Rock Properties Measurement

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Core Analysis
1.2 Core Definitions
2. SAMPLE PREPARATION
2.1 Whole Core Scanning
2.2 Core Cleaning
3. POROSITY MEASUREMENTS
3.1 Methods
3.2 Whole core versus conventional versus
sidewall samples
4. PERMEABILITY
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Impact of Stress
4.3 Steady State Permeability Methods
4.4 Unsteady State Permeability Measurements
5. FLUID SATURATION
5.1 Gas saturation
5.2 Oil saturation by retort
5.3 Water saturation
6. CAPILLARY PRESSURE
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Capillary Pressure Measurement Techniques
6.2.1 Porous Diaphragm (figure 22)
6.2.2 Centrifuge method ( Figure 23)
6.2.3 Dynamic method ( Figure 24)
6.2.4 Mercury Injection ( Figure 25)
6.3 Use of Laboratory Capillary Pressure Data for
Reservoir
6.4 Averaging capillary pressure data
7. EFFECTIVE PERMEABILITY

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Having worked through this chapter the Student will be able to:

List the various types of recovered core.

Describe briefly the various methods of measuring porosity and permeability.

Briefly describe the various stress conditions that can be imposed on a rock
sample.

Understand how to convert laboratory based capillary pressure measurement

data to field related values of capillary pressure.

Be able to determine the saturation distribution in a well made up of different

rock types given capillary pressure data.

Derive the Leverett J function and be aware of the major tortuosity related
assumption in its derivation.

Rock Properties Measurement

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Core Analysis
In this chapter we will focus on the laboratory based methods used to determine some
of the parameters outlined in the previous chapter. The topic is also covered in other
modules of the overall Petroleum Engineering programme in the context of the
specific module. Core recovery is covered in drilling and rock properties are also
covered in the Petrophysics module.
Cores obtained from the reservoir formation contain a considerable amount of
information about the nature of the rocks themselves and various properties. They are
also a source of material for investigating rock behaviour with respect to fluid
displacement and its reaction to various fluid types.
Cores are recovered from the formation of interest using an annular shaped coring bit.
The integrity of the recovered core depends on the nature of the rock and can vary from
rock which is well formed to that which is friable in character or even is so
unconsolidated that it would form a pile of sand on the rig floor when recovered from
the core barrel. The core from the core barrel provides a record, over the well section
recovered, of the properties of the formation. Figure 1 illustrates the wide range of
measurements and procedures carried out on core samples 1.
A comprehensive document on the procedures for generating some of the rock
properties through laboratory measurement is the API Recommended Practices for
Core Analysis 2. APR RP40 which was revised in 1998. This API document goes into
detail beyond that covered in this overview chapter

Routine Core Plug

Analysis
Slabbed Core

Photograph
Sedimentology
Lithology
Samples

Government or
Regulatory Board
Sampling

Curation

Porosity
Permeability
Grain Density
As-Received
Saturations

Special Core Analysis

Thin Sections

Detail Pore Structure

Diagenesis
Porosity Type
Environmental
Evidence

Preserved /Restored State

Capillary Pressure
Relative Permeabilty
Electrical Properties
Acoustic Properties
Compressive Properties
Clay Chemistry Effects
Specific Tests

Small Samples

Figure 1.
Data Obtained From Cored
Wells 1.

Grain Size Distribution

Mineral Analysis
X-Ray and SEM
Analysis
Bio-Dating and
Association

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

Calbration of Wireline Logs

As covered in the previous chapter there are a number of properties in relation to

measurements possible on the cores as shown in the figure 1. In core analysis the
measurements can be divided into two parts; routine measurements which cover; fluid
saturations, porosity and permeability; special core analysis which covers a wide
range of measurements and special tests of special interest to the organisation
commissioning the testing. In this chapter we will focus on routine core analysis and
also cover briefly capillary pressure measurements.

1.2 Core definitions

Before examining some of the methods it is important to define the various core types
used in examining rock properties and their reaction to the transmission of fluids.
These definitions come from the API recommended RP 402.
Fresh Core
Any newly recovered core material preserved as quickly as possible at the wellsite to
prevent evaporative losses and exposure to oxygen. The fluid type used for coring
should be noted, e.g., fresh state ( oil-based drilling fluid), fresh state ( water -based
drilling fluid).
Preserved Core.
Similar to fresh core but some period of storage is implied. Preserved core is protected
from alteration by a number of techniques, from simple mechanical stabilisation using
bubble wrap or similar, freezing the core to lock in fluids which would otherwise
evaporate ( in this case the freezing may alter some of the rock properties), enclosure
in heat -sealable plastic laminates, and dips and coatings.
Cleaned Core.
Core from which the fluids have been removed by solvents. The cleaning process ( the
specification and sequence of solvents, temperatures, etc ) should be specified. Some
solvents could damage the fabric of the rock and special cleaning procedures like
critical point drying might be required for example with rocks containing friable clays
(figure 2).

Figure 2
Sandstone contains illite.

Rock Properties Measurement

Restored - State Core

This is core that has been cleaned and then reexposed to reservoir fluids with the
intention of reestablishing the reservoir wettability condition. The conditions of
exposure to the cude oil, especially initial water saturation, temperature and time , can
all affect the ultimate wettablity.
Pressure - Retained Core
This is material that has been kept, so far as possible, at the pressure of the reservoir
in order to avoid change in the fluid saturations during the recovery process.

