0.1.

VECTOR SPACES

0.1

Vector Spaces

Exercise 0.1.1 Show that the following functions x, 1 + x, x + sin2 x, x3 x,

and x + cos2 x defined on R are linearly dependent.
Solution:
x + (1 + x) (x + sin2 x) (x + cos2 x) = 1 (sin2 x + cos2 x) = 1 1 = 0. 2
Exercise 0.1.2

Compute the dimension of the vector subspace

V = span{(1, 2, 3, 0), (5, 4, 3, 0), (3, 1, 0, 0)}

of R4 .

1 2 3 0
1 2 3 0
1 2 3 0
5R +R2
R3 R2
0 14 18 0
Solution: 5 4 3 0 1
0 7 9 0 .
3R2 +R3
2R3 +R2
0 0 0 0
3 1 0 0
0 7 9 0
So dim(V ) = 2. 2
Exercise 0.1.3

Find a basis for

the row space ofA and find the dimension of
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 0

.
1
0
1
1
1
the row space of A, where A =

1 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 1

Solution: A

R1 +R4

R1 +R2 ;R1 +R3

1
0
0
0
0

0
1 0 0
1 1 1 0
0
0 1 1
0
2 0 1
0
0 1 1

R3 R4

R3 +R5

1
0
0
0
0

0
1 0 0
1 1 1 0
0
2 0 1
0
0 1 1
0
0 0 0

The basis is {(1, 0, 1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 1, 1, 0), (0, 0, 2, 0, 1), (0, 0, 0, 1, 1)}. The dimension is 4. 2
Exercise 0.1.4
of degree 3.

Extend {1 + x2 , x x3 } to a basis for the space of polynomials

2
Solution: Let v1 = 1 + x2 , v2 = x x3 , v3 = 1, v4
Consider the matrix [[v1 ][v2 ][v3 ][v4 ][v5 ][v6 ]]:

1 0 0
1
0 1 0 0 0
1 0
0
R2 +R4 0 1
0 1 0
1
0
1
0
0

0 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 0
R1 +R3
0 0
0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1

= x, v5 = x2 , and v6 = x3 .

0
0
.
0
1

We see that the basis is {1 + x2 , x x3 , 1, x}. 2

Exercise 0.1.5 Find coordinates (the coordinate matrix [u]C ) of u = x
x2 + x3 with respect to the basis C = {w1 , w2 , w3 } of the vector space W =
span{w1 , w2 , w3 }, where w1 = x + x2 , w2 = x x2 , and w3 = x + x2 + 2x3 .
Solution:
1
1
1
u = x x2 + x3 = w2 + x3 = w2 + (w3 w1 ) = w1 + 1 w2 + w3
2
2
2
and

1/2
1 .
[u]C =
1/2

1
Exercise 0.1.6 Let w W be such that [w]C = 2 , where C is the basis
0
for W defined in 0.1.5. Find the polynomial w.
Solution:
w = 1 w1 + 2 w2 + 0 w3 = (x + x2 ) + 2(x x2 ) = 3x x2 .

Exercise 0.1.7 Compute the transition matrix P = PBC from the basis
B = {x, x2 , x3 } for W to the basis C = {w1 , w2 , w3 } for W defined in 0.1.5.
1-st Solution:

2x = w1 + w2 [x]C =

1
2
1
2

0.1. VECTOR SPACES

2x2 = w1 w2 [x2 ]C =

1
2
21

12
2x3 = w3 w1 [x3 ]C = 0 .

1
2

Hence

P =

2-nd Solution:

1
1

= 1 1
0
0

1
2
1
2

1
2
1
2

21
0 .
1
2

[w1 w2 w3 | x x2 x3 ] =



 1 0
1  1 0 0
1
1
1
0
1

R
1 R2
2 3
1  0 1 0
0 2
0 2 0  1 1
R1 +R2
2  0 0 1
0
0 1  0 0 1/2


1 1 1 
1
0
0
R2 R3 +R1
0
0 1 0  1/2 1/2

0 0 1 
0
0 1/2


1 1 1  1/2
1/2 1/2
0 = [I|P ]. 2
0 1 0  1/2 1/2

0 0 1
0
0
1/2


Exercise 0.1.8

Let A =


1
1
1
.
1 1 1

a) Find a basis for the solution space of AX = 0.

b) Find a basis for R3 that contains the basis constructed in part (a).

x1
Solution: a) X = x2 R31 , AX = 0.
x3




1
1
1
1
1
1

, so x3 is free. Find the fundamental solution.

