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BAB 16
POLIMER
A. Definition
Polymers consist of very high molecular weight, which is strung by a
combination of relatively small molecules (monomers) together in a large number
of chemical, the process is called polymerization. Many components of the
polymer system life: proteins, polysaccharides and nucleic acids. Early industry
involved the use of some natural polymers, including wool (protein) and cotton
(polysaccharide) to produce garments. New technologies that have recently
entered into a chemical that gives a variety of synthetic polymers. In 1869
celluloid, a derivative of cellulose nitrate plant polysacacharide, first, make plastic
bakelite and, in 1990 a phenol and formaldehyde polymer perfect first artificial
plastic. Patenting it. Once launced, the growth of production and use of synthetic
polymers have imperssive. About the production of plastics, elastomers, and after
the fibers expand in 1963. The industries that thrive around manmade polymers or
natural polymers from commercial use. We need to focus attention on some of the
industry.
B. Plastic
A giant plastic production indutry ways. In the past year, more than 50
billion pounds produced in the United States, and this value is predicted to reach
75 billion pounds in 2000. The number of selected products shown in table
16.1 .As the chemical system uses the largest part of the plastic packaging (28%).
Followed by the construction industry (22%). In fact, plastics are engaged in all
aspects of daily life. Replace wood, metal, glass, oil-based piant, traditional
adhesives, paper, and natural rubber. Substitution of metal to plastic in style, has
been repairing the car to get rid of some of the problems of corrosion. Accidents
and safety, to promote weight loss, and fuel.
Table 16.1 The main products are plastic in 1985
Plastik
Billions of pounds in production
Thermoplastic
Low-density polythylene
8.9
Polyvinylchloride and copolymers
6.8
High-density polyethylene
6.7
Polypropylene
5.1
Poystyrene
4.1
Thermoset resins
Phenolic
Urea resins
2.6
1.2
Polyesters
Epoxies
Melamine resins
1.2
0.4
0.2
Using several films, such as new areas are material consumption. Disposal
of plastic material is already getting scared. EPA estimates that, at the end of the
19th century, plastic has 9.8% for passive bond waste. The greater effort directed
toward recycling plastic in a certain way.
1. Plastic Chemical Properties
Plastic is a polymer structure and synthesize material generally is
petroleum. It is, however, some important plastic derived from modified cellulose,
natural polymers, and silicones are derived from silicon, rather than the carbon
structure. With the aim of understanding the relationship of potential danger of
making plastic operations, it would be useful to understand some basic chemistry.
2. Linear and thermoset polymers
Two main classes of plastics polymerization results from the process.
Thermoplastics is a linear polymer. The definition of linear polymers are
combined together, like beads on a thread. Last solid plastic parts look like a bowl
of spaghetti, mass composed long strands packed together. Name thermoplastic
arises from the fact that on heating (thermo) fine material (to be plastic). This is
the result of heat can pass through the polymer strands glued. Plastics that can
heat up the situation, then extruded or molded into the desired shape. To cool,
becomes rigid again when the masses. The process can be repeated, so it can stop
the remelted and reshaping.
Polymers from another class, the thermoset plastic, connected to a network
that has three dimensions monomers 16.1b (figure). That may be. Formed, once a
certain portion of a plastic object that can be connected to any other part of the
continuous chemical bonds of the game, so, in other words, a thermoset plastic
objects like in the molecule. Thermoset plastics are very rigid. Any attempt to
change the form of the noun in violation of the chemical bonds that required, and
sincere that occur. In heating, thermoset plastic until they maintain a high enough
temperature to dissolve their chemical bonds. In the presence of air current
produces charring oxidize the structure.
Polymers that can be converted to air-linears thermoset plastic or taking
property by crosslinking treat 16.1c (figure). Bridging with petals that uses
chemical agents to gather into petals, larger. The process of change that will be
done is, with the desired level of property resulting from a reduction in the variety
and flexibility of meltable thermoplastic which becomes hard and rigid thermoset.
