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Carrierrecombinationandgeneration

PrinciplesofSemiconductorDevices
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B.VanZeghbroeck,2011

Chapter2:SemiconductorFundamentals
2.8.Carrierrecombinationandgeneration
2.8.1.Simplerecombinationgenerationmodel
2.8.2.Bandtobandrecombination
2.8.3.Trapassistedrecombination
2.8.4.Surfacerecombination
2.8.5.Augerrecombination
2.8.6.Generationduetolight
Recombinationofelectronsandholesisaprocessbywhichbothcarriersannihilateeachother:electrons
occupythroughoneormultiplestepstheemptystateassociatedwithahole.Bothcarrierseventually
disappearintheprocess.Theenergydifferencebetweentheinitialandfinalstateoftheelectronisreleased
intheprocess.Thisleadstoonepossibleclassificationoftherecombinationprocesses.Inthecaseof
radiativerecombination,thisenergyisemittedintheformofaphoton.Inthecaseofnonradiative
recombination,itispassedontooneormorephononsandinthecaseofAugerrecombinationitisgivenoff
intheformofkineticenergytoanotherelectron.Anotherclassificationschemeconsiderstheindividual
energylevelsandparticlesinvolved.ThesedifferentprocessesarefurtherillustratedwithFigure2.8.1.

Figure2.8.1:

Carrierrecombinationmechanismsinsemiconductors

Bandtobandrecombinationoccurswhenanelectronmovesfromitsconductionbandstateintotheempty
valencebandstateassociatedwiththehole.Thisbandtobandtransitionistypicallyalsoaradiativetransition
indirectbandgapsemiconductors.
Trapassistedrecombinationoccurswhenanelectronfallsintoa"trap",anenergylevelwithinthebandgap
causedbythepresenceofaforeignatomorastructuraldefect.Oncethetrapisfilleditcannotaccept
anotherelectron.Theelectronoccupyingthetrap,inasecondstep,movesintoanemptyvalencebandstate,
therebycompletingtherecombinationprocess.Onecanenvisionthisprocessasatwosteptransitionofan
electronfromtheconductionbandtothevalencebandorastheannihilationoftheelectronandhole,which
meeteachotherinthetrap.WewillrefertothisprocessasShockleyReadHall(SRH)recombination.
Augerrecombinationisaprocessinwhichanelectronandaholerecombineinabandtobandtransition,but
nowtheresultingenergyisgivenofftoanotherelectronorhole.Theinvolvementofathirdparticleaffectsthe
recombinationratesothatweneedtotreatAugerrecombinationdifferentlyfrombandtoband
recombination.
Eachoftheserecombinationmechanismscanbereversedleadingtocarriergenerationratherthan
recombination.Asingleexpressionwillbeusedtodescriberecombinationaswellasgenerationforeachof
theabovemechanisms.
Inaddition,therearegenerationmechanisms,whichdonothaveanassociatedrecombinationmechanism,
suchasgenerationofcarriersbylightabsorptionorbyahighenergyelectron/particlebeam.These
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processesarereferredtoasionizationprocesses.Impactionization,whichisthegenerationmechanism
associatedwithAugerrecombination,alsobelongstothiscategory.Thegenerationmechanismsare
illustratedwithFigure2.8.2.

Figure2.8.2:

Carriergenerationduetolightabsorptionandionizationduetohighenergyparticlebeams

Carriergenerationduetolightabsorptionoccursifthephotonenergyislargeenoughtoraiseanelectron
fromthevalencebandintoanemptyconductionbandstate,therebygeneratingoneelectronholepair.The
photonenergyneedstobelargerthanthebandgapenergytosatisfythiscondition.Thephotonisabsorbed
inthisprocessandtheexcessenergy,EphEg,isaddedtotheelectronandtheholeintheformofkinetic
energy.
Carriergenerationorionizationduetoahighenergybeamconsistingofchargedparticlesissimilarexcept
thattheavailableenergycanbemuchlargerthanthebandgapenergysothatmultipleelectronholepairs
canbeformed.Thehighenergyparticlegraduallylosesitsenergyandeventuallystops.Thisgeneration
mechanismisusedinsemiconductorbasednuclearparticlecounters.Asthenumberofionizedelectronhole
pairsvarieswiththeenergyoftheparticle,onecanalsousesuchdetectortomeasuretheparticleenergy.
Finally,thereisagenerationprocesscalledimpactionization,thegenerationmechanismthatisthe
counterpartofAugerrecombination.Impactionizationiscausedbyanelectron/holewithanenergy,whichis
muchlarger/smallerthantheconduction/valencebandedge.Thedetailedmechanismisillustratedwith
Figure2.8.3.

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Figure2.8.3:

Impactionizationandavalanchemultiplicationofelectronsandholesinthepresenceofa
largeelectricfield.

Theexcessenergyisgivenofftogenerateanelectronholepairthroughabandtobandtransition.This
generationprocesscausesavalanchemultiplicationinsemiconductordiodesunderhighreversebias:Asone
carrieracceleratesintheelectricfielditgainsenergy.Thekineticenergyisgivenofftoanelectroninthe
valenceband,therebycreatinganelectronholepair.Theresultingtwoelectronscancreatetwomore
electronswhichgeneratefourmorecausinganavalanchemultiplicationeffect.Electronsaswellasholes
contributetoavalanchemultiplication.