1 1 1
0 2 2

0
Set x3 = 1 then x2 = 1, x1 = 0. So X1 = 1 .
1

4
b) Consider the

0
1
1

matrix [X1 e1 e2 e3 ]:

1 0 0
0 1 0 0

0 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 1 1

Hence the basis R31 is {X1 , e1 , e2 } = 1

1
, 0
0

1 0
0 1
0 0

0
, 1
0

1 0
0 0
1 1

.2

Exercise 0.1.9 Let {t, u, v, w} be a basis for a vector space V . Find dim(U ),
where U = span{t + 2u + v + w, t + 3u + v + 2w, 3t + 4u + 2v, 3t + 5u + 2v + w}.
Solution: Let v1 = t + 2u + v + w, v2 = t + 3u + v + 2w, v3 = 3t + 4u + 2v,
v4 = 3t + 5u + 2v + w. Consider the coordinate matrix [v1 v2 v3 v4 ]:

1 1 3 3
1 1
3
3
1 1
3
3
2 3 4 5

0 1 2 1 0 1 2 1
1 1 2 2
0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1
1 2 0 1
0 1 3
2
0 0 1 1

3
3
1 1
0 1 2 1

0 0 1 1 .
0 0
0
0
Thus {v1 , v2 , v3 } = {t + 2u + v + w, t + 3u + v + 2w, 3t + 4u + 2v} is a basis for
U . It has 3 vectors. Hence dim(U ) = 3. 2
Exercise 0.1.10
a) Show that C = {(1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} is a basis for R3 .
b) Let B = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}. Find the change of coordinate matrices
(that is transition matrices) from C to B, and from B to C.



Solution: a) The determinant 

are linearly independent, so C is


1
1 0 
1 1 0  = 2 6= 0. It means that the rows
0
0 1 
linearly independent in R3 , consequently C is

0.1. VECTOR SPACES

a basis for R3 since dim(R3 ) = 3 and R3 span(C), where C has 3 vectors and
finally dim(hCi) = 3.
b) Set u1 = (1, 1, 0), u2 = (1, 1, 0), u3 = (0, 0, 1). Then C = {u1 , u2 , u3 }.

1
1 0
PCB = [[u1 ]B [u2 ]B [u3 ]B ] = 1 1 0 .
0
0 1
1
PBC = PCB
.


1
1 0 
[PCB |I] = 1 1 0 
0
0 1 

1
0
0

1 0 0
1

0 1 0 0
0 0 1
0

1 0 
1
0
1 0  1/2 1/2
0 1 
0
0

1 0  1 0 0
2 0  1 1 0
0 1  0 0 1

0
0
1

1 0 0  1/2
1/2 0
0 1 0  1/2 1/2 0 = [I|PBC ] .
0 0 1 
0
0 1

Exercise 0.1.11 Let the set {u, v, w} be linearly independent. Show that the
set {u + 2v, v 3w, u v + w} is linearly independent.
Denote B = {u, v, w} is a basis for span(B). Then we can write

1
0
1
[u + 2v]B = 2 , [v 3w]B = 1 , [u v + w]B = 1 .
0
3
1

Solution:

Since




1
0
1
 1 1 

1
+1 2
1 1 = 1 
det 2
 0 3
3
1 
0 3
1



 = 2 6 6= 0.


So the set {u + 2v, v 3w, u v + w} is linearly independent. 2

6


2
0 6

Exercise 0.1.12 Find the value(s) of if

is contained in the
space

 
 

1

1
+1
3
span
,
,
.
0 1
0 2 1
0 2 4
Solution:









2
1

1
+1
3
=x
+y
+z
.
0 6
0 1
0 2 1
0 2 4
Thus the following system must be consistent:

y + ( + 1)z =

x +
x
y
3z =
2

x + (2 1)y + (2 4)z = 6


1
+ 1 

R +R2

1
3 
2 1
R1 +R3
1 2 1 2 4  6


+ 1 

R +R3
0 2 1 2 + 3  2 + 2 2
6
0 2 1 2 + 3 


+ 1 

0 2 1 2 + 3  2 + 2 .
0
0
0  4 2

Hence 4 2 = 0 or = 2. 2

2 1 1
1 0
0
0 1 . Show that the
Exercise 0.1.13 Given the matrix 0 1
1 1
1 1 0
dimension of the column space of this matrix is equal to 3. Justify your answer.
Solution:

2 1 1
1 0
1 1
1 1 0
R R3
2R +R2
0 1
2 1 1
0
0 1 1
1 0 1
R2 R3
1 1
1 1 0
0 1
0
0 1

0.1. VECTOR SPACES

1
1 1 0
1
1
1 1 0
1
R +R3
0 1 3
3 0 .
3 0 2
0 1 3
3 1
0
0 3
0
1
0
0 1

1
1
2
Hence 0 , 1 , 0 is a basis for the column space. Therefore its

1
1
1
dimension is equal to 3. 2

Exercise 0.1.14 Find the value(s) of R such that dim(span(A)) = 2,

where A = {1 + 2x2 + x4 , 2 + x + 4x2 + x3 + 5x4 , 1 + x + 2x2 + x3 + x4 }. Justify
your answer.
Solution:

1 0 2
2 1 4
1 1 2

Put the coefficients

0 1
2R +R2

1 5 1
R1 +R3
1

in 3 5 matrix

1
1 0 2 0
1
1 0 2 0
R +R3
0 1 0 1
3 .
0 1 0 1
3 2
0 0 0 0 4
0 1 0 1 1

The dimension dim(span(A)) is the same with the dimension of column or row
space of the matrix. To make it equal to 2 one must have 4 = 0 or = 4. 2
Exercise 0.1.15 Given two bases B = {u+v, uv, w} and C = {u+w, v, v
w} for the vector space spanned by {u, v, w}.
a) Find the transition matrix PBC from B to C.
b) Find the transition matrix PCB from C to B.
Solution:

a)

