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adheres to the policy of peace, equality, justice, freedom, cooperation, and amity with all
nations.
DOCTRINE OF TRANSFORMATION (minority view): the generally accepted rules of
international law are not per se binding upon the state but must first be embodied in
legislation enacted by the lawmaking body and so transformed into municipal law.
Constitution v. Treaty
GENERALLY, the treaty is rejected in the local forum by is upheld by international tribunals
as a demandable obligation of the signatories under the maxim pacta sunt servanda.
ON THE OTHER HAND, it is provided in the Declaration of the Rights and Duties of States
that every State has the duty to carry out in good faith its obligations arising from
treaties or other sources of international law, and it may not invoke provisions in its
constitution or its laws as an excuse for failure to perform this duty.
IN OUR JURISDICTION, our Constitution authorizes the Supreme Court to decide, among
others, all cases involving the constitutionality of any treaty, international or executive
agreement, law, etc. Even assuming that the law infringes upon the said treaty, the treaty
is always subject to qualification or amendment by a subsequent law, and the same way
may never curtail or restrict the scope of the police power of the State. (Ichong v.
Hernandez)
Basis of International Law
1. Naturalist School of Thought the basis of international law is the law of nature.
This is described as a higher law or a rule of human conduct independent of
positive enactment and even of special divine revelation, and binding always and
everywhere in view of its intrinsic reasonableness.
2. Positivist the binding force of international law is derived from the agreement of
sovereign states to be bound by it. It is not a law of subordination but of
coordination.
3. Eclectic/Grotian offer both the law of nature and the consent of states as the basis
of international law. The system of international law is based on the dictate of right
reason as well as the practice of states. Should there be a conflict between the
two, the law of nature was to prevail as being the fundamental law, the authority of
which could not be contravened by the practice of states.
Sanctions of International Law
1. Belief shared by many states in the inherent reasonableness of international law
and in their common conviction that its observance will redound to the welfare of
the whole society of nations
2. Observed by states because of normal habits of obedience ingrained in the nature
of man as a social being
3. Respect for world opinion
4. Constant and reasonable fear of retaliation
5. United Nations as a deterrent to international disputes
Enforcement of International Law
OBSERVANCE: essentially subjective and mainly dependent on the volition of the entity
which is supposed to be governed by the law.
ENFORCEMENT: the process by which such observance may be compelled, usually by force
of at least the threat of force.
happened in the case of some of the mandates, sovereignty will revive and vest in the new
state.
Belligerent Communities
When a portion of the population rises up in arms against the legitimate government of
the state, the upheaval is ordinarily regarded as a merely internal affair, at least during its
initial stages. But when the conflict widens and aggravates, it may become necessary to
accord the rebels recognition of belligerency. Thus, FOR PURPOSES OF THE CONFLICT, AND
PENDING DETERMINATION OF WHETHER OR NOT THE BELLIGERENT COMMUNITY SHOULD
BE FULLY RECOGNIZED AS A STATE, IT IS TREATED AS AN INTERNATIONAL PERSON and
becomes directly subject to the laws of war and neutrality.
International Administrative Bodies
INTERNATIONAL ADMINISTRATIVE BODIES: may be vested with international personality
when two conditions occur:
a) Their purposes are mainly non-political
b) They are autonomous, i.e. not subject to the control of any state
Individuals
TRADITIONAL CONCEPT: regards individuals only as an object of international law who can
act only through the instrumentality of his own state in matters involving other states.
MODERN CONCEPT: Individual is a subject of international law because it is the basic unit
of society, national and international, and must therefore be ultimately governed by the
law of this society. Moreover, many precepts of the law of nations are directly applicable to
or for the benefit of the individual.
CHAPTER 4: THE UNITED NATIONS
UNITED NATIONS: hopefully envisioned as the answer to the universal yearning for peace
and friendship among all peoples regardless of color or creed.
