete to the abstract,
movement will be abandoned entirely in favour of simple observation of the fingers.
The action will eventually be replaced by imagery; mental calculation is the next step.
The imagination provides support for the transition from physical dependence to
abstract imagery.
Particularly important is the simultaneous verbal accompaniment of finger
movements. In the process of stripping away, speech slowly replaces action.
Individuals with Down Syndrome assisted by verbalisation can learn to count and
to perform mathematical operations.
Internalisation of the visible, the acquisition of structure and arrangement
independently of visual control leads to abstract thinking. The acquired knowledge
may then be transferred to the mathematical demands of daily life.

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3.1.9 Auditory Perception

At least temporarily, 30-50% of individuals with Down Syndrome display hearing
impairments. These may be attributable to infection.
Very often, too, the processing of auditory impressions is impeded and,
consequently, auditory memory as well, the latter being responsible for the
understanding and retaining of that which is heard.
Immediately after birth the system of auditory perception is almost fully developed.
From the wealth of environmental sounds, the ability to select the relevant stimuli and
to separate the important from the unimportant is referred to as auditory figure-field
differentiation.
Individuals with Down Syndrome frequently show little ability to differentiate, which
can quickly lead to an auditory overload of stimuli. This impedes not only hearing in a
particular direction, but also concentration on significant details such as the fine
difference between fourteen and forty as well as the processing of various pieces of
information delivered in rapid succession.
Closely related to the impairment of auditory perception is verbal skill. In the
majority of individuals with Down Syndrome, limitations of verbal expression are
signalized by the quantity and quality of vocabulary, articulation, grammar and
syntax. Many rely on simple sentence structures. Their grasp of speech is generally
more complexly developed and provides insight into their actual cognitive age.
For the growth of numerical cognition, both verbal automatisation of numerical
sequences and general education in mathematical concepts are of import.

3.1.10 Attentiveness Control

Mathematical thinking is decisively influenced by overlapping cognitive skills, such as
memory capacity and attentiveness. If a student with or without Down Syndrome
is permitted to pursue his own individual areas of interest, coupled with reflection and
activity, both his concentration and dedication will improve. Maria Montessori thus
coined the phrase polarisation of attentiveness.
The value of the fingers as an aid towards controlling attentiveness is described by
Zimpel as the bundling of five. Without assistance, mans sense of numbers is
limited by his narrow attention span. Therefore a five-bundle immensely relieves the
strain of having to pay attention. (Zimpel, 2008, p. 39)
Reliance upon multiple sensory channels demands concentration and attentiveness,
which can be controlled by explicit, finely coordinated movements. To sit still while at
the same time being allowed to move.
The rhythmical, repetitious components of the system of counting on fingers, which
itself remains constant, creates structure. This conveys a feeling of security, which in
turn nourishes attentiveness and concentration.
The coordination of finger movements via the motor centre, the so-called gyrus
praecentralis, demands precision and self-regulation through emotional control.

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Likewise consideration of the student profile contributes to the focussing of attention.

Individuals with Down Syndrome for the most part belong to that group of students
who more greatly depend on visual and tactile-kinaesthetical aids, who absorb
instruction primarily through viewing and touching. Counting and calculating with their
fingers offer diverse stimulation in this area of perception.

3.1.11 Memory Skills

Experiences, sensory impressions and information that are stored in the brain are
generally referred to as memory.
Storage is accomplished in three primary phases:

Ultra short-term memory

Ultra short-term memory apparently records the entirety of absorbed impressions

from all sensory channels before they are filtered and made accessible to us in a
conscious form.
Filtering is influenced by moral precepts, beliefs, knowledge, skills, experiences and
emotions.
Ultra short-term memory can store information for only a few seconds, until it is either
passed on to the working memory or erased. The filtering system makes this decision
predominantly without awareness on our part.

Working memory or short-term memory

By means of activated electronic impulses, conscious information proceeds from the

ultra short-term memory to the working memory, which can store information for up to
30 minutes. The working memory is also often referred to as short-term memory.
The working memory of individuals with Down Syndrome frequently displays
impairment, the reasons for which may be diverse. It is therefore crucial to offer
learning programs that stimulate multiple sensory channels (such as counting and
calculating with fingers) in order to ensure integral storage and therefore a greater
multitude of skills.