Mers are now joined by Linkage. However, at one end of the combination there is
an unreacted carboxyl group available to react with another amine, and the other
end there is an unreacted amine available to react with another carboxyl group. If
one of the monomers wew to have three reactive group, the polymerizations
reactions would from the thermoset type of structure. Examples of condensation
polymers are found in the Table 16.3.
C. The Relationship of Chemical Structure to Properties
The manner wich such properties as strength, elasticity, and hardness
correspond to chemical structure of a polymer is very interesting to chemists.
Most significant are the ability of two standart to attract one another, flexibility of
the polymer backbone and the regularity of the repeating pattern along the
polymer strand. Such characteristic differ with the monomer selected.
We can fine tune the properties by mixing more than one monomer
together to produce a copolymer. The final product should display contributions
from each of the monomers. Examples of common commercial copolymers
include SaranTMand ABS plastics. SaranTM is copolymer of vinyl chloride and
vinylidene chloride, while of copolymers commonly used in industry is provide in
Table 16.4
Linear polymers show varying degrees of ability for the polymer stands to
take on an orderly arrangement. This depends on such variables as the regularity
of the polymer structure the existence and strength of special attractivesforces
between chemical structures on the strands, and the rigidity of the strands. A
plastic that is very disorderly is termed amorphous. Amorphous plactics are more
flexible, but have lower resistanceto tear. When a plastics has orderly regions,
called crystallities, it becomes more rigid and stronger (Figure 16.2). The degree
catalysts (curing agents) and crosslinking structures, which are then fed into the
mold. Alternatively, monomeric structures and a catalyst are mixed.
D. Hazard of polymer synthesis
The synthesis of polymers is a chemical process carried on in plants with
towers, tanks, and reactors connected by endless pipes with valves and gauges. As
is typical of such operations, chemicals are in closed systems, so they seldom
contact workers under normal circumstances. It is important to focus on times
whwn such contact does occur, to be sure all employees are informed of the
hazards off the compounds, of necessary personal protection if contact does occur,
and of emergency spill procedures.
Chemical exposure is more likely during unloading of chemicals at the
plant site. Leaks in pipes, valves, and gauges are alays possible. There is special
concern any time system are opened, as during plant maintenances. Routine
cleaning of tanks and other vessels involves worker entry into confined spaces and
direct contact with chemicals, even if the tank is purged in an appropriate fashion
beforehand.
E. Types of plastics processing
It is useful to understand what operations occur in a manufacturing facility
in order to fully appreciate the generation of hazards. Manufacturing operations
range from huge factories, such as those operated by auto companies to produce
the plastics components of cars, to very small plants contracting production of a
few components or of shorts run of a few parts. Often the machinery used is quite
standard, and only the changing of a mold or die is required to convert a machined
from production of one part to another in a small operation.
1. Mixing
as has been stated, a finished product is likely to contain a variety of
additives to the pure polymer, such as pigments, plasticizers, fillers, and
stabilizers. Dry mixing is accomplished with mechanical stirrers, much as a cake
better is made in the kitchen. a better mix is obtained if the plastic is melted, and
this may be formed immediately into product once melted and mixed, or it may be
formed into strips or sheets, which are then cut pellets to feed into the hooper of a
moldin g or other forming machine later. particulate in the air is the most serious
hazard of mixing processes.