1
[u + v]C = [(u + w) + (v w)]C = 0 .
1

1
[u v]C = [(u + w) + (v w) 2v]C = 2 .
1

1 .
[w]C = [v (v w)]C =
1

Hence PBC

1
1
0
1 .
= 0 2
1
1 1

b) PCB = (PBC )1 . Write [PBC |I] =



1
1
0  1 0 0
R +R3

1  0 1 0 1
= 0 2

1
1 1 0 0 1


1
1
0  1 0 0
R3

0  1 1 1 1
0 2
2 R2

0
0 1 1 0 1


1 0 0  1/2
1/2
R2 +R1


0 1 0  1/2 1/2
0 0 1 
1
0
Hence

1
1
0  1 0 0
R +R2
0 2
1  0 1 0 3
0
0 1  1 0 1


1 1 0 
1
0
0
0 1 0  1/2 1/2 1/2
0 0 1 
1
0
1

1/2


1/2 = I| (PBC )1 .
1

PCB

1
1
1
1
= 1 1 1 .
2
2
0 2

Exercise 0.1.16 a) Determine whether the following subsets are subspace

(giving reasons for your answers).
(i) U = {A R22 |AT = A} in R22 . (R22 is the vector space of all real 2 2
matrices under usual matrix addition and scalar-matrix multiplication.)
(ii) W = {(x, y, z) R3 |x y z} in R3 .
b) Find a basis for U . What is the dimension of U ? (Show all your work by
explanations.)
c) What is the dimension of R22 ? Extend the basis of U to a basis for R22 .
Solution: a-i)




0 0
0 0
T
1) A =
U since A = A =
, so U 6= .
0 0
0 0
2) Let A, B U . Then A = AT and B = B T . Then A + B U , since
(A + B)T = AT + B T = A + B. So U is closed under addition.

0.1. VECTOR SPACES

3) Let c R and A U . Then A = AT . Then c A U since (c A)T = c AT =

c A. Thus U is closed under scalar multiplication.
So we proved that U is a subspace in R22 .
a-ii) W is not a subspace in R3 . Since (2, 1, 1) W , however (1) (2, 1, 1) =
(2, 1, 1) 6 W , that is W is not closed under scalar multiplication..




a b
a c
T
b) Let A U . Then A = A i.e.
=
for all a, b, c, d R.
c d
b d
Thus a and d are arbitrary real numbers and c = b. So any matrix A U can
be written as








a b
1 0
0 1
0 0
=a
+b
+d
.
b d
0 0
1 0
0 1

 



1 0
0 1
0 0
Since
,
, and
are linearly independent, and any matrix
0 0
1 0
0 1
in U can be written as a linear combination

 of these
 matrices,

these matrices
1 0
0 1
0 0
form a basis for U , namely B =
,
,
is a basis for
0 0
1 0
0 1
U . Thus dim(U ) = 3.
c) The space R22 has the standard basis

 
 
 

1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
C=
,
,
,
,
0 0
0 0
1 0
0 1
therefore
by

1
0

0
0

dim(R22 ) = 4. We can extend the basis B for U to a basis for R22

0
1
1
0

0
0
0
1

1
0
0
0

0
1
0
0

0
0
R2 +R3

0
1


1 0 0  1
0 1 0  0


0 0 1  0

0 0 0  0

0
0
1
0

0
1
0
0

0
0
0
1

0
1
0
1

0
0
0
0

0
0
.
1
1

1
0
0
0

1
0 0
0
1 0
0 1 1
0
0 0

0
0
R3 R4

0
1

Thus a basis for R22 containing vectors of B is


 
 
 

1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
D=
,
,
,
. 2
1 0
0 0
1 0
0 1

10
Exercise 0.1.17 Let p P2 . The coordinate matrix of p relative to the
standard ordered basis B = {1, x, x2 } is [p]B = [2, 1, 5]T . Find the change of
coordinate matrix from the ordered basis B = {1, x, x2 } to the ordered basis
C = {1, 1 x, 1 + x + x2 } and the coordinate matrix of p relative to C, [p]C .
Solution:

[p]B = [2, 1, 5]T then p = 2 1 + (1) x + 5 x2 .


1
1 1  1 0 0
[PCB |I] = 0 1 1  0 1 0
0
0 1  0 0 1


1 0 0 
R +R1
0 1 0 
2

R2
0 0 1 

where

1
1 0  1 0 1
R3 +R2

= 0 1 0  0 1 1
R3 +R1
0
0 1  0 0
1

1
1 2
0 1
1 = [I|PBC ],
0
0
1

PBC

1
1 2
1
= 0 1
0
0
1

is the change of coordinate matrix from the basis B to the basis C.

[p]C = PBC [p]B . Thus

1
1 2
2
9
1 1 = 6 . 2
[p]C = 0 1
0
0
1
5
5

Exercise 0.1.18

Let B = {u, v} be a basis of R and let A =



. Show

that A is invertible iff C = {u + v, u + v} is a basis of R2 .