Long-term memory

Activities and experiences shape the individual structure, the architecture of the
brain. Long-term memory creates the individual with all his many attributes.
In long-term memory knowledge is embedded for the duration and made accessible
through active biological processes.

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The emotional centre of the brain, the so-called limbic system, plays a primary role
in the transferal of information and experiences from the working memory into longterm memory. The feelings that accompany impressions and data, and that are
passed along with them, decisively influence storage in long-term memory.
The limbic system is a unity made up of diverse brain structures.

The amygdala (because of its shape also referred to as almond seed) lies
within the limbic system, the most important part of the brain for the
processing of emotions. Without our awareness, information considered
valuable will be tagged by the amygdala and stored in full context.

The hippocampus (because of its shape also referred to as sea horse)
likewise a part of the limbic system. Absorbed sensory perceptions are
spatially and temporally organised, sorted, and linked to emotions. This
memory manager plays a key role in the recording of stimuli in long-term
memory. Through a close connection with the cerebrum, which is responsible
for long-term storage, it builds a bridge for the embedding, recall and
generalisation of learning experiences.

Hippocampus

Amygdala

The nucleus accumbens of the limbic system is the heart of the reward
centre. If the student experiences the feeling of success, this centre will be
activated, and his willingness, motivation and desire to learn more will
increase.

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Briefly: With the assistance of the hippocampus, information that is coupled with
positive feelings and that stimulates curiosity and interest on the part of the student
will be permanently embedded.
Similarly, the deployment of multiple senses, effective practice and repetition, as
well as rest periods for the consolidation of information and processes positively
influence storage in long-term memory.
Effective learning depends on repetition. Psychological experiments testify that
immediately after learning, most of the information absorbed will be forgotten. The
frequency of repetition in the first few days should therefore be intense, and with
respect to individuals with Down Syndrome, should be performed once or twice daily
over a period of several weeks. Later on, the frequency of repetition may be
somewhat reduced. Important, however, even months later, is consistency and
perseverance. The development of kinetic models for counting and calculating with
the fingers, the refinement of which will be recognizable by increased speed and
assurance, requires consistent repetition and automatisation, in short: practice.
This perpetual activation may be compared to a wood, where frequent passage
eventually wears a path. In long-term memory this path represents a trail of
knowledge. If the path is abandoned for a longer period, it will again become
overgrown. If our storehouse of knowledge likewise goes unused, it will no longer be
accessible. Routine repetition, however, quickly restores it to our consciousness.
Not only concentrated learning, during which time nerve cells extend numerous new
branches, but also the rest period afterwards are crucial to durable memory. The
repetition of information and activities, e.g. finger movement when calculating, leads
by way of newly made connections to structural and functional alterations in the
neurological network.
This security back-up requires hours or even days and is referred to as consolidation.
It is primarily during the deep-sleep phase that the new connections will be
embedded in long-term memory.
Knowledge that can be accessed in long-term memory may be divided into two
groups:

To know how: Motor skills, such as riding a bicycle or calculating with

fingers, are stored in procedural memory.

To know that: Episodes, events and facts from ones own life (episodic
memory) and factual knowledge (semantic memory) are stored in
declarative memory.

Many individuals with Down Syndrome possess an excellent episodic long-term

memory wherein their starkly emotional life experiences are stored and made
accessible.
Often particularly striking is the varied breadth of their capabilities within diverse
areas of the brain. While with the majority their multiple skills for auditory and tactile
stimuli are less pronounced, the storage capacity for visual stimuli is large.
Also conspicuous among individuals with Down Syndrome is the notable discrepancy
between the storage capacity of working memory and that of long-term memory.

17

An example of the friction-free cooperation between working memory and long-term

memory is demonstrated by the problem of addition. The necessary fundamental
knowledge of how to solve the problem is stored in long-term memory. The execution
of the actual task, remembering the numbers and the interim sums, is controlled by
the working memory. As previously noted, positive emotions strongly aid the
transferal of information into long-term memory. Counting and calculating with the
fingers and with small sticks must essentially be a source of pleasure and therefore
communicate a feeling of accomplishment as in the case of Florian, a young man
with Down Syndrome, who proudly realized: What the head cant do, the hands
can!