2. SAMPLE PREPARATION
2.1 Whole Core Scanning
Prior to subdivision of the whole core for the various types of analysis a number of
procedures can take place to record the characteristics of the whole core and to relate
it to indirect down hole measurements. The purpose of this core examination and
description is to recognise lithological, depositional, structural and diagenetic features
of the whole core or slabbed core. Qualitative and quantitative core descriptions
provide the basis for routine core analysis sampling, facies analysis, and further
reservoir studies such as reservoir quality and supplementary core analysis. Besides
visual examination and generating a photographic record, these techniques provide a
means of relating to downhole measurements and to identify features of the core
which might otherwise if undetected generate unrepresentative data in subsequent
analysis.
The following analysis might be carried out on whole core. A core gamma log, an xray analysis, a computer tomography CT scan and or an Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
NMR Scan.
Within a rock are naturally occurring gamma-ray emitters which can give a measureable
gamma-ray response that can be recorded with depth. If such a measurement can be
made on the whole core in the laboratory this whole core laboratory based measurement
can be used as depth check to relate to open hole measurements. Figure 3.

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Scintillometer
Recorder
Lead Shield
Conveyor Belt
Core

Figure 3
Natural gamma scan on
whole core. (Corelab).

A number of X-Ray techniques can be used which include, floroscopy, x-radiography

and computerised tomography (CT) scanning. In one method a continuous analysis is
where an attenuated x-ray beam directed through the core impinges on a flourescent
screen and the captured image is recorded by video camera. In x-radiography the
attenuation of the beam is captured and recorded on sensitive film. In this procedure
the core is stationary. The advances in CT scanning in medical applications have been
used in CT scanning where the attenuated beam directed in multiple directions by a
rotating beam enables a reconstruction of density variations within the core. The
resolution of the image depends on the thickness of the beam and the size of pixel used
to construct the image. A sketch of CT scanning and the principal on which it is based
is shown in figure 4

Sample for
measurement

Io

Narrow incident
beam

Attenuated
beam

Particle
or energy
detector.

Shield
I = Ioe -h
is a function of bulk density and atomic number

Figure 4(a)
Computer aid tomography
on whole core.
Principal of attenuation.

Rock Properties Measurement

Rotating energy
source and detector

Intensity profiles
Reconstruction algorithm
in computer.

Figure 4(b)
Reconstructed cross section.

The main benefit of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, (NMR) imaging is that it is used
to provide a reconstruction of the fluids within a core, based on the frequency of the
excitation energy associated with a nudei. This excitation energy is supplied by an
oscillating magnetic field. The high energy attenuation associated with CT scanning
does not enable the distinctive density variations as possible with those from NMR
scanning.
These scans are able to identify localised variations in a core which if captured in
subsequent core analysis measurements could give rise to anomolous results.

2.2 Core Cleaning

Sample preparation is an important consideration in core analysis. Prior to samples or
plugs being used for the determination of porosity or permeability they must be
thoroughly cleaned to extract all of the oil and brine and then be properly dried, with
the exception of saturation measurements for the determination of porosity. This is
generally carried through flushing, flowing or contacting with various solvents to
extract hydrocarbons, water and brine.
Solvent extraction using centrifuge, Soxlet and Dean Stark refluxing solvent extractors are commonly used to remove both oil and brine. No standard solvents are used
and organisations use their own preferences (figure 5).

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

Measurement of
collected water
Core plug

Figure 5
Porous diaphragm
capillary-pressure system.

Care needs to be taken to dry the samples particularly when hydrateable minerals are
present in the sample that break down at high temperatures. The drying procedure is
critical in that the interstitial water must be removed with no mineral alteration.
Humidity -controlled ovens are used when drying clay bearing samples to maintain
the proper state of hydration. Critical point can drying be used to clear core continuing
delicate clays like illite (see Phase Behaviour chapter - section 8.1).

3. POROSITY MEASUREMENTS
3.1 Methods
Figure 6 illustrates the methods used for routine determination of porosity.

Rock Properties Measurement

Vacuum Gauge

Valve

Displacement Pump

Boyles Law Porosimeter

Pore Volume Determination
Water

Oil

Gas

Porosity

Pressure Gauge
Outlet Valve

Gas Inlet Valve

Sight Glass
Core Sample

Sample in Place,
Stopcock Open

Micrometer Scale

Mercury

Plunger

Washburn Porosimeter

Sample
Chamber

Reference
Volume

Valve

Figure 6
Porosity measurement
methods (Corelab)

Kobe Porosimeter

Pressure
Gauge
Valve

Grain Volume Determination

Resaturation

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

(a) Bulk Volume

In all porosity methods a bulk core sample volume has to be determined and this may
be carried out either by displacement of liquid or by callipering a shaped sample and
computation by the appropriate formula. Figure 7 shows the displacement method,
and figure 8 shows a mercury displacement pump.

Adjustable fork
Thermometer
Reference mark
Core plug
Mercury vessel

Single pan
balance
_
+ 0.01 gm

Weighted
base

Figure 7
Archimedes mercury
immersion apparatus (API)2

Volume
read-out

Pressure
read-out
Sample
chamber

Displacement
plunger

(b) Summation of fluids

This method involves the independent determination of oil, gas and pure water
volumes of a fresh core sample. The oil and water can be obtained by retort ( Figure
9) and the gas by mercury injection. The pore volume is determined by summing the
three independent volumes.