Solution: First, assume A is invertible. Let c1 (u + v) + c2 (u + v) = 0.
Then (c1 + c2 )u + (c1 + c2 )v = 0 since u and v are linearly independent.
So we have the system


 
  
c1
0

=
.
c2
0

(1)

0.1. VECTOR SPACES

11

By our assumption, there exists A1 . Hence this homogeneous system has only
trivial solution, namely c1 = c2 = 0. So C consists of two linearly independent
vectors and consequently it is a basis for R2 since dim(R2 ) = 2.
Conversely, assume C is a basis for R2 , then the system (1) has only the trivial
solution, so AX = 0 consequently RX = 0 for some R which is the row echelon
reduced matrix. If RX = 0 has only trivial solution then R = I which proves
that A is invertible. 2
Exercise 0.1.19 Consider the following list of statements. In each case either
prove the statement if it is true or give an example showing that it is false.
i) If V is a subspace of R3 containing two linearly independent vectors, then V
is equal to all of R3 .
ii) If vectors v1 and v2 are linearly dependent and u 6 span(v1 , v2 ) then the
vectors u + v1 and u + v2 are linearly dependent.
iii) If vectors v1 and v2 are linearly independent and u 6 span(v1 , v2 ) then the
vectors u + v1 and u + v2 are linearly independent.
Solution: i) False.
dim(R3 ) = 3, so we need at least 3 vectors to span R3 . Consider V = {v1 , v2 } =
{(1, 1, 0), (0, 1, 0)}. The vectors v1 and v2 are linearly independent since c1 (1, 1, 0)+
c2 (0, 1, 0) = (c1 , c1 + c2 , 0) = (0, 0, 0) iff c1 = c2 = 0.
But V 6= R3 since (0, 0, 1) R3 but (0, 0, 1) 6= k1 (1, 1, 0) + k2 (0, 1, 0) = (k1 , k1 +
k2 , 0) = (0, 0, 0). Thus (0, 0, 1) 6 V .
ii) False.
v1 and v2 are linearly dependent means that v1 = k v2 . So u + v1 = u + k v2 .
c1 (u + k v2 ) + c2 (u + v2 ) = 0 (c1 + c2 )u + (kc1 + c2 )v2 = 0.
But u 6 span(v1 , v2 ) hence c1 + c2 = 0 = kc1 + c2 i.e. (k 1)c1 = 0 that is k = 1
or c1 = 0.
So when k 6= 1 we have c1 = c2 = 0 i.e. u+v1 and u+v2 are linearly independent.
For example, u = (1, 1), v1 = (2, 0), v2 = (1, 0). Then u + v1 = (3, 1) and
u + v2 = (2, 1) are not linearly dependent.
iii) True.
If c1 (u + v1 ) + c2 (u + v2 ) = 0 then (c1 + c2 )u + c1 v1 + c2 v2 = 0. But v1 and v2 are
linearly independent and u 6 span(v1 , v2 ), hence c1 = c2 = 0 and c1 + c2 = 0, so
u + v1 and u + v2 are linearly independent.. 2

12
Given three ordered bases B = {v1 , v2 , v3 }, C = {u1 , u2 , u3 },
1 1 1

and D = {w1 , w2 , w3 } with the transition matrix PCD = 1 2 3 , satisfy1 4 9

ing v1 = u1 + u2 + u3 , v2 = u2 + u3 , and v3 = u1 u2 .

Exercise 0.1.20

a) Write down the vector 2u1 3u2 + 4u3 as a linear combination of w1 , w2 , and
w3 .
b) Find the transition matrix PDC .
= {w3 , w2 , w1 }. Find the transition matrix PC
c) Let C = {u2 , u3 , u1 } and D
D
.
d) Find the transition matrix PBD .
Solution:

a) v = 2u1 3u2 + 4u3 then [v]C = [2, 3, 4]T . So

1 1 1
2
3
[v]D = PCD [v]C = 1 2 3 3 = 8 .
1 4 9
4
26

And thus v = 3w1 + 8w2 + 26w3 .

1
b) PDC = PCD
.


1 1 1  1
[PCD |I] = 1 2 3  0
1 4 9  0


1 0 1  2 1
2  1
1
0 1
0 0
2  2 3

1 0
0 1
0 0

0 0
1 1 1  1 0 0
R +R3
+R1
0 1 2  1 1 0 R
1 0 1
2

R1 +R2
3R
2 +R3
0 1
0 3 8  1 0 1


 2
1
0
1
1
0
0
1

R3
R3 +R1
2  1
1
0
0 2 0 1

2R3 +R2
0 0
1  1 3/2 1/2
1


0  3 5/2 1/2
0  3
4 1 = [I|PDC ].

1
1 3/2 1/2

4 9 1
c) PC
D
= [[u2 ]D
[u3 ]D
[u1 ]D
] = 2 3 1 .
1 1 1

4

u2 = w1 + 2w2 + 4w3 = 4w3 + 2w2 + w1 [u2 ]D = 2 .