18

3.2 Counting and Calculating with the Fingers

The structural development of numerical cognition proceeds gradually, step by step.

3.2.1 Number Sense

Number sense (Dehaene, 1999) refers to inherent, intuitive numerical and culturally
overlapping core skills that are independent of speech and symbol comparable to
phonemic consciousness.
The French neuroscientist Dehaene assumes a genetically controlled, prenatally
developed module specifically designed to aid in the grasping of numbers. Various
types of animals (rats, rhesus monkeys) likewise display an understanding of number
and quantities.

Babies that are only a few months old can distinguish quantities according to
fundamental size within the categories of more & less, which has been
measured by the length of their eye contact. Five-month-old infants with 46
chromosomes already possess a basic understanding of addition and
subtraction (Wynn, 1990); at present we have no data for babies with Down
Syndrome.

Infants comprehend quantities up to a maximum of 4 items simultaneously,

which is referred to as subitizing. Subitizing is also observable with tactile
and acoustical stimuli.

Studies that have critically analyzed the above-mentioned capabilities with

respect to number sense (Dornhirn, 2008, p. 46 ff.) confirm infants reactions
at least to quantitative alterations in the increase of total amounts.

These capabilities are primarily controlled in the upper central, or parietal, lobes of
the left and right brain halves. Our brain is programmed to calculate. According to
Dehaene, individuals displaying weaknesses for calculating are less favoured with an
innate number sense. Blakemore (2006, p. 98) reaches a similar conclusion: Many
children appear to suffer from an early deficiency in quantitative representation in
parietal lobe and therefore do not possess an intuitive understanding of quantity.

parietal lobe

19

3.2.2 Pre-numerical and counting skills

According to Sousa (2008) determination of the degree of number sense possessed
by those individuals first learning to count is elemental to the structuring of the
curriculum, concerning which (pp. 78 and 108 f.) he describes the Test of Number
Knowledge published by Griffin in 2002.

Level 0
numbers
to 10

3 chips are to be counted

determination of the quantitatively larger series
determination of the quantitatively smaller series
determination of numerical quantity of the variously coloured series

Level 1
numbers
to 10

addition in an authentic situation is to be recognized and solved

determination of neighbouring numbers
determination of larger and smaller numbers by means of comparison
addition and subtraction
(calculating with fingers is expressly and explicitly encouraged)
numbers are to be named and arranged on the number array

Level 2
numbers
to 100

make-a-10 strategy for adding and subtracting

comparison of the size of numbers
indication of numbers that are closer together on the number array
designation of spaces between numbers
addition and subtraction

Level 3

exercises similar to the above for numbers to 1000 and beyond

20

The ability to count forwards and backwards lays the basic foundation for the
development of primary calculating skills (addition and subtraction).
Concentration for the course of study:

understanding of quantity
sorting, arranging
comparisons (e.g. quantity, size, geometrical forms)
invariability
numerical expressions in correct and unchanging order
the number zero- or naught
differentiation of individual objects: figure-field perception (acoustical and
visual)
1:1 relationships: object and finger image as representation of quantity
irrelevance of grouping
irrelevance of content (insignificance of what is counted)
understanding of cardinal numbers (how many?)
understanding of ordinal numbers (which among the many?)
actual number array
analogy of counting on the fingers from left to right with respect to the
development of the number array

3.2.3 Numbers as numerical symbols and functional

signs
Numbers and functional signs pave the way to abstract formal mathematics.
Fundamental knowledge of the meaning and application of counting is acquired by
children in their first school years, which are shaped by the mathematics of cultural
engineering.
Concentration for the course of study:

differentiation of symbols, development of graphomotoric skills for

textualization
finger image with number (counted and simultaneously displayed)
classification: quantity, number, numeral
linking of numerical representations: pictorial (finger image), verbal, symbolic
mental number array

21

3.2.4 Comprehension of the rules of the decimal system

Two hands serve as foundation for the system based on ten, one hand serves as
foundation for the subsystem based on five.
Concentration for the course of study:

basic calculations in addition and subtraction up to 10

analysis of numbers
analogies within the series to 20, assisted by small calculating sticks
make-a-ten strategy for adding and subtracting
analogies within the series to 100 (small calculating sticks, knuckle bones)
combination of diverse mental number arrays (to 10, to 100)
multiplication and division using the loci technique
extension of the number series to 1000 and above
money and measurements
calculating in authentic situations