2. Casting and injection molding
when molding is done without pressure, it is termed casting. casting could
involve pouring the pkastic into a mold. thee are also continous casting processes
where a sheet or film is produced by pouring the plastic onto a belt moving
through an oven. casting can be done with polymers, or with polymerr-monomer
mixed that complete polymerization in a hot mold.
the most common way to form plastic into products is injection molding.
pallets are melted, then the melt is forced into a mold. the mold is cooled and the
product removed, often by use of a high-presure air jet. the shapes of the sprues,
runners, and gates are trimmed off and recycled as scrap, but otherwise the surface
is very well finished and usually needs no further work. injection molding of the
thermoplastics can form large object and can be run at a high production rate.
thermoset plastics can be injection molded, but the process nis more
difficult. yhere is a need to adjust the heating process to soften the reactants before
molding, but the product must not haarden in the heating chamber.
molding requires that the dies be opened to remove the product, then
closed againts the mechine again for the next cycle, which is a noisy process. this
is laid over the general noise level of the hydraulic pumps, valves, and lines. when
an air jet is used to remove thye parts from the mold, the noise produced is quiet
loud, and the cutting off of scrap can be noisy. noise levels are a major problem in
an injection molding operation. heat can volatilized materials from the melt, but
such vapors are usually easily controled.
3. Blow molding
blow molding is used to produce hollow objects such as bottles and
containers. in extrusion blow molding, a hot plastic tube is formed and the end is
Pinched shut, usually by the mold. The mold are water cooled, and the plastic
tube is inflated to fill the mold cavity, then solidified against the cool surfaceof the
mold. Scrap is cut off and recycled. In injection blow molding a quantity of plastic
is injected on a rod and forced into a mold, where the container is blown. It differs
from extrusion blow molding in that the cavity is the shape of the final product, so
there is no scrap.
As with injection molding, noise levels are high. The use off compressed
air is primarily responsible for the noise.
4. Vacuum and pressure forming
In vacuum forming, a thin sheet of plastic is heated and laid over a mold,
either male or female. The space between the sheet and the mold is the evacuated,
forcing the sheet to conform to the shape of the mold. The mold is cooled to set
the plastic in desired shape, and the part is removed. Pressure forming is a very
similar process, the only difference being that pressure is applied outside the sheet
rather than a vacuum being formed between the sheet andv the mold. These
processes adapt well to high production rates. Vacuum molding is also used
package objects, especially fragile objects, by placing a plastic sheet over the
object and evacuating the space between the object ang the sheet. Once again,
pumping air generates noise in all these processes.
5. Extrusion and calendaring
A number of products, including pipe, tubing, sheets, films and fibers, are
prepared by extrusion. The molten plastics is forced continuously through a die to
generate the desired cross section. Some films are prepared by blowing a bubble,
then drawing the bubble away from the die continously. When the desired final
surface is obtained by squeezing a sheet between heated rollers, producing
whatever cross section and surface and desired, the process is called calendaring.
Coating textiles or other substrates with plastic can be done on a calendaring
machine. Several components of extruders generates noise.
6. Molding thermoset plastics
Usually the starting material for thermoset molding is a mixture of low
molecular-weight polymers, filler, and crosslinking agents. This molding is more
challenging, because the material first melts and flows troughout the mold cavity,
then hardens into its permanent shape under the influence of heat. Melting must
be done to allow the material is in place. Often it is also necessary to poen the
mold before hardening to allow gases to escape. Clearly, timing and temperature
must be carefully adjusted. The plastic may be added to the mold, then the mold is
closed and material melts and flows (compression molding), or it may be melted
first, then forced into the mold (transfer molding). Thermost plastic scrap
normally cannot be recycled. Machinery noise is a problem for the workers.
7. Foam processing
Foams-plastics with gas bubbles troughout the finished product can be
produced using either thermoplastic or thermoset resins. Foam are strong for their
mass and have excellent thermal, electrical, and acoustical insulation properties.
Bubbles are produced either because the polymerization reaction release a gas or
because a foaming agent ( chemical blowing agent) is added to the plastic that
generates a gas as the plastic is heated. For example, nitrogen may be added to the
polymer melt under pressure. When the pressure is released, the gas leaves
solution as a multitude of tiny bubbles.