1

0.1. VECTOR SPACES

13

9
u3 = w1 + 3w2 + 9w3 = 9w3 + 3w2 + w1 [u3 ]D = 3 .
1

1

u1 = w1 + w2 + w3 = w3 + w2 + w1 [u1 ]D = 1 .
1

1 1 1
1 0
1
3 2
0
d) PBD = PCD PBC = 1 2 3 1 1 1 = 6 5 1 .
1 4 9
1 1
0
14 13 3
Here we used v1 =
u1 + u2 + u3 , v2 = u2 + u3 , and v3 = u1 u2 , hence
1 0
1
PBC = 1 1 1 . 2
1 1
0

14

0.2

Inner Product Spaces

Exercise 0.2.1 Find a non-zero polynomial of degree 2R orthogonal to the

1
set {1, x} with respect to the integral inner product (p|q) = 0 p(x)q(x) dx.
Solution: Let p(x) =R ax2 + bx + c. Then we want 0 = (1|p) and 0 = (x|p).
1
That is 0 = (1|p) = 0 (ax2 + bx + c) dx which gives 2a + 3b + 6c = 0 and
R1
0 = (x|p) = 0 (ax3 + bx2 + cx) dx yields 3a + 4b + 6c = 0. Consider the matrix


2 3 6
3 4 6

2
3
6
0 1/2 3


.

If we take c = 1 then 21 b = 3. i.e. b = 6 and a = 6. So one of the required

polynomial is 6x2 6x + 1. 2
Exercise 0.2.2
Orthogonalize by the Gram Schmidt process the basis
{v1 , v2 , v3 } = {(1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 0), (0, 1, 2)} for R3 with respect to the standard
inner product ((x1 , y1 , z1 )|(x2 , y2 , z2 )) = x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2 .
Solution:

Choose w1 = v1 = (1, 0, 1).

w2 = v2

w3 = v3

(v2 |w1 )
w1 = (0, 1, 0) 0 w1 = (0, 1, 0).
(w1 |w1 )

(v3 |w1 )
(v3 |w2 )
2
1
w1
w2 = (0, 1, 2) (1, 0, 1)
(0, 1, 0) =
(w1 |w1 )
(w2 |w2 )
2
1
= (0, 1, 2) (1, 0, 1) + (0, 1, 0) = (1, 0, 1).

The answer is {(1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 0), (1, 0, 1)}. 2

Exercise 0.2.3 Let R22 be the vector space of all real 2 2 matrices with
inner product given by
(A|B) = tr(B T A),

0.2. INNER PRODUCT SPACES

15

where tr is the trace of a matrix (i.e. sum of the diagonal entries of a matrix).
Let




0 1
2 1
A=
and B =
.
1 1
0 1
a) Find (A|B) and kBk, where k k denotes the norm (length) induced by the
above inner product.
b) Are A and B orthogonal?
c) Determine the scalar c such that A cB is orthogonal to A.
Solution:

a)


(A|B) = tr(B A) = tr

2 0
1 1

 

0 1
1 1




= tr

0 2
1 2


= 0+2 = 2.

 
 
1/2
p
2 0
2 1
T
1/2
=

kBk = (B|B) = [tr(B B)] = tr

1 1
0 1
 
1/2

4 2
= 4 + 2 = 6 = kBk.
= tr
2 2
b) A and B are not orthogonal since, by part a), (A|B) = 2 6= 0.
c) A cB and A are orthogonal iff (A cB|A) = 0.
(A cB|A) = (A|A) c(B|A) = tr(AT A) c(A|B) =

= tr

0 1
1
1

 

0 1
1 1




c 2 = tr

1 1
1
2


2c = 3 2c.

We have A cB and A are orthogonal iff 3 2c = 0 so c = 3/2. 2

Exercise 0.2.4 Let u1 and u2 be two vectors in an inner product space V
such that ku1 k = ku2 k = 1, (u1 |u2 ) = 0.
a) Find the cosine of the angle between the vectors 2u1 + 3u2 and 4u1 2u2 .
b) Find a vector v span(u1 , u2 ) such that v (2u1 + 3u2 ) and kvk = 1.

16
Solution:

a)
(2u1 + 3u2 |4u1 2u2 )
.
cos = p
(2u1 + 3u2 |2u1 + 3u2 ) (4u1 2u2 |4u1 2u2 )

(2u1 + 3u2 |4u1 2u2 ) = 8(u1 |u1 ) 6(u2 |u2 ) = 8 6 = 2.