3.2.5 Memory
Concentration for the course of study:

retrieval of motor skills, such as counting and calculating techniques

(procedural or non-declarative knowledge) from long-term memory
retrieval of arithmetical factual knowledge and numerical knowledge
(declarative knowledge) from long-term memory

The storage and application of declarative and procedural knowledge are optimized
by frequent exercise and repetition. Both the working and long-term memories profit
from a close association between task and result, which is made particularly clear by
the multiplication tables.
Techniques for memory training, such as application of the loci method, again call
upon the use of ones own body as mnemonic aid or as a strategy for retrieval.
The limited storage capacity of the working memory observable in many individuals
with Down Syndrome requires short, intensive learning sessions of approximately 15
minutes each with varied content.
An example:
An individual first learning to calculate with his fingers trains his basic skills for ca. 10
minutes. After a 2-minute break there follows another 10-minute block with 1:1
relationships, point of departure being objects from his own life, e.g. things collected,
pictures of a favourite idol, toys etc.
The ensuing 3-minute break is followed by learning to count with the fingers from left
to right (by means of imitation), which lasts approximately 15 minutes. To close,
teacher and pupil together sing a song that repeats the numerical series 0 to 10.

22

To ensure optimal embedding in long-term memory, this group of exercises should

be repeated at least one more time that same day, then at least once daily on the
following days and over a period of several weeks. Depending on the waxing selfinitiated activity of the student (or on his waning motivation), single elements of the
exercise group can be varied and expanded.

3.2.6 Reliance on technical aids

Todays individual with Down Syndrome awakes in a technological age. The use of
pocket calculators, mobile/cell phones or computers assists the individual with Down
Syndrome in his management of everyday situations and generally imbues him with
self-confidence and a feeling of self-competence.
However, the decision to introduce technical aids should not be made too soon. For
all of those individuals with Down Syndrome who master basic calculations to 100
using both of their hands, a continued reliance upon their own bodies should take
precedence over the use of pocket calculators, in order to minimize dependency.
Beyond the series of 100 the use of pocket calculators should be specifically trained
this not only to assist in counting change, but also for all those individuals with
Down Syndrome who are unable to master the development of the above-described
basic neuropsychological skills and/or counting and calculating with the assistance of
their own bodies and/or small sticks, discs etc.

3.2.7 Transferal into daily life

The contextual significance of quantities and numbers, such as weighing items when
cooking and baking, reading the time in a television program or travel schedule,
measuring handiworks and paying when shopping, contributes to the importance of
mathematics for individuals with Down Syndrome. However, they first recognize the
meaning of their effort to acquire counting and calculating skills only if instructional
offerings either link up directly to their individual world of experience or prove to be
immediately useful in their daily lives.

23

4. Advantages of finger-oriented counting

and calculating techniques for the
development of numerical cognition
In mathematics, for instance, the infinite realm of numbers could scarcely have
evolved without our hands. (Wehr et al. 2009, p. 14)
The introduction to the book Die Hand Werkzeug des Geistes/The Hand Tool
of the Intellect already alludes to the fundamental significance of the hands in the
development of quantities, numbers and mathematical operations.
From time immemorial, entry into the world of mathematics has been bound to the
senses.

4.1 History
It has been historically documented that even in Roman times one learned to count
and calculate with the fingers.
Outside present-day Europe this technique has also been specifically applied. Tribes
in Papua, New Guinea, use numerous parts of their bodies to represent number
positions, beginning with the right little finger, which represents 1, and proceeding to
the right little toe, which represents 33. In Ali, a language of central Africa, one
encounters the words moro and mbuona. Moro represents the number 5 and
etymologically means the hand, mbuono combines the words buono (for 2) and
precisely moro. Together they make two hands, and the expression accordingly
indicates the number 10. (Wehr et al., 2009, p. 260 f.)
Likewise, the original inhabitants of Paraguay recognized the strength of the five and
used the same word for both the hand and the 5. The number 6 translated meant
one on the other hand, 7 was indicated by two on the other hand etc. The number
10 was expressed simply by two hands.
The English word digit can be translated into German both as Finger (= finger)
and as Ziffer or Zahl (= cipher or number); it derives from the Latin digitus. In
German the word digital is commonly used.
Tarangesa is the word for 1 in the language of the Bugilai, New Guinea; it also
means the little finger of the left hand. The expanded counting construct orients
itself sequentially on the designation for the ring finger, the middle finger, the index
finger and the thumb of the left hand. This counting principle resembles the abovedescribed methodology of counting and calculating with the fingers proceeding from
left to right.