10

Figure 8
Volumetric mercury
displacement pump (API)2

Rock Properties Measurement

Thermocouple

Insulated Oven
Heating Elements
Sample Cup
Screen
Condensing Tube
Water Bath

Water Inlet

Temperature
Controller

Receiving Tube

Figure 9
Oven retort (API)2

(c) Gas transfer

(i) The Boyles Law based porosity determination method involves the compression
of a gas into the pore space or the expansion of gas from the pores of a prepared
sample. Depending on the instrumentation and the procedure, either pore volume or
grain volume can be determined. Figure 10 shows a typical set up for this and is the
most common method for measuring the grain volume. It involves setting up a
pressure in a known reference volume and then expanding the pressure into the space
containing the sample. With suitable calibration the grain volume is determined
using the ideal gas relation that PV=constant.
P2

Sample
chamber

Reference
volume

P1

Gas in

Figure 10
Boyle's law porosimeter.

Pressure
regulator

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11

(ii) The Washburn-Bunting method involves the vacuum extraction and collection
of the gas contained in the pores of a prepared sample. The method measures pore
volume.
(d) Liquid resaturation
The pores of a prepared sample are filled with a liquid of a known density. The increase
in weight of the sample divided by the fluid density is a measure of the pore volume.
(e) Grain density
Total porosity is determined by this method as compared with effective porosity. The
sample is reduced to grain size after the dry weight and bulk volume are determined.
Grain volume is determined and subtracted from the bulk volume to yield the total pore
volume.

3.2 Whole core versus conventional versus sidewall samples

As well as coring using a coring bit and core barrel, it is also possible to recover
samples of the formation using wireline tools, these are termed sidewall coring. There
are two types of sidewall coring devices. One is based on exploding a core plug shaped
piece into the formation. Clearly samples recovered by this technique may be suitable
for mineral description but are not so suited to porosity and permeability analysis as
a result of the damage generated by the explosive force of the sampling device.
Sidewall corers which cut into the formation do not suffer from such mechanical
damage.
Whole core porosities tend to be slightly lower than small plug samples in certain rock
types. The whole core is likely to include tighter material than would be included in
a more carefully sampled plug.
For samples with medium to high porosity, sidewall and conventional samples agree
within one or two percent. During sidewall sampling low porosity highly cemented
materials tend to shatter and yield values greater than the true porosity.

4. PERMEABILITY
4.1 Introduction
The API recommended practice for the determination of permeability is also detailed
in API RP 40 which is a considerable improvement on API RP27.
There are essentially two approaches to measuring the permeability, the steady state
method where the pressure drop for a fixed flow rate is measured, generally a gas, or
the unsteady state method where the flow in the transient regeme is measured.
In the latter there are two types of test , the pulse-decay method where two pressures
are set up and downstream of the contained sample. A slight increase in the upstream
pressure is imposed and the decay of this pressure through the sample is monitored.
The advent of very high speed data acquisition systems and accurate pressure
12

Rock Properties Measurement

transducers has made it possible to monitor these transient flow conditions. The other
approach is the pressure fall off method where a relatively low upstream pressure is
set and the decay of this pressure is monitored as it is released through the core to the
downstream open to atmosphere.

4.2 Impact of Stress

Over recent years the impact of reservoir stresses on rock properties and therefore the
interest in measuring rock properties under realistic stresses has grown in particular
in relation to permeability. Stress effects also have an impact on other properties
included porosity . In describing the various approaches to permeability measurement
we will also look at various procedures for imposing stress on the samples.
In figure 19 of the previous chapter we identified the various stress directions in the
context of permeability measurement. Figure 11 illustrates the core recovered from
a vertical well and the natural stresses imposed. It is important to distinguish the
different possible stress loadings that can be applied to core plugs and also the
configuration of the stresses in the natural state. In the natural state the stresses can
be considered to be resolved in three principal directions. The vertical direction being
the major principal stress and the two horizontal directions the two minor principal
stresses. Figure 11a

Core plug
for horizontal
k measurement

Major
principal stress

Core plug
for vertical
k measurement

Whole core

Minor principal stresses

Figure 11 (a)
Core recovered from
vertical well and stress
orientation in the reservoir.

4 Inch

Formation

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13

If a core plug is recovered from a whole core recovered from a vertical well then the
stress orientations in a permeability test would be as shown in the sketch below. Figure
11b and 11c. These figures demonstrate that for a cylindrical horizontal core plug it
is difficult to impose a distinctive major principal stress on the core plug different from
one of the minor principal stresses whereas for a vertical orientated core plug such
distinctive stresses can be applied.
Major principal stress

Minor
principal
stress

Minor principal stress

Major principal stress

Figure 11 (b)
Stress orientation for
horizontal core plug.

Major principal stress

Minor principal stress

Figure 11 (c)
Stress orientation from
vertical core plug

In requesting reservoir stresses to be applied to core plug measurements it is important

to examine that the stresses applied actually represent those which the rock would be
subjected to in the formation.
The various modes of stressing a rock are shown in figure 12 a-d
Isostatic Stress. Figure 12a. Under isostatic stress loading, equal stress is applied to
the sample in all directions, and sample strain can occur on all axes. Excessive porosity
reduction typically occurs when the imposed isostatic stress is equal to the vertical
reservoir stress ( i.e., the overburden stress).