Liquids such as freons (chlorinated-fluorinated hydrocarbons) have been
very popular blowing agents because of their low toxicity, but these will need to
be replaced as the ban on such compounds is imposed to reduce theire damaging
effect on the atmospheric ozone layer. Several organic compounds that decompose
to gases when heated are used. These include azodicarbonimade, 1,1 azo-
Monomers
A few monomers for which special problems exist are discussed below.
(see also table 16.5)
1. vinyl chloride.
Polymerization of vinyl chloride is accomplished in a variety of ways
using peroxide catalysts. Vinyl chloride does not have good warning
properties, such as odor or irritant action. Historically, it was considered to be
a safe compound with a TLV of 500 ppm. Workers are reported to have
learned over open vats and inhaled deeply to experience its narcotic effects. Its
use as an anesthetic had been studied. In 1961 it was suggested by dow
chemical that the TLV should be lowered based on premilinary studies. A
series of problems surfaced in the period that followed. Workers who cleaned
vinyl chloride polymerization vats suffered degeneration of bones
(acroosteolysis) in their hands. In 1972 evidence of iver damage was observed
at levels greater than 300 ppm. Then in 1974, studies showed that workers
displayed a higher than expected level of a very rare cancer, angiosarcoma of
the liver. The OSHA standard for exposure to vinyl chloride became 1 ppm
with a 5 ppm ceiling as of January, 1981. Stripping techniques are now used to
remove unreacted monomer from the polymer product.
2. Acrylonitrile.
This is the monomer in the production of orlon, and is one of the
components of the copolymers ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene) and
SAN (styrene-acrylonitrile). Acrylonitrile can be absorbed through the lungs
or skin. It penetrates rubber gloves, making these inadequate as a protective
measure. In the body it serves as a source of cyanide ion, producing
asphyxiation. It has been shown to be a cause of cancer in both the lung and
the bowel. The OSHA standards (januari 1981) were 2 ppm with a 10 ppm
ceiling.
3. Styrene.
This compound is employed not only to prepare polystyrene and
Styrofoam, but as one of the copolymers in ABS, styrene-butadiene, and SAN
plastics. The vapors are irritating, in fact irritating enough that dangerous
exposure is not likely to be tolerated, and there is the usual skin irritation due
to removal of skin oils. Styrene affects the central nervous system, producing
depression. A problem called styrene sickness involves nausea, vomiting.
Dizziness and fatigue. OSHA standards limit exposure to styrene to 100ppm
Tabel 16.6 Toxicity of Selected Monomers
Monomer
Akrilamida
Akrilonitril
Butadiena
Chloroprene
Diglycidyl ether
Ephichlorohydrin
Etilena
Formaldehida
Isopropil glisidil eter
Toxicity (airbone)
LC50
Ppm
mg/m3
425
259,000
2, 300 11, 800
30
250
950,000
-
92 400
1,100
Exposure Limits
PEL
ppm
mg/m3
0.3
2
1000
2200
25
90
0.5
2.8
5
19
1 ( 10 ppm
peak)
50
240
Akrilat maleat
Metil akrilat
Metilen bisphenyl isosianat
Fenol
Fosgen
Stirena
Anhidrida ftalat
Toluena diisosianat
Vinil klorida
Viniliden choride
1,500
1, 350
-
12, 800
178
74 177
1,000 10,000
-
9,500 24,000
10
180,000
6,350
0.25
1
10
35
0.02
0.2
5
19
0.1
0.4
2
12
100, 200
(ceiling)
0.02
0.14
cancer suspented agent
1
4
human carcinogen, are under review, and standards for its safe use were revised
down to a level of 1 ppm in 1987. Amino reins are similar to phenolics,
substituting urea or melanine for the phenols. Here too, formaldehyde is a serious
problem. Hexamethyltetramine, used in forming those polmers, decompose to
give formaldehyde and ammonia, both of which are irritating.
