Machining

An operation that changes the shape, surface finish, or

mechanical properties of a material by the application of special
tools and equipment. Machining almost always is a process where
a cutting tool removes material to effect the desired change in the
workpiece. Typically, powered machinery is required to operate the
cutting tools. Although various machining operations may appear
to be very different, most are very similar ; they make chips.
These chips vary in size from the long continuous ribbons
produced on a lathe to the microfine sludge produced by lapping
or grinding. These chips are formed by shearing away the
workpiece material by the action of a cutting tool. Cylindrical holes
can be produced in a workpiece by drilling, milling, reaming,
turning, and electric discharge machining. Rectangular holes and
slots may be produced by broaching, electric discharge machining,
milling, grinding, and nibbling. Cylinders may be produced on
lathes and grinders. Special geometries, such as threads and
gears, are produced with special tooling and equipment utilizing
the turning and grinding processes mentioned above. Polishing,
lapping, and buffing are variants of grinding where a very small
amount of stock is removed from the workpiece to produce a highquality surface.
In almost every case, machining accuracy, economics, and
production rates are controlled by the careful evaluation and
selection of tooling and equipment. Speed of cut, depth of cut,
cutting-tool material selection, and machine-tool selection has a
tremendous impact on machining. In general, the more rigid and
vibration-free a machining tool is, the better it will perform. Jigs
and fixtures are often used to support the work-piece. Since it
relies on the plastic deformation and shearing of the workpiece by
the cutting tool, machining generates heat that must be dissipated

before it damages the workpiece or tooling. Coolants, which also

act as lubricants, are often used.
To increase the life and speed of cutting tools, they are often
coated with a thin layer of extremely hard material such as
titanium nitride or zirconium nitride. These materials, which are
applied over the cutting edges, provide excellent wear resistance.
They are also brittle, so they rely on the toughness of the
underlying cutting tool to support them. Coated tools are more
expensive than conventional tools, but they can often cut at much
higher rates and last significantly longer. When used properly on
sufficiently rigid machine tools, they are far more economical than
conventional tooling.
Types of machining operation
There are many kinds of machining operations, each of which
is capable of generating a certain part geometry and surface
texture.

FACING
Facing is machining the ends and shoulders of a piece of stock
smooth. flat, and perpendicular to the lathe axis. Facing is used to
cut work to the desired length and to produce a surface from
which accurate measurements may be taken.

FACING
TURNING
It is a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove
material from a rotating workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape.
The speed motion is provided by rotating the workpiece, and the
feed motion is achieved by moving the cutting tool slowly in a
direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.

DRILLING
It is used to create a round hole. It is accomplished by a
rotating tool that typically has two or four helical cutting edges.
The tool is fed in a direction parallel to its axis of rotation into the
workpiece to form the round hole.

BORING
It is a tool with a single bent pointed tip is advanced into a
roughly made hole in a spinning workpiece to slightly enlarge the
hole and improve its accuracy. It is a fine finishing operation used
in the final stages of product manufacture.

REAMING
Reamers are used to finish drilled holes or bores quickly and
accurately to a specified diameter.

REAMING
MILLING
It is a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is moved
slowly relative to the material to generate a plane or straight
surface. The direction of the feed motion is perpendicular to the
tool's axis of rotation. The speed motion is provided by the
rotating milling cutter. The two basic forms of milling are:
Peripheral milling
Face milling
Other conventional machining operations include shaping, planing,
broaching and sawing. Also, grinding and similar abrasive
operations are often included within the category of machining.

Cutting conditions
Relative motion is required between the tool and work to
perform a machining operation. The primary motion is
accomplished at a certain cutting speed. In addition, the tool must
be moved laterally across the work. This is a much slower motion,
called the feed. The remaining dimension of the cut is the
penetration of the cutting tool below the original work surface,
called the depth of cut. Collectively, speed, feed, and depth of cut
are called the cutting conditions. They form the three dimensions
of the machining process, and for certain operations, their product
can be used to obtain the material removal rate for the process:

where

the material removal rate in mm3/s, (in3/s),

the cutting speed in m/s, (ft/min),

the feed in mm, (in),

the depth of cut in mm, (in).

Stages in metal cutting

Machining operations usually divide into two categories,
distinguished by purpose and cutting conditions:
Roughing cuts, and
Finishing cuts
Roughing cuts are used to remove large amount of material from
the starting workpart as rapidly as possible, in order to produce a
shape close to the desired form, but leaving some material on the
piece for a subsequent finishing operation. Finishing cuts are used
to complete the part and achieve the final dimension, tolerances,
and surface finish. In production machining jobs, one or more
roughing cuts are usually performed on the work, followed by one
or two finishing cuts. Roughing operations are done at high feeds
and depths feeds of 0.4-1.25 mm/rev (0.015-0.050 in/rev) and
depths of 2.5-20 mm (0.100-0.750 in) are typical. Finishing
operations are carried out at low feeds and depths - feeds of
0.0125-0.04 mm/rev (0.0005-0.0015 in/rev) and depths of 0.752.0 mm (0.030-0.075 in) are typical. Cutting speeds are lower in
roughing than in finishing.
A cutting fluid is often applied to the machining operation to
cool and lubricate the cutting tool. Determining whether a cutting
fluid should be used, and, if so, choosing the proper cutting fluid,
is usually included within the scope of cutting condition.

CHIP FORMATION
During the machining operation chip is formed. There are two
types of chips.

COUNTINOUS CHIP
If the material of the workpiece is ductile, cutting velocity is
high, feed is low, tool rake is positive and depth of cut is small
then a continuous chip is formed.
DISCONTINOUS CHIP
If material of work piece is brittle or ductile but hard, speed is
low, feed is large, tool rake angle is negative ,depth of cut is high
then chip is discontinuous chip.
CONTINOUS CHIP WITH BUILD UP EGDE
If material is ductile, cutting fluid is absent, cutting speed is high
and high friction between chip and tool interface .

COUNTINOUS CHIP

COUNTINOUS CHIP
WITH BUILD UP EDGES

DISCOUNTINOUS
CHIP