14

Rock Properties Measurement

L
Sample

Figure 12 (a)
Isostatic Stress

1
D

Triaxial Stress. Figure 12b. Under the true triaxial stress conditions, unequal stress
is applied to the three major axes of the sample. In the general case, strains will be
different on each axis. Typically a cube or rectangular prism -shaped sample will be
used.
1
L1

Figure 12 (b)
Triaxial Stress

3
L3

L2

Biaxial Stress. Figure 12c. Biaxial stress loading conditions are a special case of
triaxial stress loading. In the biaxial stress loading of a cylinder , the stress parallel
to the cylinders axis is different from the stress applied around the cylinders
circumference. Strains can occur parallel to both the axis and diameter of the cylinder.
C

L
Sample

Figure 12 (c)
Biaxial Stress

1
D

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15

Uniaxial Strain. Figure 12d. Uniaxial strain compression is a special case of biaxial
stress loading; the stress applied to the circumference is just sufficient to maintain the
diameter constant as the stress parallel to the cylinder axis is increased. Strain occurs
only parallel to the axis of the cylinder.
1
L
Sample

2 L

Figure 12 (d)
Uniaxial Strss

1
D

4.3 Steady State Permeability Methods

The most conventional permeability measurement approach has been to use the
measurement of the pressure drop associated with a fixed flow rate. To determine
specific permeability nitrogen or air is usually caused to flow through a prepared
sample of measured dimensions. The pressure differential and flow rates are measured
and the permeability calculated from the Darcy equation. A schematic set up is shown
in the sketch below . Figure 13
End view showing
radial stress

Pressure
transducer
P1

Differential
Pressure.

P2

qr @ Pr, Tr

Pa

Flow meter

Pressure
regulator
Sample holder

The confining of the core in this case shows a Hassler type core holder where the radial
stress is low and is applied to ensure that flow of gas does not by-pass the core.
Figure 14 shows a high pressure core holder designed to impose reservoir stresses. The
slideable inlet tube enables the strain of the stress core to be taken up. The stress
loading for this arrangement is isostatic.

16

Figure 13
Schematic of steady state
permeability measurement 2

Rock Properties Measurement

Inlet Port for

Confining Oil
Cavity for
Hydraulic Oil
Slidable Inlet to Produce Confining Rubber
Tube
Sleeve
Stresses

Figure 14
High pressure core holder
for stress condition,
isostatic 2.

End Plug

Retaining
Ring

Cylindrical
Core Plug

Outlet
Flow Tube

End Plug

Figure 15 shows a sophisticated core holder where a different axial stress can be
applied compared to the radial stress. In this arrangement the end faces of the core plug
need to be machined accurately to ensure that the loading of the axial stress is
distributed over the whole face. If not the core is liable to fragment. The stress loading
for this core plug is biaxial.

Inlet Flow Port

Rubber Sleeve

Port for Oil to Produce

Radial Confining Stress,
or Vacuum to Dilate Sleeve

Core Plug

Reach Rod, 4X

Outlet
Ports

Port for Oil to Produce

Radial Confining Stress,
or Vacuum to Dilate Sleeve
Large Piston of Axial Stress
Intensifier
Cavity for
High Pressure
Nitrogen for
Axial Stress

Figure 15
High pressure core holder
or biaxial loading 1.

N2

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17

Using a core plug removed from a horizontal well core it is possible using biaxial
stress loading to somewhat simulate the stress conditions, by considering the two
minor principal stresses as equal. However using biaxial stress conditions for a
conventional plug from a vertical well recovered core, then the stress conditions
imposed do not reflect those in the formation. The radial stress is a combination of
the major principal stress and one of the minor principal stresses and in the equipment
these are equal. If however, one is interested in measuring the vertical permeability
from a sample extracted from the whole core then biaxial stress conditions will reflect
more readily the reservoir stress condition.
A recent innovation has been the true triaxial cell 2 (Figure 16). In this arrangement
a series of axial tubes are hydraulically pressured between the confining rubber sleeve
of the core and the core holder body. This enables a stress pattern to be established
to represent a more realistic stress condition reservoir stress conditions.

Platen
Threaded
end cap

Trapped tube

A
Core

Rubber
sleeve

Aluminium
cell body

Hydraulically
pressured tubes

Maximum principal stress

2
1

3
3

3
3

2
3

1
1

3
2

Section AA

18

Face of
core plus

Figure 16
True trixial cell.

Rock Properties Measurement

Although liquids could be used in permeability measurements it is common to use a

gas. Gas permeabilities need to be corrected for the Klinkenberg effect and reported
as equivalent liquid permeabilities.
The samples for analysis may be either the consolidated piece used for the porosity
determination or another sample but clearly it must be extracted and cleaned to ensure
that no water or oil are present. If interstitial water is very saline then it may be
necessary to remove salt.
Another recent innovation has been the probe permeameter. These devices were
initially invented to meet the need for a device to give indications of permeability of
an outcrop. The application of rock outcrops as analogues of subsurface formations
has been very valuable in developing geological/ reservoir modelling procedures. The
examination of the various levels of permeability measurement , (upscaling) , have
demonstrated the value of being able to measure the permeabiliy over a small area
which the probe permeameter affords. Figure 17 shows an arrangement of a typical
probe permeameter . As well as back pack mouted version for use in outcrop studies
they can also be laboratory mounted and can automatically scan the permeability
variations in a slab of rock.