2. Diisocyanates.
Polturethane and polyisocyanurates are produced by reacting diisocyanates
with polyethers having terminal alcohol groups on the chain. The diisocyanates
include TDI ( toluene diisocyanate) and MDI (methylene diphenyl diisocyanate),
and these compounds present serious threat. The isocyanate chemical group was
responsible for the massive loss of life in the chemical escape at Bhopal, India.
The difference between the methyl isocyanate that escaped at Bhopal and these
compounds is basically one of volatility. Isocyanate react rapidly with water, and
so are irritants on moist surfaces such as the eyes and respiratory tract. In addition
they are potent sensitizers. The PEL for MDI is 0.02 ppm and for TDI is 0.05
ppm.
3. Polyester and Alkyd Monomers.
Polyesters and alkyds may utilize acid anhydrides, such as phthalic
anhydride or maleic anhydride, along with polyalcohol structures, as monomers.
The acid anhydrides react vigorously with small amounts of water, producing heat
and concentrated acid. They cause burns and irritation on contact with eyes, nasal
passages, throat, and moist skin. Unlike many of the compounds in this chapter,
they are not volatile liquids. However, they can enter the workplaces air as dusts
produced during transfer and handling. Polyethylene terephthalate is made by
reacting dimethyl terephthlate with ethylene glycol to polymerize at higher
temperatures by ester exchange. Antimony oxide and zinc acetate are commonly
used in this process, and dusts result as the bags are opened and dumped.
4. Acrylis Monomers.
Acrylic acid and a wide variety of its derivatives, especially esters, are
used as monomers. These are skin irritants, and the vapors produce nervous
system effects such as headaches, irritability, numbness in the extremities, slurred
speech, and fatigue. The nerveous system symptoms for acrylamide are
particulary severe, and the PEL for this solid is 0.3 mg/m3 in the air.
5. Polycarbonate Monomers.
The preparation of polycarbonate plastics involves the use bisphenol A,
dioxine, and phosgene. Phosgene gas has been described in Chapter 6 as a lower
respiratory tract irritant. As such, it must be handled with extreme care. The odor
and immediate level of irritant experienced on contact with this compound are
insufficient warning to workers to assure they will not voluntarily allow
dangerous doses intu thr lungs. Dioxane has been classed as a carcinogen.
6. Nylon Monomers.
Nylons may be prepared using diacids or diacid chlorodes, which are
reacted with diamines. The diacids are not serious problems, but diacid chlorides
are similar ti acid anhydrides in properties, and can cause severe skin to damage.
The diamines are irritants and sesitizers, and so also must be carefully handled.
The amino acid caprolacatam, used to make Nylon 6, causes nise and throat
irritation, irritability, and nerveousness.
7. Vinylidene Chloride.
Most commonly, this monomer is copolymerized with vinyl chloride. It is
irritating to the skin and eyes, and may include a phenolic inhibitor, which
increases the irritant potential. (See styrene.) When inhaled, it produces a state of
drunkness.
8. Vinyl Acetate.
This Monomer is used to prepare polyvinyl alcohol. The ester(acetate)
groups are removed after polymerization. The vapors of the monomer are upper
respiratory tract irritants, and are narcotic.
9. Ethylene.
Ethylene is pbtained from a refinery cracker, and is polymerized using
organic peroxide catalysts. Etylene has low toxicity, but high fire and explosion
hazard.
10. Vicose Rayon Components.
One starts here with the polymer(cellulose) and modifies it. The most
hazardous compound in the process is carbon disulfide, which is extremely
volatile and has a very low flash point. It affects the central nerveous system,
producing anything from dizzness and fatigue to psychological disturbance. It is
also a respiratory irritant.
11. Cellulose Acetate Components.
Cellulose (wood pulp or cotton) is mixed with glacial acetic acid, sulfuric
acid, and acetic anhydride to produce this polymer. Some ester linkages ate them
removed by acid catalyzed hydrolysisto adjust polymer properties. Milling the
cellulose souces is a noisy process, and dust from the cellulose source and acid
vapors are obvius problems. Washing with water generates high humidity
conditions, adding to the pottential for heat stress in hot weather. Drying and
handling the final product is another time of potential dust problems.