24

At the beginning of the 20th century the method of counting with the fingers was
further developed by Wlecke and Wulz, among others. Wulz called the fingers the
classic aid in teaching arithmetic in special-education schools. (quoting Eckstein
2010, p. 62), and these two champions of calculating with the fingers likewise built up
the number series proceeding from left to right.
Calculating with the fingers is paid particular attention today in the cybernetic
arithmetical method developed by Hariolf Dreher.
In many cultures of the world, children 3 to 4 years old spontaneously discover that
they can use their fingers in their initial efforts to count, in the sense of 1:1
relationships with objects, and to alter quantity and categorize more-less.
(Butterworth, 1999)

4.2 Orientation from left to right

Fingers are a part of our own body and unite the tactile-kinaesthetic and visual
worlds of our senses. Our 10 fingers are the most original of visual material and lay
the foundation for the comprehension of the size of quantities and mathematical
relationships. Sensomotoric use of our fingers thus represents an indispensible
developmental stage in mathematics and in turn lays the foundation for the
development of a so-called mental number array. That means we perceive with our
inner eye a concretely spatial and automatised mental image of a number array that
begins at the left with the number 1.
Counting with our fingers links numerals and quantities to our bodies, to the material
world and to the world of numbers.
Spatial orientation that proceeds from left to right, as also required when writing
and reading, is supported by the linear progression of counting with the fingers (1 =
left little finger, 10 = right little finger), analogous to the number array.
The mental number array also proceeds from left to right along an internally
structured series of numbers, as has been documented through observation of the
so-called SNARC effect. SNARC (an acronym for spatial numerical association of
response codes) describes a common phenomenon that manifests itself in our
adolescence and is most probably founded on mental representation, thus on our
abstract spatial concept of the number array. In response to the question of whether
a number is even or odd, test subjects were more likely to respond more quickly
with the left hand if the number were small, and with the right hand if the number
were large. Consequently, Dehaene (1992) suggests that we mentally store small
numbers on the left side of our internal number array and larger numbers on the right
side, in accordance with the direction that we read and write.
The influence of counting with the fingers on the development of numerical cognition
is further described in a study from Scotland (Fischer 2007). Two-thirds of the adults
queried, regardless of hand orientation, showed a preference to begin the counting
sequence with the fingers of the left hand, which could be closely linked to the
SNARC effect.
Those test subjects who began the counting sequence with the left hand and ended it
with the right also displayed a more stable left-right orientation with respect to the
mental number array than did those subjects who began the counting sequence with
the right hand.
25

The SNARC effect is not observable among children who demonstrate difficulties in
processing visual-spatial relationships.
In such cases, learning to count with the fingers from left to right could represent an
effective challenge.
The influence of well-known finger-counting activities on the development of body
language, spatial orientation and abstraction is demonstrated by Di Luca (see
Stemmer et al., 2008, p. 221).

4.3 Representational forms for numbers

For solving mathematical problems our brain possesses at least two different
switches that can be made visible through magnetic resonance tomography (MRT).
Neural networks in the frontal and parietal lobes are activated for the conception of
numerals, numbers and quantities.
Spitzer (2002) describes two representational forms for numbers, namely, verbal
and spatial.