Flow
meter
Pressure
regulators

Figure 17
Schematic of steady state
probe permeameter.

Pressure
transducer

Rock being
examined

ri

ro

The API RP40 document also describes a radial steady-state apparatus, figure 18,
where flow is from the outer to the inner radius. In this set up the preparation is not
easy and axial stresses are not balanced by radial stresses.

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19

Rubber Gaskets
Calibrated
Gas Burette

rw

P1

Mercury Manometer

Springs

re

P2
L
Piston

Pivot Ball
Regulators
Air Supply

Figure 18
Radial flow steady state
permeameter 2.

4.4 Unsteady State Permeability Measurements

The advent of high speed computers and data acquisition systems has enabled the
application of unsteady state permeability measurements. The principles are similar
to the behaviour of a well during a well test and the analysis of the pressures during
the unsteady state draw down or build-up period. Figure 19 gives a schematic of a
pressure-fall off system. An upstream gas reservoir of different volumes, to
accommodate a wide range of permeabilities, is pressured and then released to
atmosphere via flow through the core. The pressure just upstream of the core is
accurately monitored. Full details of the calculation procedure presented by Jones are
given in the API RP40 practise document 2.

VT
Fill

Vent

P1
Pc
VP

Hydrostatic
confining
pressure

Figure 19
Schematic of pressure - fall
of gas permeameter 2.

20

Rock Properties Measurement

In the pulse decay method for permeability measurement a configuration of equipment is as shown in figure 20. It consists of an upstream and downstream reservoir.
The two gas reservoirs are filled to a pressure. When equilibrium is reached with all
valves open, the joining valves are closed and the pressure in the upstrean gas reservoir
is increased by 2-3% of the pressure set in the vessels. The valve 1 is then opened and
the pressure time behaviour of the transient flow behaviour is monitored. This
procedure lends itself to very low permeability values, 0.1-millidarcies to 0.01
microdarcies. Calculation procedures are also given in the API practise document.
Valve 2

Fill/vac.

+_

Figure 20
Pulse decay apporatus axial
flow of gas.

V1
Valve 1

p
P2
V2

VP
Pc

5. FLUID SATURATION
Core analysis is sometimes used to measure the fluid saturations associated with the
core. Because of the large pressure variations between the reservoir and the surface
these saturations are not too representative of the values that would exist in the
formation, unless precautions have been taken to prevent evaporation during prssure
decline. Such precautions could be the application of pressure coring where the down
hole pressure is held in the core barrel as it is recovered to surface. At the surface prior
to releasing the pressure the core in its container is frozen. It is then slipped and stored
in a frozen state. During controlled thawing of the core the fluids produced and
retained enable downhole saturation to be obtained.

5.1 Gas saturation

Conventional and sidewall core samples have gas saturation measured by injecting
mercury into the gas filled portions of the pores. The gas is compressed into a small
volume or forced into solution in the liquids in the pores using a mercury pump.
Measurement of the volume of mercury penetrated is a measure of the gas content of
the sample.

5.2 Oil saturation by retort

Oil distilled at atmospheric pressure gives a measure of the oil content of the plug. The
distillate is collected in a calibrated receiver. Temperatures up to 6500C are used
(Figure 9).

5.3 Water saturation

Samples can have their water content determined by atmospheric distillation
concurrently with the oil content determination. A distinction should be made
between the pore water and the water of hydration or crystallisation.

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21

Water saturation can also be measured by a solvent refluxing method (Dean-Stark)

(figure 20). Toluene is the most commonly used solvent. The oil content of the sample
is obtained by difference of the weight of the sample before and after extraction and
drying less the weight of the water removed during solvent extraction.

Measurement of
collected water
Core plug

Figure 21
Dean Stark Apparatus

6. CAPILLARY PRESSURE
6.1 Introduction
The general laboratory procedure for capillary pressureis to saturate a core sample
with a wetting phase and measure how much wetting measurement phase is displaced
from the sample when it is subjected to some given pressure of non-wetting phase.
Displacement takes place when the oil or non-wetting phase just exceeds the capillary
pressure corresponding to the largest pore. In other words the capillary force will hold
the water in the largest pore until the oil pressure is larger than the capillary pressure
of the largest pore.
The volume of the fluid displaced at a particular pressure also represents the pore
volume of all pores of that particular size. Once this pore volume has been displaced
at a particular pressure the pressure is increased and the new pore volume measured.
A plot of water volume displaced versus the displacement pressure will represent a
plot of the capillary pressure versus the percentage of the pores with a capillary
pressure greater than the subject capillary pressure.

22

Rock Properties Measurement

Clearly a rock which contains a variety of pore sizes will have a capillary pressure
curve which is not discontinuous but is a smooth curve.
Since capillary pressure,

Pc =

2Cos
r

the curve can be calibrated to represent pore size versus percentage of pores less than
the subject pore size.

6.2 Capillary Pressure Measurement Techniques

There are four main methods for capillary pressure measurement
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Desaturation or displacement through a porous diaphragm.

Centrifuge or centrifugal method.
Dynamic capillary pressure method.
Mercury injection method.