The UN Charter
UN CHARTER: is a lengthy document consisting of 111 articles besides the Preamble and
the concluding provisions. It also includes the Statute of the ICJ, which is annexed to and
made an integral part of it.
In one sense, it may be considered a TREATY because it derives its binding force from the
agreement of the parties to it. In another sense, it may be regarded as a CONSTITUTION in
so far as it provides for the organization and operations of the different organs of the UN
and for the adoption of any change in its provisions through a formal process of
amendment.
The charter is intended to apply not only to the members of the UN but also to nonmember states so far as may be necessary for the maintenance of international peace
and security.
ARTICLE 103: In the event of a conflict between the obligations of the Members of the UN
under the present Charter and their obligations under any other international agreement,
their obligations under the present Charter shall prevail.
AMENDMENTS TO THE CHARTER: shall come into force for all members of the UN when
they have been adopted by a vote of 2/3 of the members of the GA and ratified in
accordance with their respective constitutional processes by 2/3 of the members of the
UN, including all the permanent members of the SC.
A GENERAL CONFERENCE may also be called by majority vote of the GA and any nine
members of the SC for the purpose of reviewing the Charter. Amendments may be
proposed by 2/3 vote of the conference and shall take effect when ratified by 2/3 of the
Members of the UN, including the permanent members of the SC.
PREAMBLE: introduces the Charter and sets the common intentions that moved the
original members to unite their will and efforts to achieve their common purposes.
Purposes
PURPOSES (Article 1): constitute the raison detre of the UN and are the aggregation of
the common ends, the cause and object of the Charter to which the member states
collectively and severally subscribe.
1. To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective
collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and
for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to
bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice
and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or
situations which might lead to a breach of the peace;
2. To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of
equal rights and self-determination of peoples, and to take other appropriate
measures to strengthen universal peace;
3. To achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an
economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and
encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all
without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion; and
4. To be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attainment of these
common ends.
Cardinal Principles
PRINCIPLES (Article 2): deal with the methods and the regulating norms according to
which the UN and its members shall discharge their obligations and endeavor to achieve
their common ends.
1. The Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its
Members.
2. All Members, in order to ensure to all of them the rights and benefits resulting
from membership, shall fulfill in good faith the obligations assumed by them in
accordance with the present Charter.
3. All Members shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means in such a
manner that international peace and security, and justice, are not endangered.
4. All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of
force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in
any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations.
5. All Members shall give the United Nations every assistance in any action it takes
in accordance with the present Charter, and shall refrain from giving assistance to
any state against which the United Nations is taking preventive or enforcement
action.
6. The Organization shall ensure that states which are not Members of the United
Nations act in accordance with these Principles so far as may be necessary for the
maintenance of international peace and security.
7. Nothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the United Nations to
intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any
state or shall require the Members to submit such matters to settlement under
the present Charter; but this principle shall not prejudice the application of
enforcement measures under Chapter Vll.
Membership
There are two kinds of MEMBERS based only on the manner of their admission:
1. Original those state which, having participated in the UN Conference on
International Organization at San Francisco or having previously signed the
Declaration by the UN of January 1, 1942, signed and ratified the Charter of the
UN. There are 51 original members.
2. Elective members that are admitted by decision of the GA upon favorable
recommendation of the SC. To be eligible for admission, the applicant must
possess the following qualifications:
a. It must be a state.
b. It must be peace-loving.
c. It must accept the obligations of the Charter.
d. It must be able to carry out these obligations.
e. It must be willing to carry out these obligations.
Can the GA admit an applicant for membership without the favorable recommendation
of the SC? NO. The admission of any such State to membership in the UN will be
effected by a decision of the GA upon the recommendation of the SC.
RECOMMENDATION SHOULD COME BEFORE THE DECISION.
Suspension of Members
SUSPENSION: effected by 2/3 of those present and voting in the GA upon favorable
recommendation of at least 9 members of the SC, including all its permanent members.