26

 Both halves of the parietal lobe, which is evolutionally older, are

responsible for estimating quantity and size, for intuitive number sense
and for the formation of mental numerical sequence, also for spatial
perception and for hand and finger movements that are coordinated by
the eye. The parietal lobe plays an important role with respect to the
representation of quantity, number, space and time. The lower area in
the right half of the brain is primarily stimulated when called upon to
approximate results in addition and subtraction. With multiplication the
activity is shifted more to the left side of the parietal lobes; for
comparisons, both lobes are similarly intensively active.

parietal lobe

27

 For exact mathematical calculations the left frontal lobe (behind the
forehead) is additionally called into play; it is also activated for verbal
tasks. Exact reckoning and speaking are closely linked, a fact that has
been underscored by language-impairment studies (Spelke & Tsivkin,
2001). The motions of calculating with the fingers are simultaneously
accompanied verbally.
frontal lobe

parietal lobe

Spitzer (2003) refers to studies by Dehaene (1999) which demonstrate that language
areas of the brain control exact reckoning, whereas spatial areas, together with those
responsible for finger activity, control approximations.
Thus the brain appears to possess multiple systems that are responsible for dealing
with the various aspects of number and quantity, which normally work together to
integrate all of the data so that the information as a whole makes sense. (Blakemore
et al., 2006, p. 82.)
The ability to calculate demands the integration of this network of visual-spatial,
verbal and other specific numerical representations.
The parietal network for calculating is formed later and in the process is presumably
supported by finger movements.

28

According to Spitzer (2005, p. 140), far reaching consequences may be drawn from
this for the judicious instruction of mathematics, which should integrate both types of
mathematical approaches.
With respect to calculating with fingers we have now come full circle!
Coordination of concrete mathematical scenarios with finger calculations and their
verbal textualization links the two representational forms for numbers in our brain.

4.4 Representation of quantities

Numbers represent quantities. For amounts no greater than 10 this function can be
taken over by the fingers labelled with numerals (which represent numbers and
therefore quantities). By extending and withdrawing the fingers, the neighbouring
numbers can be quickly displayed and comprehended.
Fingers function as quantitative aids that have literally been placed in our hands:
fingers for the ones, hands for the fives, knuckle bones for the tens, imaginary lines
below the knuckles for the hundreds.

Understanding of place value is made easier through visual differentiation: the ones
position is represented by the fingers, the tens by small sticks (later on by the
knuckle bones), the hundreds by discs (later on by imaginary lines on the back of the
hand).
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 must be sufficient for the infinite possibilities of creating
numbers. The system of place value therefore assigns numbers differing values.
These are visually and tactilely perceived and understood through representation of
the ones with the fingers, the tens with small sticks or the knuckle bones, the
hundreds with discs or lines on the back of the hand.
The ten-one inversion in the German language can also be simplified through the
combination of finger image and tens-stick with the advice finger first.
For textualization one relies on the motto: write down what you see. The tens-stick
lies to the left, the finger as representation of the ones is to the right of it.

29

The close connection between finger activity and perception of quantity is made clear
by a much noted study of Rusconi et al. (2005).

4.5 Ordinality and Cardinality

In the 1:1 relationship between fingers and objects, finger images make clear at a
glance both ordinality and cardinality. Upon completion of a counting series, the
finger image indicates as last position the cardinal quantity (a total of eight) while at
the same time showing the ordinal hierarchy of a particular object within the series
(the fourth).
The possibility of labelling the fingers with the corresponding numbers at the
beginning of the initiation process supports individuals with Down Syndrome (who
possess differentiated visual skills) as they process and interpret various tasks that
progress simultaneously. By means of visual input, the labelled fingers accompany
the plan of action and increase the efficacy of the working memory.

4.6 Decimal system of numbers

The decimal system of numbers, with its basis of 10, is sustained by the especial
anatomy of the 10 fingers divided between 2 hands, each with 5 fingers, which is
referred to as pentadactylism. The numbers 10 and 5 are fixed anchors of the
decimal system, which makes possible 1:1 relationships as well as bundling.
Steinway (2009) describes the five- and tenfold structure of the fingers
as being particularly helpful, since it mirrors the decimal system. At first
small children must constantly reassure themselves that the hand has
five fingers. Afterwards, however, they can take advantage of this
certainty to quickly produce 6, 7 or only 4 fingers without always having
to begin with 1. From this perspective, calculating with the fingers
should absolutely be encouraged.
This 10-finger basis allows a division into two units of five (five fingers
on each hand), which may be referred to as the sub-basis of 5.
The boundary for subitizing (i.e. perceiving numbers immediately)
terminates with 4, input from 5 upwards is bundled.
The formation of our hands corresponds to this perceptual grouping,
since in addition to our four fingers that represent the numbers 1-4, the
thumb as representative of 5 lies to the side.
In a cross-cultural study Domahs et al. (2010) documented the
influence of the so-called sub-basis of 5 on the numerical processing
of adult test subjects.
Number representation among adults is not exclusively limited to an
abstract idea of size or to an exact system of numbers; rather, it is
formed through the physical experience of counting with the fingers, in
the concrete context of the sub-basis of 5.