6.2.1 Porous Diaphragm (figure 22)

In the porous diaphragm method there is a permeable membrane of uniform pore size
distribution containing pores of such a size that the selected displacing fluid will not
penetrate the diaphragm when the pressures applied to the displacing phase are below
some selected maximum pressure of investigation. Pressure applied to the assembly
is increased by small increments. The core is allowed to approach a state of static
equilibrium at each pressure level. The saturation of the core is calculated at each point
defining the capillary pressure curve. Any combination of fluids can be used: gas, oil
and/or water.
This procedure is closest to the actual saturation in the reservoir but the method is time
consuming varying from 10 to 40 days for a single sample.
Nitrogen Pressure
Saran Tube
Crude Oil
Neoprene Stopper
Scale of
Squared Paper
Nickel-Plated
Spring
Core
Kleenex Paper

Seal of
Red Oil

Ultra-Fine
Fritted Glass
Disk
Brine

Figure 22
Porous diaphragm
capillary-pressure system.
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23

6.2.2 Centrifuge method ( Figure 23)

The high accelerations in a centrifuge increase the field of force on a sample subjecting
it to an increased gravitational force. The core plug is mounted in a modified
centrifuge tube as shown and the desaturation of the sample is monitored with a strobe
light.
When the sample is rotated at various constant speeds a complete capillary pressure
curve can be obtained. The advantage of the method is the increased speed of obtaining
the data in that the complete curve can be established in a few hours.
Seal Cap

O-Ring

Window

Core Holder Body

Core

Support Disk

Tube Body

Figure 23
Centrifuge for
determination of capillary
pressure curves 5.

6.2.3 Dynamic method ( Figure 24)

A dynamic method has been used where a simultaneous steady-state flow of two fluids
is established in the core. The saturation is varied by regulating the quantity of each
fluid entering the core and the pressure difference between the two fluids gives the
capillary pressure.
Gas
inlet

Gas
outlet
po

pc

pg

Core

Oil inlet
To atmosphere
Porcelain
plate
Oil burette

6.2.4 Mercury Injection ( Figure 25)

The most common procedure for determination of capillary pressure is using mercury
injection. The procedure was developed to accelerate the determination of the
capillary pressure-saturation relationship. Mercury is the non-wetting fluid. The core
sample is inserted into the mercury chamber of a mercury pump or a mercury
porosimeter and evacuated. Mercury is then injected into the core under pressure. The
volume of mercury injected at each pressure determines the non-wetting phase
saturation. This procedure is continued until the core sample is filled with mercury or
24

Figure 24
Dynamic capillary pressure
equipment 5.

Rock Properties Measurement

the injection pressure reaches some predetermined value. The procedure is used in a
number of industries to determine the pore size characteristics of the porous media.
The main advantages are that the test takes considerably less than the diaphragm
method, a matter of one or two hours. The disadvantages are the difference in wetting
properties and permanent loss of the core sample. Also there is concern on the pore
size to pressure relationship since the desaturation of some large pores may be
determined by access via smaller pores.
0-200 psi Pressure Guage
0-2,000 psi Pressure Guage

Regulating Valve
Lucite Window

To
Atmosphere

Cylinder

U-Tube
Manometer
Lucite Window

Figure 25
Mercury injection
porosimeter 5.

6.3 Use of Laboratory Capillary Pressure Data for Reservoir

Saturation Distribution.
As we have noted above, laboratory capillary pressure tests can be made with a variety
of fluids that differ from reservoir fluids. It is necessary therefore to convert
laboratory based results to be applicable to the field where the fluids might be
different. We will examine the procedure for converting air-mercury data to wateroil data for application in field determinations of saturation profiles.
As shown previously, capillary pressure saturation data can be converted to height
saturation data:

h=

Pc
(w o )g

(1)

Air/mercury capillary pressure curves are comparable in shape to air/brine or oil/brine

capillary pressure curves.

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

25

When converting capillary pressure curves to an equivalent height, the difference in

interfacial tension and contact angle between the laboratory and reservoir systems
must be accounted for. For example
surface tension () of water = 70 dynes/cm
surface tension () of mercury= 480 dynes/cm
contact angle () water/solid = 0 degrees
contact angle () mercury/solid = 140 degrees

Pc =

2Cos
r

(2)

At corresponding saturations therefore

Pcair / mercury 480Cos140

=
5
Pcair / water
70Cos0
Pc air/mercury = 5 Pc air/water

(3)

The interfacial tension and contact angle values will depend on the characteristics of
the fluids. The relationship between Pc mercury/air and Pc oil/water is often taken as
10:1 but these interfacial tension and contact angle values should be checked before
converting data.
Pc air / mercury = 10 Pc water / oil

(4)

The equations below give the procedure for generating a height saturation profile for
the reservoir from a laboratory based Pc vs saturation capillary pressure data.

Pc L (Cos)R
Pc R
(Cos)L
h=
=
(w h )g (w h )g

(5)

where:
h= height in feet above the free water level corresponding to zero capillary pressure
PcR = capillary pressure at initial reservoir conditions (psi)
PcL = capillary pressure in the laboratory (psi)
(Cos)R = interfacial tension cosine of the contact angle (initial reservoir conditions)
(Cos)L = interfacial tension cosine of the contact angle (laboratory conditions)
w = density of water at initial reservoir conditions
h = density of hydrocarbon at initial reservoir conditions
It should be noted that the interfacial tension of an oil/water system is approximately
10 times greater than that for an oil/gas system and that consequently capillary forces
are more important for the former system.

26

Rock Properties Measurement

EXERCISE 1 Calculation of water saturation distribution in a layered reservoir.