I. Catalysts (Curing Agents)
A sampling of commonly used catalysts is shown inTable 16.6. Reactions
to form addition polyners very often proceed by a free radical mechanism. Such a
mechanism requires a source of a free radical structures with unpaired electrons
to initiate the chemical reaction. Most often organic peroxide are used. Around
fifity different such compounds are available, primarily peresters and
percarbonate. Benzoyl peroxide and MEK peroxide are representative and
frequently encountered examples. Peroxides share similar properties, all being
string oxidizing agents capable of reacting violently with appopriate substabces.
Skin irritation and burns are likely on contact with peroxides, and severe eye
damage is possible. Benzoyl peroxide is a sensitizer, with chronic exposure
leading to an allergic rash. It has PEL of 5 mg/m3, and IDLH level if 1000 mg/m3.
Both from the standpoint of hazard due to direct contact, and because of a
potentially violent reaction, waste or spilled peroxides should be diluted by water,
and any rags used in the cleanup of spills similary should be put in water. The rate
of chemical decomposition of peroxides increases with tempratures, and contact
with combustibles such as paper or wood can lead to fires.
The alumunium alkyl catalysts used with polyolefins are physically very
hazardous. They react violently with water, and burn spontaneously in air. In
solution, these compounds can cause seroius burns, and fumes they produce are
danaging to the lungs.
Organic metal salts or tertiary amines are used as catalysts in polyurethane
or polyisocyante sythesis. Both penetrate the skin and may be sensitizers.
J. Accelerators
Although not catalysts themselves, accelerators make catalysts make catalysts
more effective. For example, cobalt naphthanate stimulates the decomposition of
peroxides into the very reactive free radicals.
In general, these compounds are irritants, airbone samples causing irritation of
eyes, nose, and throat, and direct contact with skin causing rash. They are
frequently sensitizers. Thiran and disulfiram share with AntabuseTM.the ability to
block the metabolism of ethanol and aldehydes. Nausea and vomiting follow
intake of etahnol after contact with these compounds. The PEL for the solid
thiram is 5 mg/m3. Dimethylaniline is used as an acccelerator in polyester
synthesis. It absorbs readily through the skin, and once in the body is a central
Plasticizers
Fillers
Used most frequently with thermoset plastics, fillers are generally stable
and inert solids. Clays, silicates, and glass fibers are typical of the materials used.
Hazard is largelt present when particulates from these enter the air, either while.
Tabel 16.6 Commonly Used Catalysts Systems
Etilena
Produk
density tinggi polyethylene
density rendah polyethylene
Katalis
Alumunium alkil ditambah titanium tetraklorid
Kromium oksida pada alumina atau silika tert butil
Propil
Stirena
Vinil
klor
ida
Monomer
Elastomer
TUGAS KELOMPOK
HIGIENE PERUSAHAAN III
POLIMER
(BAHASA INDONESIA)
Kelompok 7
101210113001
101210113022
101210113046
101210113029
BAB 16
POLIMER
A. Definisi
Polimer terdiri dari molekul berat yang sangat tinggi, yang terangkai oleh
gabungan molekul relatif kecil ( monomer ) bersama-sama dalam jumlah besar
secara kimiawi, proses ini disebut polimerasi. Banyak komponen system
kehidupan polimer : protein, polisakarida dan asam nukleat. Awal industri terlibat
penggunaan beberapa polimer alami, termasuk wool ( protein ) dan kapas
(polisakarida) untuk memproduksi pakaian. Teknologi baru yang belum lama ini
telah memasuki tahap kimia yang memberikan berbagai polimer-polimer sintetik.
Pada 1869 celluloid, sebuah turunan dari nitrat selulosa polysacacharide
tumbuhan, yang pertama, membuat plastik bakelite dan, pada tahun 1990 sebuah
phenol dan formaldehida polimer plastik buatan pertama yang sempurna.