It may be lifted alone by the SC, also by a qualified majority vote.
a) Will prevent it from participating in the meetings of the GA
b) From being elected to or continuing to serve in the SC, the ESC or the TC
c) Nationals of the suspended member may, however, continue serving in the
Secratariat and the ICJ as they are regarded as international officials or civil
servants acting for the Organization itself
d) Since its suspension affects only its rights and privileges, the member is still
subject to the discharge of its obligations under the Charter
Expulsion of Members
EXPULSION: 2/3 votes of those present and voting in the GA upon the recommendation
of the SC by a qualified majority vote
Withdrawal of Members
No provision on withdrawal from membership was included in the Charter. Nevertheless,
the San Francisco Conference approved a special committee report which, while not
Deliberative
Supervisory
Financial
Elective
Constituent
CHAIRMANSHIP: rotated every calendar month on the basis of the English alphabetical
order of the names of the members.
THE YALTA FORMULA (VOTING): According to this formula, each member shall have ONE
VOTE, but distinction is made between the Big Five and the non-permanent members in
the resolution of substantive questions.
a) PROCEDURAL MATTERS are to be decided by the affirmative vote of any 9 or more
members
b) NON-PROCEDURAL MATTERS requires the concurrence of also at least 9 members,
but including all the permanent members.
c) No member, permanent or not, is allowed to vote on questions concerning the
pacific settlement of a dispute to which it is a party.
PROCEDURAL MATTERS: include questions relating to the organization and meetings of
the SC, the establishment of subsidiary organs and the participation of states parties to
a dispute in the discussions of the organ.
NON-PROCEDURAL MATTERS: those that may require the SC to invoke measures of
enforcement. Unlike in the GA, the characterization of a question is considered a nonprocedural matter in the SC.
VETO: enables a permanent member to prevent agreement on a non-procedural
question even if it is supported by all the other members.
DOUBLE VETO: by means of which a permanent member can disapprove any proposal to
consider a question merely procedural and thereafter vote against the question itself on
the merits.
The ABSTENTION OR ABSENCE OF ANY PERMANENT MEMBER in connection with a voting
on a non-procedural question is NOT A VETO.
PURPOSE OF THE YALTA FORMULA: to ensure the unity of all the permanent members
The Economic and Social Council
ESC: Responsibility for the promotion of international economic and social cooperation is
vested in the GA and ESC. These organs should exert efforts toward:
1. Higher standards of living, full employment, and conditions of economic and
social progress and development;
2. Solutions of international economic, social, and health and related problems, and
international, cultural, and educational cooperation; and
3. Universal respect for, and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms
for all without disctinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.
COMPOSITION: originally consisted of only 18 members but the body was enlarged to 27
by the amendments of the Charter adopted in 1965. It was further expanded to 54 by
amendments adopted in 1971. All the members are elected by the GA for 3-year terms
and may be re-elected immediately. The terms have been so staggered as to provide for
the replacement or re-election of 1/3 of the body every year.
MEETING: The ESC shall meet in REGULAR SESSION as required in accordance with its
rules and in SPECIAL SESSION at the request of a majority of its members.
VOTING: Each member has ONE VOTE and decisions are reached by a majority of those
present and voting. Members of the UN and representatives of the specialized agencies
may be allowed to participate, without vote, in the deliberations of the Council.
The Secretariat
SECRETARIAT: chief administrative organ of the UN which is headed by the SecretaryGeneral.
SEC-GEN: chosen by the GA upon recommendation of the SC. His term is fixed at 5 years
by resolution of the GA and he may be re-elected. The Sec-Gen and the members of his
staff are international officers solely responsible to UN and are prohibited from seeking
or receiving instruction from any government or any other authority external to UN.