The purpose of this exercise is to show that in a well, the water saturation not only
varies with the height above the free water level, but also due to variations in rock
properties.
A well penetrates a reservoir which from cuttings is known to consist of rock types
A and B from which a set of air-mercury measured capillary pressure curves are
available, taken in a nearby well. Figure E1. During logging the lowest 100% Sw
was found at the bottom of the well in rock type B as indicated in the figure E2.
The porosity at this level is 15%.
Specific gravities of the water and oil are 1.03 and 0.80 respectively at reservoir
conditions. The density of water is 62.4 lbm/ft3.
Questions
1. Determine the Free Water level and locate it on figure E2.
2. Construct the water saturation profile.
3. Estimate permeabilities
4. Which intervals would you recommend for completion based on the criteria
Sw<50% and k<0.1mD.
What is the net pay (cumulative thickness having Sw<50%).

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

27

h
(lt)

(mD) 35
Pc. (%) 15
(psi)

15
10

.2
10

5
5

.02
5

250
type A rock
type B rock
200

150

100

50

0
0

50
Pore space unoccupied by mercury

100%

Figure E1
Capillary pressure curves
from nearby well.

Figure E2
Opposite
28

Rock
type

Saturations
Oil

Porosity
10

h
15%
(ft)
(1 cm for
10 ft)

0
100%
5Rock Properties Measurement
100
Water
0 k
Unit No.

(mD)

A
8%
B

12%

10%

15%
B
9%

6%

5%

8%
13%

10%
A
14%
B
10%

100 Sw
in B
type rock
found at
this level

15%

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

29

6.4 Averaging capillary pressure data

Capillary pressure measurements are not part of routine core analysis and a
comprehensive set of capillary pressure data is not always available. Leverett4 in 1941
generated a function which related capillary pressure to porosity and permeability,
which is commonly termed the Leverett J Function. The application of this function
was to be able to generate capillary pressure information when laboratory data was not
available. Capillary pressure data are obtained from core samples which represent an
extremely small part of the reservoir. The J function is used to combine all the
capillary data to classify a particular reservoir .
The theory behind the J Function is outlined below and is based on figure 26
considering flow through a core, which is assumed to be a bundle of capillary tubes.

Lcap

Figure 26
Model of flow for Leverett J
Function.

Lcore

The laminar flow of fluid through a pipe is given by Poiseuilles equation:

q=

r 4 P
8L cap

(6)

For n tubes

qn =

nr 4 P
8L cap

(7)

The porosity of the bundle of tubes is

nr 2
A

(8)

and the permeability is

k=

qL core
AP

If A is substituted for nr and then

30

(9)

Rock Properties Measurement

r2 =

8K L cap
L core

8
(10)

L cap
L core is the tortuosity of the bundle of tubes.
On the assumption that the reservoir rock has the same tortuosity at all points, then
1

K 2
r = constant

(11)

and substituting for r in the definition of capillary pressure gives:,

Pc =

2Cos
K
constant

1
2

(12)

or
1

K 2
Pc

1
=
=J
constant
Cos

(13)

Sometimes the J function is written without the Cos term.

The capillary pressure measurements can therefore be normalised for differences in
permeabilities, porosities and fluids and used to measure the capillary pressure, i.e. the
J function is obtained independent of k, , and .
A set of capillary pressure data from a set of 9 core plugs taken from different depths
in a well is shown in figure 27 and shows the wide variation in shape of these curves
reflecting the different pore characteristics as given in the table below.
CAPILLIARY PRESSURE vs WATER SATURATION (Sw)

Sample
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Permeability
mD

Porosity
%

0.55
76.10
3.59
0.85
2.82
1,100.00
649.00
457.00
58.10

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

15.2
27.4
20.2
20.3
22.0
25.3
23.2
22.4
19.7

31

17
16
15
14
13
12
11
7 6 8

Pc (PSIG)

10

9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Sw %

A plot of the J function for a set of capillary pressure curves is given in figure 28 and
shows the impact of bringing together different rocks under one curve

32

Figure 27
Set of capillary pressure
curves.

Rock Properties Measurement

1200

1100

1000

900

800

_
1
_k )2
Pc(

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

Figure 28
Leverett J Function

10
10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Sw %

The data for figure 27 however would not generate such a good function. The big
assumption in Leverett's model is that of constant tortuosity. Clearly different rock
types will have different tortuosities as a result of the pore characteristics and
composition of the rock. However within a rock type the J function could be a useful
route to obtain capillary pressure data if porosity, permeability and saturation data is
available.
Examination of field data has shown that by plotting J versus a better correlation

(Sw Swc )
(1 Swc )

is obtained suggesting that the Swc reflects the tortuosity variations

within the various rocks. Figure 29

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

33

32

LEGEND

30
Different reservoir sand sequence
in a formation

28
26

Dimensionless Capillary Pressure Pc

24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Normalised Wetting Phase Saturation Sw* = Sw-Swc

1-Swc

34

1.0

Figure 29
Modified Leverett J
Function Curves.

Rock Properties Measurement

7. EFFECTIVE PERMEABILITY
It is not the intention of these notes to review in detail the various approaches to
measuring effective permeabilities to multiphase systems. There has been considerable
activity in this area for gas - oil, oil - water, and three phase gas - oil - water systems.
There are two approaches to measuring relative permeability, using an unsteady state
method or a steady state method.
In the unsteady state method, a displacement process is set up where one fluid
displaces another and the flow rates and pressure drops are monitored as a function
of time for a fixed rate process. The saturations are obtained by calculation the
remaining volumes of the respective fluids. It is more difficult to generate relative
permeabilities as a function of saturation in this way and some would consider the
method is more suited to generate end-point effective permeabiliy values.
In the steady state method a range of constant rate tests are set up and the pressure drop
noted when equilibrium has been achieved. Figure 30 gives a sketch of a typical
steady state set up.