30

From this study it may be concluded that counting with the fingers not
only is important at an early age, but that it also influences the structure
of the processing of numbers in adult years, furthermore that abstract
mental images are based for the most part on our physical experiences.
Data from a study of 2005 (Rusconi et al.) likewise testify to a
connection between the development of numerical cognition and
counting with the fingers, namely, among adults who long since ceased
to use their fingers to solve simple problems of arithmetic.
Even among adults who solved the simplest, single-digit additions, one
could still document brain activity in motor regions responsible for finger
movements (Ventkatraman et al., 2005).
Individuals who live with the so-called Gerstmann Syndrome display
diverse deficiencies in various regions of the brain, particularly in the
gyrus angularis.
Four primary symptoms are manifest: graphomotoric impairment, leftright disorientation, mathematical deficiencies, and finger agnosia. The
latter refers to the inability to distinguish which finger is touched or
moved once all visual stimuli have been eliminated.
In childhood years the Gerstmann Syndrome is referred to as DGS, for
Developmental Gerstmann Syndrome (Kinsbourne, 1968).
While the ability of 5-year-olds to distinguish among their individual
fingers offers a prognosis for their future mathematical development
(Fayol et al., 1998; Noel, 2005), training of this ability will increase their
calculating skills (Gracia-Bafulluy and Noel, 2008).
These studies demonstrate the importance of a mature hand
language, that can be decisively and positively influenced by
calculating with the fingers.
In this connection Penner-Wilger and Anderson (2008) hypothesize
interconnected neuronal circuits as a consequence of redeployment,
freely paraphrased as supplementary duty.
These circuits, which are designed to recognize the fingers, additionally
play a role in certain mathematical capacities, but without suffering a
loss of function and all the while retaining their original purpose.

31

4.7 Attentiveness Control

The so-called executive functions describe the capacity to coordinate
and control our thoughts and our behaviour, particularly with respect to
curbing impulses, to self-discipline and to management of actual
situations. The executive functions are basically anchored in the frontal
lobes situated behind the forehead.
Precise calculations as well as verbal exercises also activate regions of
the frontal lobes (see 4.3).
It is perhaps precisely this connection that explains why finger
calculations improve the concentration and attentiveness of individuals
with Down Syndrome (cf. the Observation Sheets of the pedagogical
diagnostics of the Down Syndrome Competence Centre in Leoben from
the years 2005-2010).
Working with the materials of ones own body offers little opportunity for
distraction and simplifies visual figure-field differentiation. Attention is
directed towards the finger movements which in turn are backed up
both visually and verbally.
The linear succession of the fingers from left to right supports not only
the development of the mental number array (see 4.2), but also assists
in the arrangement of thoughts. The traditional practice of counting with
the fingers beginning with the thumb of one hand often results in a
change of physical direction when proceeding beyond 5. At this point,
many individuals with Down Syndrome lose their orientation since the
fingers of the second summand are not to be found on the same hand.
The uninterrupted succession of counting from left to right nips this
problem in the bud.

4.8 Generalized aid and independence

As a generalized aid, physical material such as fingers and hands represents a
meta level. Many an individual with Down Syndrome is chained to those external
materials that are meant to assist his learning and thus has difficulty weaning himself
from them in everyday situations, la the motto: once little discs, always little discs.
Such material, however, is clumsy and impractical in real-life situations, for instance,
when shopping.
Learning to use ones own fingers and hands creates a feeling of self-respect and
leads to independence. They are always available, they do not get lost and they can
be called upon in a multitude of situations. Common objects (straws, coloured
pencils, sticks, small stones) lead to generalization and slowly but gently terminate
the dependency upon the fingers.