(2u1 + 3u2 |2u1 + 3u2 ) (4u1 2u2 |4u1 2u2 ) = (4 + 9) (16 + 4) = 260.
p
p
We used facts that (u1 |u2 ) = 0 and ku1 k = (u1 |u1 ) = ku2 k = (u2 |u2 ) = 1.
Thus
2
.
cos =
260
b) Let v = x u1 + y u2 . Find x and y.
2
0 = (v|2u1 + 3u2 ) = (xu1 + yu2 |2u1 + 3u2 ) = 2x + 3y y = x.
3
 2
2
13
2
2
2
2
1 = (v|v) = kvk = (xu1 + yu2 |xu1 + yu2 ) = x + y = x +
x2 = x2 .
3
9
So we have

r
9
3
9
x2 =
x=
= .
13
13
13

Finally
3
2
v = u1 u2
13
13

and

3
2
v = u1 + u2 . 2
13
13

Exercise 0.2.5 Let v1 = (1, 1, 1, 1), v2 = (1, 1, 2, 0), and v3 = (2, 3, 0, 0) be

vectors in R4 equipped with the standard inner product.
a) Find the orthogonal complement for span{v1 , v2 } in R4 .
b) Find the orthogonal basis to span{v1 , v2 , v3 }.
c) Find the orthogonal projection of (1, 1, 1, 1) to span{v1 , v2 }.
Solution: a) (v1 |(x, y, z, u)) = 0 and (v2 |(x, y, z, u)) = 0. So we have the system

x+y+z+u = 0
.
x + y + 2z
= 0

0.2. INNER PRODUCT SPACES

17

x


 
y
1 1 1 1
0

Or in matrix notation
=
.
1 1 2 0
z
0
u




1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1
Find the fundamental solutions of this system.

.
0 0 1 1
1 1 2 0
The variables y and u are free.

1
2
1

and F2 = 0 . Finally
So we have F1 =
0
1
0
1
span{v1 , v2 } = h(1, 1, 0, 0), (2, 0, 1, 1)i.
b) By the Gram Schmidt, w1 = v1 = (1, 1, 1, 1).
w 2 = v2

4
(v2 |w1 )
w1 = (1, 1, 2, 0) (1, 1, 1, 1) = (0, 0, 1, 1).
(w1 |w1 )
4

(v3 |w1 )
(v3 |w2 )
w1
w2 =
(w1 |w1 )
(w2 |w2 )


5
0
3 7 5 5
= (2, 3, 0, 0) (1, 1, 1, 1) (0, 0, 1, 1) =
, , ,
.
4
2
4 4 4 4



The orthogonal basis is (1, 1, 1, 1), (0, 0, 1, 1), 34 , 74 , 54 , 54 .
w 3 = v3

c) Since ((1, 1, 1, 1)|v1 ) = 0 and ((1, 1, 1, 1)|v2 ) = 0 then

(1, 1, 1, 1) span{v1 , v2 }
and hence
prspan{v1 ,v2 } ((1, 1, 1, 1)) = (0, 0, 0, 0).

Exercise 0.2.6 Let R4 be the inner product space relative to the standard
inner product. Let B = {(1, 1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1, 1)} be a basis for L =
span(B).
a) Orthogonalize the basis B by means of the Gram Schmidt orthogonalization
process.
b) Find the closest vector to g = (1, 1, 1, 0) in L.

18
Solution:

a) w1 = v1 = (1, 1, 0, 0).

(v2 |w1 )
1
w2 = v2
w1 = (0, 1, 1, 0) (1, 1, 0, 0) =
(w1 |w1 )
2

w3 = v3



1 1
, , 1, 0 .
2 2

(v3 |w2 )
(v3 |w1 )
w1
w2 = (1, 1, 1, 1) 0 w1 0 w2 = (1, 1, 1, 1).
(w1 |w1 )
(w2 |w2 )

The obtained orthogonal basis for L is





1 1
{w1 , w2 , w3 } = (1, 1, 0, 0), , , 1, 0 , (1, 1, 1, 1) .
2 2
b) The vector closest to g is the orthogonal projection of g in L, that is
(g|w1 )
(g|w2 )
(g|w3 )
2
2
1
w1 +
w2 +
w3 = w1 + w2 + w3 =
(w1 |w1 )
(w2 |w2 )
(w3 |w3 )
2
3
4

 
 

1 1 2
1 1 1 1
1
1 11 1
= (1, 1, 0, 0) + , , , 0 +
, , ,
= 1 ,1 + , ,
=
3 3 3
4 4 4 4
12
12 12 4

prL (g) =

1
(11, 13, 11, 3). 2
12

Exercise 0.2.7 Consider the vector space R3 with the standard inner product
and let S = {(2, 1, 1), (1, 2, 3), (3, 1, 4)}.
a) Find a basis for the orthogonal complement S of S.
b) Find the orthogonal projection of (1, 1, 1) on the subspace spanned by S.
a) All vectors v S satisfy(v|u) = 0, where u S. So to find a
2x y + z = 0

x + 2y + 3z = 0 .
basis of S we need to solve the system

3x + y + 4z = 0


x
2 1 1
x
0

y
1
2
3
y
Or in matrix notation A
=

= 0 .
z
3
1 4
z
0
Solution:

0.2. INNER PRODUCT SPACES

Find the fundamental solutions of

2 1
R +R3
1
2
A 1
R2 +R3
0
0

19

this system.

1
2
3
1
2R +R1
0 5 5 .
3 2
R1 R2
0
0
0
0

The variable z is free.