Mematenkan itu. Setelah launced, pertumbuhan produksi dan penggunaan
polimer-polimer sintetik telah imperssive. Tentang produksi plastik, elastomers,
dan setelah serat memperbesar di tahun 1963. Industri yang berkembang sekitar
manmade polimer atau polimer alami dari penggunaan komersial. Kita harus
fokus perhatian terhadap beberapa industri.
B. Plastik
Sebuah produksi plastik raksasa indutry dengan cara-cara. Pada tahun lalu,
lebih dari 50 milyar pound yang diproduksi di amerika, dan nilai ini diprediksi
mencapai 75 pon miliar pada tahun 2000. Jumlah produk yang diseleksi
ditampilkan di table 16.1 .Seperti pada sistem kimia menggunakan bagian terbesar
dari kemasan plastik ( 28 % ). Diikuti dengan pembangunan industri ( 22% ). Pada
kenyataannya, plastik yang bergerak dalam semua aspek kehidupan sehari-hari.
Mengganti kayu, logam, kaca, oil-based piant, adhesives tradisional, kertas, dan
karet alam. Substitusi dari logam untuk plastik dalam gaya, telah memperbaiki
mobil menyingkirkan beberapa masalah korosi. Kecelakaan dan keselamatan,
untuk meningkatkan berat badan, dan bahan bakar.
Table 16.1 Produk utama plastik pada tahun 1985
Plastik
Miliaran pound dalam produksi
Thermoplastic
Low-density polythylene
8.9
Polyvinylchloride and copolymers
6.8
High-density polyethylene
6.7
Polypropylene
Poystyrene
Plastik
Thermoset resins
Phenolic
5.1
4.1
Miliaran pound dalam produksi
Urea resins
Polyesters
Epoxies
Melamine resins
1.2
1.2
0.4
0.2
2.6
7. Senyawa spesifik
Dengan lebih dari seratus polimer dan banyak lain copolymer dalam
penggunaan komersial, hal ini tidak dicapai dalam lingkup comprehensif zat
berbahaya yang mungkin akan dihadapi. Namun, beberapa komentar umum pasti
cocok dan diskusi dari beberapa dari bahaya serius lebih umum dijumpai. Ini
terorganize oleh fungsi senyawa dalam memproduksi akhir polimer.
Beberapa monomers yang khusus membahas masalah yang ada di bawahnya.
( permukaan ) 16,5 juga melihat
a. Vinil klorida.
Polymerization vinil klorida dan disempurnakan dalam berbagai cara
menggunakan katalis peroksida.Vinil klorida ) yang tidak memiliki sifat, seperti
bau irritant atau tindakan.Secara historis, itu dinilai cukup aman, dengan sebuah
senyawa tlv 500 ppm .Kata orang yang terbuka untuk belajar dari pengalaman
menarik napas dalam-dalam dan vats ke dalam efek narkotika.Yang digunakan
sebagai obat bius. Pada 1961 dia mengatakan pada dow chemical tlv itu harus
diturunkan, berdasarkan kajian premilinary.Masalah yang muncul di beberapa
waktu yang lalu. Orang yang menderita membersihkan vinil klorida
polymerization vats degeneration acroosteolysis ( tulang ) yang di tangan
mereka.Kerusakan pada 1972 iver bukti yang ditemukan dalam jumlah yang lebih
besar dibandingkan ppm.Pada tahun 1974, penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa
orang dengan tingkat yang lebih tinggi dari perkiraan telah menjadi sangat langka
dari kanker, angiosarcoma dari hati.Itu osha standar untuk eksposur untuk menjadi
vinil klorida ( ppm ) ppm dengan januari hingga langit-langitnya, tahun 1981.Saat
ini, yang terdiri biasanya untuk menghilangkan unreacted monomer dalam
polimer.
b. Acrylonitrile.