FUNCTIONS:
a) He is the highest representative of the UN and is authorized to act in its behalf.
b) When acting in this capacity, he is entitled to full diplomatic immunities and
privileges which only the SC may waive.
c) The immunities and privileges of other key officials of the UN may be waived by
him.
d) Of great significance is his duty to bring to the attention of the SC any matter
which in his opinion may threaten international peace and security.
e) He also acts as secretary in all the meetings of the GA, SC, ESC and TC and
performs such other functions as may be assigned to him by these organs.
f) He prepares the budget of the UN for submission to the GA
g) He provides technical facilities to the different organs of the UN
h) He coordinates its vast administrative machinery
CHAPTER 5: THE CONCEPT OF THE STATE
STATE: basic unit of the international community. It is the principal subject of
international law
Creation of the State
METHODS BY WHICH THE STATUS OF A STATE IS ACQUIRED:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
IN THE PHILIPPINES, it is the President who determines the question of recognition and
his decisions on this matter are considered acts of state which are, therefore, not
subject to judicial review.
Objects of Recognition
1. State recognition is generally held to be irrevocable and imports the recognition of
its government.
2. Government may be withdrawn and does not necessary signify the existence of a
state as the government may be that of a mere colony.
3. Belligerency does not produce the same effects as the recognition of states and
governments because the rebels are accorded international personality only in
connection with the hostilities they are waging.
Kinds of Recognition
1. Express may be verbal or in writing
2. Implied when the recognizing state enters into official intercourse with the new
member. In case of a belligerent community, recognition is implied when the
legitimate government blockades a port held by the former or when other state
observe neutrality in the conflict. The act constituting recognition shall give a clear
indication of an intention:
a. To treat with the new state as such, or
b. To accept the new government as having authority to represent the state it
purports to govern and to maintain diplomatic relations with it, or
c. To recognize in the case of insurgents that they are entitled to exercise
belligerent rights.
COMMON MEMBERSHIP IN AN INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION: states that have not
previously recognized each other are deemed to recognized each other only within said
body and not elsewhere.
Recognition of States
RECOGNITION OF A NEW STATE: free act by which one or more states acknowledge the
existence on a definite territory of a human society politically organized, independent of
any existing state, and capable of observing the obligations of international law, and by
which they manifest therefore their intention to consider it a member of the international
community.
Recognition of Governments
RECOGNITION OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT OF A STATE WHICH HAS ALREADY BEEN
RECOGNIZED: is the free act by which one or more several states acknowledge that a
person or a group of persons is capable of binding the state which they claim to represent
and witness their intention to enter into relations with them.
THREE KINDS OF DE FACTO GOVERNMENT:
1. That which is established by the inhabitants who rise in revolt against and depose
the legitimate regime
2. That which is established in the course of war by the invading forces of one
belligerent in the territory of the other belligerent, the government of which is also
displaced
3. That which is established by the inhabitants of a state who secede therefrom
without overthrowing its government
all the actions and conduct of the government so recognized from the commencement of
its existence.
Recognition of Belligerency
BELLIGERENCY: exists when the inhabitants of a state rise up in arms for the purpose of
overthrowing the legitimate government.
DISTINCTIONS FROM INSURGENCY:
a) Insurgency is the initial stage of a belligerency, which is more serious and
widespread.
b) Insurgency is directed by military authorities, whereas belligerency is under a civil
government.
c) Insurgency is usually not recognized whereas there are settled rules regarding the
recognition of belligerency.
CONDITIONS FOR RECOGNITION OF A BELLIGERENCY
1. There must be an organized civil government directing the rebel forces.
2. The rebels must occupy a substantial portion of the territory of the state.
3. The conflict between the legitimate government and the rebels must be serious,
making the outcome uncertain.