Oil recycle system

Differential
pressure
transducer
P

Differential
pressure
transducer
P

Oil
Brine

Composite core

Oil - water
separator and
production monitor

Brine recycle
system

Figure 30
Steady state relative
permeability.

Pressure
control
system

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

35

The focus is again on three phase relative permeability which has been the subject of
many papers and correlations. It is however of great interest now that large WAG,
water - alternating gas injection processes are being used to improve recovery.

Solution to Exercise
EXERCISE 1 Calculation of water saturation distribution in a layered reservoir.
The purpose of this exercise is to show that in a well, the water saturation not only
varies with the height above the free water level, but also due to variations in rod
properties.
A well penetrates a reservoir which from cuttings is known to consist of rock types A
and B from which a set of air-mercury measured capillary pressure curves are
available, taken in a nearby well. Figure E1. During logging the lowest 100% Sw was
found at the bottom of the well in rock type B as indicated in the figure E2. The
porosity at this level is 15%.
Specific gravities of the water and oil are 1.03 and 0.80 respectively at reservoir
conditions. The density of water is 62.4 lbm/ft3.
QUESTIONS
1. Determine the Free Water level and locate it on figure E2.
2. Construct the water saturation profile.
3. Estimate permeabilities
4. Which intervals would you recommend for completion based on the criteria
Sw<50% and k<0.1mD.
What is the net pay (cumulative thickness having Sw<50%).
SOLUTION
1. The first step is to convert the air-mercury capillary pressure data to oil-water.
Pc air/mercury = 10Pc water/oil (equation 4, page 26)
PcR = h (w - o) g (equation 5, page 27)
Conversion values:
Pcair/hg = 10 Pc water oil -

Pc
36

lb f
in 2

lb f 144in 2
lbm
= h ftx(1.03 0.8)x62.4 3 xg
2
2
in
ft
ft

Rock Properties Measurement

lb 144in 2
lb m
Pc oil / water 2f
= h(ft )x(1.03 0.8) 62.4 3 xg
2
n
ft
ft
1 lbf = 1 lbm xg
Pc oil/water psi = 0.1 ft oil/water
Pc air/mercury = 1 ft oil/water
The capillary pressure curves can now be rescaled. Figure E3.
Plotting hft = Pc air/mercury (psi) versus 0 - 100 % water saturation.
2. Free water level
This occurs in rock type B. = 15%. From capillary pressure curve 100% water
saturation at 15 psi i.e. 15 ft.
Free water level is 15 ft below this position, as indicated on Figure E4.
The free water level now provides the basis for the water saturation profile
determination.
3. Water Saturation Profile
The water saturation value is determined at each level where the rock properties
change but noting where the 100% water saturation value occurs for each rock type.
At the first change, the height is 20ft from rock type B, 15% to type B 10%
From the capillary pressure curves the respective saturations are 75% and 100%
Figure E4. For rock type B 10%, the 100% water saturation level is at 27ft when the
saturation decreases. The next rock change is at 41ft above the Free Water Level,
from rock type B 10% to type B 14% with a water saturation value of 73% and 44%.
The 44% is based on an estimate of the capillary pressure curve for a value of porosity
of 14% between the 15% and 10% curves. This process is continued through all the
depths of the rock property changes and the total saturation profile generated.
4. The estimates of permeability are based on porosity permeability trends from the
limited data given for the various rock types of the capillary pressure curves. In unit
1 rock type B 15% the permeability is 35mD Unit 2, B 10% the permeability is 15mD
Unit 3 B 14%, interpolation suggests a value around 32mD and so on through the
units.
5.

Completion intervals according to the criteria Sw<50% and k>0.1mD are

shaded on the figure E4.

6.

Net pay adds up to around 125ft.

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

37

250'

h
(lt)

(mD) 35
Pc. (%) 15
(psi)

15
10

.2
10

5
5

.02
5

250
type A rock
type B rock

200'

200

150'

150

100'

100

50'

50
40'
20'

0'

20'
15 psi

0
0

38

50
Water saturation

100%

Figure E3
Capillary pressure curves
from nearby well

Rock Properties Measurement

15%

Rock
type

h
(ft)

230

200

Porosity
10

Saturations
Oil

100

Water

100%
0

Unit No.

k
(mD)

17

0.02

16

0.08

15

21

14

15

13

0.2

12

35

11

12

10

0.12

0.03

0.02

10

26

15

150

100

0.2
50

3
32
B

10 mm

15

35

100% WL
15'

FWL

Figure E4

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

39

REFERENCES
1. Archer. S., Wall. C., Petroleum Engineering Principles and Practice, Graham and
Trotman 1986
2. Recommended Practices for Core Analysis. American Petroleum Institute.
Recomended Practise 40. Second Edition , Feb 1998.
3. Smart. B,
4. Leverett. M,C., Capillary Behaviour in Porous Solids. Trans AIME 1941
5. Amyx et al Petroleum Reservoir Engineering McCranhill 1960

40