1
So we have P1 = 1 . Hence {u = (1, 1, 1)} is a basis for S .
1
b) Note v = (1, 1, 1). Since
v = prhSi (v) + prhS i (v)
then
prhSi (v) = v prhS i (v).
prhS i (v) =

((1, 1, 1)|(1, 1, 1))

(v|u)
u=
(1, 1, 1) =
2
kuk
((1, 1, 1)|(1, 1, 1))
 


1
1 1 1
, ,
=
(1, 1, 1) =
.
3
3 3 3

Hence


prhSi (v) = (1, 1, 1)

Exercise 0.2.8
that

1 1 1
, ,
3 3 3


=

2 2 4
, ,
3 3 3


.

If v and w are two vectors of an inner product space, prove

kv + wk2 + kv wk2 = 2(kvk2 + kwk2 ).

Solution:
kv + wk2 + kv wk2 = (v + w|v + w) + (v w|v w) =
= [(v|v) + 2(v|w) + (w|w)] + [(v|v) 2(v|w) + (w|w)] =
= 2[(v|v) + (w|w)] = 2(kvk2 + kwk2 ). 2

20
Exercise 0.2.9 Let R4 be the inner product space with the standard inner
product (|). Let S = span{(1, 1, 0, 1), (1, 0, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1, 1)} R4 .
a) Find a basis B for the orthogonal complement to S in R4 .
b) Applying the Gram Schmidt orthogonalization to the basis B constructed
in a), find an orthonormal basis for the orthogonal complement S of S.
c) Find the orthogonal projection of v = (0, 0, 0, 1) on S.
Solution: a)

1 0
1 1
0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0
R +R1
R +R3
1 0
1 0
0 1 1 1 .
1 0 2
1 0 1
R1 R2
0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1
0 0
0 0
The third and forth variables are free. We have x + z = 0 and y z + t = 0.
Then y = z t and x = z.
Find the fundamental vectors of the system.

0
1

P1 =
0 .
1

1
1

P2 =
1 .
0

z = 0, t = 1.

z = 1, t = 0.

So B = {P1 , P2 } is a basis for S .

0
1

b) w1 = P1 =
0 .
1


1
0
1

1
(P2 |w1 )
1 1/2 1/2
=
+
w 1 = P2 + w 1 =
w 2 = P2

0 1
1
(w1 |w1 )
2
1/2
1/2
0

0.2. INNER PRODUCT SPACES

21

0
0
1/ 2
w1
1
1
=
w1 =
=
kw1 k
2 0
0
1
1/ 2

w2 =

p
1
w2
= w2
1 + 1/4 + 1 + 1/4
kw2 k

2/ 5

1/ 10
=

2/ 5
1/ 10

So Bort = {w1 , w2 }.
c) prhSi (v) = v prhS i (v).
1
1
prhS i (v) = (v|w1 ) w1 + (v|w2 ) w2 = w1 + w2 =
2
10

0
1/5
1/5
1/2 1/10 2/5
+
=
.
=

0 1/5 1/5
1/2
1/10
3/5

1/5
1/5
2/5 2/5

prhSi (v) = v
1/5 = 1/5 . 2
3/5
2/5
Exercise 0.2.10 Given a basis B = {1, t + t2 , t t2 } for V = P2 (R). The
inner product (.|.) in the vector space V is defined by (u|v) = [u]TB [v]B , where
[u]TB is the transpose of the coordinate matrix [u]B of a vector u with respect to
the basis B.
a) Show that B is an orthonormal basis for V with respect to the inner product
(.|.).
b) Find the norm of v = 1 + t + t2 with respect to the given inner product (.|.).
c) Find the cosine of the angle between v = 1 + t + t2 and u = 2t with respect
to the given inner product (.|.).
d) Find the orthogonal projection of w = 1 t + 2t2 onto S = Span{1, 1 + t2 }
with respect to the given inner product (.|.).

22
a) Denote v1 = 1, v2 = t + t2 , v3 = t t2 .



1
0
0

Then [v1 ]B = 0 , [v2 ]B = 1 , [v3 ]B = 0 .

0
0
1

1
(v1 |v1 ) = [1 0 0] 0 = 1, (v2 |v2 ) = 1, (v3 |v3 ) = 1.
0
p
Consequently kv1 k = (v1 |v1 ) = 1, kv2 k = 1, kv3 k = 1.

0
(v1 |v2 ) = [1 0 0] 1 = 0, (v2 |v3 ) = 0, (v1 |v3 ) = 0.
0
Hence B = {v1 , v2 , v3 } is orthonormal basis.

1

b) [v]B = 1 since v = 1 + t + t2 = 1 1 + 1 (t + t2 ) + 0 (t t2 ).
0

1
p

(v|v) = [v]B [v]B = [1 1 0] 1 = 2, kvk = (v|v) = 2.

0


0
1
c) [u]B = 1 since u = 2t = 0 1 + 1 (t + t2 ) + 1 (t t2 ), [v]B = 1 .
1
0

1
p

kuk = (u|u) = 2, kvk = 2. (u|v) = [u]B [v]B = [0 1 1] 1 = 1.

0
(u|v)
2
1
cos vu
= cos uv
=
= = .
kuk kvk
2
2 2
Solution:

d) w = 1 t + 2t2 = 1 + (t + t2 ) + (t t2 ) then

=1
=1
=1
+ = 1
+ = 1
= 1/2
.