2.8.1.Simplerecombinationgenerationmodel

Asimplemodelfortherecombinationgenerationmechanismsstatesthattherecombinationgenerationrate
isproportionaltotheexcesscarrierdensity.Itacknowledgesthefactthatnonetrecombinationtakesplaceif
thecarrierdensityequalsthethermalequilibriumvalue.Theresultingexpressionfortherecombinationof
electronsinaptypesemiconductorisgivenby:
(2.8.1)
andsimilarlyforholesinanntypesemiconductor:
(2.8.2)
wheretheparametercanbeinterpretedastheaveragetimeafterwhichanexcessminoritycarrier
recombines.
Wewillshowforeachofthedifferentrecombinationmechanismsthattherecombinationratecanbe
simplifiedtothisformwhenappliedtominoritycarriersina"quasineutral"semiconductor.Theabove
expressionsarethereforeonlyvalidundertheseconditions.Therecombinationratesofthemajoritycarriers
equalsthatoftheminoritycarrierssinceinsteadystaterecombinationinvolvesanequalnumberofholesand
electrons.Therefore,therecombinationrateofthemajoritycarriersdependsontheexcessminoritycarrier
densityastheminoritycarrierslimittherecombinationrate.
Recombinationinadepletionregionandinsituationswheretheholeandelectrondensityareclosetoeach
othercannotbedescribedwiththesimplemodelandthemoreelaborateexpressionsfortheindividual
recombinationmechanismsmustbeused.

2.8.2.Bandtobandrecombination

Bandtobandrecombinationdependsonthedensityofavailableelectronsandholes.Bothcarriertypesneed
tobeavailableintherecombinationprocess.Therefore,therateisexpectedtobeproportionaltotheproduct
ofnandp.Also,inthermalequilibrium,therecombinationratemustequalthegenerationratesincethereis
nonetrecombinationorgeneration.Astheproductofnandpequalsni2inthermalequilibrium,thenet
recombinationratecanbeexpressedas:
(2.8.3)
wherebisthebimolecularrecombinationconstant.

2.8.3.Trapassistedrecombination

Thenetrecombinationratefortrapassistedrecombinationisgivenby:
(2.8.4)
Thederivationofthisequationisbeyondthescopeofthistext.
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Thisexpressioncanbefurthersimplifiedforp>>nto:
(2.8.5)
andforn>>pto:
(2.8.6)
were
(2.8.7)

2.8.4.Surfacerecombination

Recombinationatsurfacesandinterfacescanhaveasignificantimpactonthebehaviorofsemiconductor
devices.Thisisbecausesurfacesandinterfacestypicallycontainalargenumberofrecombinationcenters
becauseoftheabruptterminationofthesemiconductorcrystal,whichleavesalargenumberofelectrically
activestates.Inaddition,thesurfacesandinterfacesaremorelikelytocontainimpuritiessincetheyare
exposedduringthedevicefabricationprocess.Thenetrecombinationrateduetotrapassisted
recombinationandgenerationisgivenby:
(2.8.8)

ThisexpressionisalmostidenticaltothatofShockleyHallReadrecombination.Theonlydifferenceisthat
therecombinationisduetoatwodimensionaldensityoftraps,Nts,asthetrapsonlyexistatthesurfaceor
interface.
Thisequationcanbefurthersimplifiedforminoritycarriersinaquasineutralregion.Forinstancefor
electronsinaquasineutralptyperegionp>>nandp>>nisothatforEi=Est,itcanbesimplifiedto:
(2.8.9)
wheretherecombinationvelocity,vs,isgivenby:
(2.8.10)

2.8.5.Augerrecombination

Augerrecombinationinvolvesthreeparticles:anelectronandahole,whichrecombineinabandtoband
transitionandgiveofftheresultingenergytoanotherelectronorhole.Theexpressionforthenet
recombinationrateisthereforesimilartothatofbandtobandrecombinationbutincludesthedensityofthe
electronsorholes,whichreceivethereleasedenergyfromtheelectronholeannihilation:
(2.8.11)
Thetwotermscorrespondtothetwopossiblemechanisms.

2.8.6.Generationduetolight

Carrierscanbegeneratedinsemiconductorsbyilluminatingthesemiconductorwithlight.Theenergyofthe
incomingphotonsisusedtobringanelectronfromalowerenergyleveltoahigherenergylevel.Inthecase
whereanelectronisremovedfromthevalencebandandaddedtotheconductionband,anelectronholepair
isgenerated.Anecessaryconditionisthattheenergyofthephoton,Eph,islargerthanthebandgapenergy,
Eg.Astheenergyofthephotonisgivenofftotheelectron,thephotonnolongerexists.
Ifeachabsorbedphotoncreatesoneelectronholepair,theelectronandholegenerationratesaregivenby:
(2.8.12)
whereistheabsorptioncoefficientofthematerialattheenergyoftheincomingphoton.Theabsorptionof
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lightinasemiconductorcausestheopticalpowertodecreasewithdistance.Thiseffectisdescribed
mathematicallyby:
(2.8.13)
Thecalculationofthegenerationrateofcarriersthereforerequiresfirstacalculationoftheopticalpower
withinthestructurefromwhichthegenerationratecanthenbeobtainedusing(2.8.12).
Example2.11

Calculatetheelectronandholedensitiesinanntypesiliconwafer(Nd=1017cm3)
illuminateduniformlywith10mW/cm2ofredlight(Eph=1.8eV).Theabsorptioncoefficientof
redlightinsiliconis103cm1.Theminoritycarrierlifetimeis10s.

Solution

Thegenerationrateofelectronsandholesequals:

wherethephotonenergywasconvertedintoJoules.Theexcesscarrierdensitiesarethen
obtainedfrom:

Theexcesscarrierdensitiesarethenobtainedfrom:Sothattheelectronandholedensities
equal:

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