4. The rebels must be willing and able to observe the laws of war.
Consequences of Recognition and Belligerency
a) Upon recognition by the parent state, the belligerent community is considered a
separate state for purposes of the conflict it is waging against the legitimate
government. Their relations with each other shall be governed by the laws of war
and their relations with other states shall be subject to laws of neutrality.
b) Where recognition is extended by third states, the above consequences are
effective only as to them and do not bind other states not extending recognition. It
is only where the recognition is made by the parent state that the effects thereof
become general and are legally applicable to all other states.
CHAPTER 7: THE RIGHT OF EXISTENCE AND SELF-DEFENSE
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS OF A STATE:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Right
Right
Right
Right
Right
of
of
of
of
of
MODERN VIEW: The right may be resorted to only upon a CLEAR SHOWING OF A GRAVE
AND ACTUAL DANGER TO THE SECURITY OF THE STATE, and, furthermore, the selfdefensive measures must be LIMITED BY THE NECESSITY and kept clearly within it.
TRADITIONAL VIEW: The best defense is offense. The country threatened by the state of
facts is justified in protecting itself by immediate war.
Regional Arrangements
COLLECTIVE SELF-DEFENSE: recognized not only in Article 51 but also impliedly in Article
VII on Regional Arrangements. In Article 52, Sec.1, it is provided that: Nothing in this
present Charter precludes the existence of regional arrangements or agencies for dealing
with such matters relating to the maintenance of international peace and security as are
appropriate for regional action, provided that such arrangements or agencies and their
activities are consistent with the Purposes and Principles of the UN.
The Balance of Power
BALANCE OF POWER: one reason for the organization of regional arrangements. It is
described as an arrangement of affairs so that no state shall be in a position to have
absolute mastery and dominion over others.
Aggression Defined
AGGRESSION: use of armed force by a State against the sovereignty, territorial integrity,
or political independence of another State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the
Charter of the UN.
WAR OF AGGRESSION: a crime against international peace.
CHAPTER 8: THE RIGHT OF INDEPENDENCE
SOVEREIGNTY: the supreme, uncontrollable power inherent in a state by which that state is
governed.
TWO ASPECTS OF SOVEREIGNTY:
1. Internal refers to the power of the state to direct its domestic affairs
2. External signifies the freedom of the state to control its own foreign affairs. It is
more referred to as independence.
Ideal of Independence
ARTICLE 73: The members of the Organization administering territories whose peoples
have not yet attained a full measure of self-government pledge to develop selfgovernment, to take due account of the political aspirations of these people, and to assist
them in the progressive development of their free political institutions according to the
particular circumstances of each territory and its peoples and their varying stages of
advancement.
NATURE OF INDEPENCE: not absolute. It only means freedom from control by any other
state and not freedom from restrictions that are binding on all states forming the family of
nations.
Intervention
INTERVENTION: an act by which a state interferes with the domestic or foreign affairs of
another state or states through the employment of force or threat of force. THE RIGHT OF
INDEPENDENCE CARRIES WITH IT THE CORRELATIVE DUTY OF NON-INTERVENTION. Even
as it expects its independence to be respected by other states, so too must it be prepared
to respect their own independence.
GENERAL RULE: Intervention is not sanctioned in international RELATIONS.
EXCEPTIONS: when it is exercised as an act of self-defense; or when it is decreed by the SC
as a preventive or enforcement action for the maintenance of international peace and
security; or when agreed upon in a treaty; or when requested from sister states or from
the UN by the parties to a dispute or by a state beset by rebellion
The Drago Doctrine
DRAGO DOCTRINE: this doctrine was embodied in the Hague Convention of 1907 through
the provision that the Contracting Powers agree not to have recourse to armed force for
the recovery of contract debts claimed from the government of one country by the
government of another country as being due to its nationals.
PORTER RESOLUTION: dissipated the Drago Doctrine, under which intervention was
permitted if the debtor state refused an offer to arbitrate the creditors claim, or having
agreed to arbitrate thereto, refused to abide by the award of the arbitrator. It is doubtful if
this qualification can be sustained now in light of the outlawry of force by the Charter of
the UN.