=2
2 = 1
= 1 + 1/2 = 3/2

1
Hence [w]B = 1/2 .
3/2
prS (w) = (w|w1 )w1 + (w|w2 )w2 , where {w1 .w2 } is an orthonormal basis for
S = Span{1, 1 + t2 }. 2

0.2. INNER PRODUCT SPACES

23

Exercise 0.2.11
a) Find a basis for the orthogonal complement of S =
{(1, 2, 1, 3), (2, 2, 1, 3), (1, 0, 2, 6)} in R4 with respect to the standard inner
product in R4 .
b) Let w1 = (1, 1, 1, 1), w2 = (1, 2, 1, 2), and w3 = (1, 1, 2, 1). Find an
orthonormal basis for W = Span{w1 , w2 , w3 } with respect to the standard inner
product in R4 .
Solution: a) Denote
v1 = (1, 2, 1, 1), v2 = (2, 2, 1, 3), and v3 = (1, 0, 2, 6).
(v|v1 ) = x + 2y z + 3t = 0
(v|v2 ) = 2x + 2y + z 3t = 0 . Find the fundamental
Consider the system

(v|v3 ) = x + 0 y + 2z 6t = 0
solution of this system. It is a basis for S .

2 6
1 0
2 6
1 0
2 6
1 0
2R +R3
R +R3
1 2 1
0 2 3
0 2 3
9 .
3 1
9 2
R1 +R2
0 0
0 01
2 1
1 3
0 2 3
9
x = 6t 2z, y = 23 z 92 t. The variables z and t are free. The fundamental
solution is

2z + 6t
x
y 3z 9t
2
= 2
z
z
t
t

6
2

= z 3/2 + t 9/2 .

0
0
1

The basis of S is {(2, 3/2, 1, 0), (6, 9/2, 0, 1)}.

b) x1 = w1 = (1, 1, 1, 1).
x2 = w 2

(w2 |x1 )
(x1 |x1 )

x1 = (1, 2, 1, 2) 0 x1 = (1, 2, 1, 2).

7
3 |x2 )
3 |x1 )
x3 = w3 (w
x1 (w
x2 = (1, 1, 2, 1) 1
(1, 1, 1, 1) 10
(1, 2, 1, 2) =
(x1 |x1 )
(x2

|x2 )
4




5 5 7 3
7 14 7 14
11
3 21
13
, , , 10 , 10 , 10 , 10 = 20 , 20 , 20 , 20 .
4 4 4 4
p
p
p

kx
k
=
(x
|x
)
=
4
=
2,
kx
k
=
(x
|x
)
=
10,
kx
k
=
(x3 |x3 ) =
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
q

2
2
2
2
640
11 +3 +21 +13
= 20
= 8 2010 .
202

The required orthonormal basis is



 
1
x1
x2
x3
1
1
,
,
=
(1, 1, 1, 1), (1, 2, 1, 2), (11, 3, 21, 13) . 2
kx1 k kx2 k kx3 k
2
10
8 10

24
Exercise 0.2.12 Let u1 = t t2 , u2 = t + t2 , u3 = 2, w1 = 1, w2 = t, and
w3 = t2 .
a) Show that B = {u1 , u2 , u3 } is a basis for the vector space P2 (R) of polynomials
of degree 2.
b) Find the transition matrix PCB , where B = {u1 , u2 , u3 } and C = {w1 , w2 , w3 }.
c) Calculate the coordinate matrix [3 2t + t2 ]B , where B = {u1 , u2 , u3 }.

1
d) Given [v]B = 2 , find the polynomial v P2 (R).
3
Solution: a) Consider the coordinate matrix [u1 u2 u3 ] in the standard basis of
P2 (R):

0 0 2
0 0 2
R2 +R3
1 1 0
1 1 0 . So the vectors u1 , u2 and u3 are linearly
0 2 0
1 1 0
independent hence they form a basis for P2 (R).
b) [v] = PCB [v]C = [[w1 ]B [w2 ]B [w3 ]B ][v]C
B
w1 = 1 = 0 u1 + 0 u2 + 1/2 u3
w2 = t = 1/2 u1 + 1/2 u2 + 0 u3
.

w3 = t2 = 1/2 u1 + 1/2 u2 + 0 u3

0 1/2 1/2
1/2 .
P = 0 1/2
1/2
0
0
c) 3 2t + t2 = x1 u1 + x2 u2 + x3 u3 = x1 (t t2 ) + x2 (t + t2 ) + x3 2 hence
(x2 x1 )t2 + (x2 + x1 )t + 2x3 = t2 2t + 3 then x2 x1 = 1, x2 + x1 = 2, and
2x3 = 3. Finally x1 = 3/2, x2 = 1/2, x3 = 3/2 and

3/2
[3 2t + t2 ]B = 1/2 .
3/2
d)

1
[t t2 t + t2 2] 2 = t t2 + 2(t + t2 ) + 6 = t2 + 3t + 6.
3
The required polynomial is t2 + 3t + 6. 2