32

4.9 Development of abstractive powers

The motto less is more is of particular significance when introducing
instructional aids. During the developmental phase, the repeated use of
the basic materials of fingers and hands encourages the student with
Down Syndrome to create mental imagery.
Sousa (2008, p. 127) also recommends reducing the students
instructional material to a motivating minimum.
During the training and practical phase, the combination of finger
calculations with individually alluring, every-day items is meaningful.
Ludwig Wittgenstein remarked: What we would deem the most
important aspects of things are hidden from us by their simplicity and
familiarity.
By eliminating visual control of the finger movements, e.g. by shutting
the eyes or by covering the fingers or hiding them under a box, and by
combining this with verbal accompaniment, an internalization process
begins. This takes place through the stages act-speak-think and is
propelled along by the progressive maturation of the frontal lobes,
which continues through early adulthood. This might also explain why
the development of exact reckoning skills continues to show promise of
success beyond puberty.
The mirror neuron system can also substantially assist the development
of abstractive powers. The above-described activation of the motor
regions is recognizable even if motion sequences are only imaginary.
Thus the act of motion is gradually internalized and in fact need not be
carried out.
Even observation alone of someone else counting and calculating with
his fingers (without participating oneself) increases the blood circulation
in the corresponding motor regions of the observers brain.

4.10 Mimicry skill

The above-mentioned mirror neuron system controls the mimicry skill of individuals
with Down Syndrome. Sitting opposite their teacher and following his repeated
instructions, they imitate the finger images he displays. Through practical exercise
they therefore develop gradual assurance not only in the independent execution of
motion sequences, but also in surmounting the sensomotoric hurdles that are
associated with the evolvement of hand language. In principle this would be a lesson
in which the fundamental elements that one normally takes for granted would be
slowly and patiently repeated and conveyed in the form of explicit rules. (Blakemore
et al, 2008, p. 98 f.)

33

4.11 Motor memories

Finger images function as memory aids by activating motor memories. Eckstein
(2010, p. 66) describes a memory trail connected with the input of verbal and written
numbers that was, however, activated by the motor functions associated with
calculating by means of finger imagery.
Finger imagery can thus serve as a bridge between quantitative representation,
numerical expression and number.

4.12 Rebuilding
Because of the narrow connection between finger language and the mental
representation of numbers, simple counting and calculating with the 10 fingers could
serve as basis for the rebuilding of mathematical skills lost as a result of
neurological disturbances.

34

5. Conclusio
If mathematics is informed by dead things alone, then life is frolicking elsewhere.
(Zimpel, 2008, p. 12)
Learning is a creative process with its own dynamic. Every individual with Down
Syndrome who enters a learning situation brings along with him his entire personal
experience and individual foreknowledge. By establishing a link between pre-existing
knowledge and experience, it is possible to build a bridge to the unknown and often
dreaded, rejected quantity Mathematics.
Recognition of the already familiar instils a security and self-confidence to venture
into the realm of the unknown. Christel Manske leads the Hamburg Institute for the
systematic development of functional brain systems. Using the pseudonym Iris Mann
(1999, p. 163), she writes: We calculate constantly, just as we constantly speak.
However, mathematical instruction for the most part means working with symbols
that have no connection whatsoever to life as we experience it. (ibid.)
Teachers who enable individuals with the most diverse constellation of chromosomes
to experience an aha! revelation because point of departure for their instruction of
calculating skills is the life of the individual himself are like pilots who, before taking
off, assure that all passengers are on board. In this connection in particular, Sousa
(2008) stresses the importance of considering the student profile. As behavioural
scientist, he reports on the data of studies that document that the learning style of the
teacher substantially determines his didactical approach. For those teachers who are
acoustically oriented, it is crucial when working with individuals with Down Syndrome
to recognize their preference for the visual and tactile-kinaesthetic instructional
models.
Their hands are the gate to the world of mathematics, they help to unveil its secrets
and to wield control over its demands.
The development of an everyday mathematic has enormous consequences for the
social and economic life of the individual with Down Syndrome. And there are
opportunities enough at every age.
Blakemore (2008, p. 176 f.) writes:
Alterations in the brain are generally dependent upon the amount it is used: Use it or
lose it. What is not used will be lost. Even the adult brain shows enormous capacity
for change.
Learning occurs at every age, and it is never too late to learn.

35

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