Ini adalah monomer dalam produksi orlon, dan ini adalah salah satu bagian
( acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene ) dan abs copolymers san styrene-acrylonitrile
( ).Acrylonitrile dapat diserap melalui kulit atau paru-paru.Sarung tangan karet,
mampu menembus. Ini tidak cukup untuk melakukan tindakan protektif. Di dalam
tubuh ini merupakan sumber dari sianida, ion menghasilkan sesak napas. Hal itu
sudah terbukti menjadi penyebab kanker pada kedua paru-paru dan usus.Untuk
bulan januari tahun 1981 oleh osha ( 2 ) merupakan batas akhir dengan ppm ppm.
c. Stirena.
Senyawa ini digunakan untuk polistiren tidak hanya menyiapkan dan
styrofoam, tapi itu salah satu saat dalam copolymers abs. Styrene-butadiene, dan
san plastik. Uap yang sangat menjengkelkan. Ternyata cukup tinggi, eksposur
tidak mungkin dibiarkan, tidak biasa kulit dan iritasi kulit untuk menghapus
minyak dari. Styrene mempengaruhi sistem saraf pusat, yang memproduksi
Toxicity (airbone)
LC50
ppm
mg/m3
425
259,000
2, 300 11, 800
30
250
950,000
92 400
1,100
1,500
1, 350
12, 800
178
74 177
1,000 10,000
9,500 24,000
10
180,000
6,350
-
Exposure Limits
PEL
ppm
mg/m3
0.3
2
1000
2200
25
90
0.5
2.8
5
19
1 ( 10 ppm peak)
50
240
0.25
1
10
35
0.02
0.2
5
19
0.1
0.4
2
12
100, 200 (ceiling)
0.02
0.14
cancer suspented agent
1
4
10. Campuran
Seperti telah dikatakan, yang mungkin menjadi produk akhir untuk
mengandung berbagai bahan tambahan murni dengan polimer, pigmen, seperti,
plasticizers, fillers, dan stabilizers.Campuran mekanis yang mengering dengan
selesai stirrers, jauh lebih mudah membuat ini seperti di bagian dapur. Ada
masalah yang lebih baik jika diberikan dalam plastik yang mencair, dan ini
mungkin akan segera setelah dibentuk menjadi produk yang mencair, atau
mungkin dibentuk menjadi strip kain, atau yang kemudian membuat butiran ke
makan moldin hooper dari mesin lainnya yang membentuk akhir atau gravitasi.
Partikulat di udara yang adalah bahaya dari sebagian besar suatu proses.
11. Penuangan dan penyuntikan ornamen
Bila tidak melakukan tekanan, cetakan disebut penuangan. Penuangan
yang melibatkan plastik menuangkan ke dalam cetakan. Kamu juga terus menerus
menuangkan atau proses di mana sebuah film yang dibuat oleh lapisan plastik
yang mengalir melalui sabuk bergerak ke oven. Casting dapat dilakukan dengan
polimer, dengan campuran, atau dengan polimerisasi polymerr-monomer panas
dalam cetakan.
Cara yang umum untuk kebanyakan produk plastik suntikan dalam
bentuk cetak. Palet yang mencair, mencair dan dipaksa ke dalam cetakan.
Didinginkan dan cetakan atau dihapus, high-presure sering dengan menggunakan
pesawat udara. Bentuk sprues itu, pelari, dan daur ulang yang dipangkas off pintu
depan, dan sebagai namun jika itu yang sangat baik pada permukaan dan biasanya
tidak perlu melakukan itu. Suntikan cetakan termoplastik yang besar dan bentuk
benda yang dapat berjalan pada tingkat produksi tinggi.
Plastik thermoset suntik akan menjadi nyata, tetapi proses ini lebih sulit.
Dimana harus menyesuaikan diri dengan panas dalam proses melunak, sebelum
reactants molding tapi yang pasti bukan di produk haarden pemanas ruangan.
Cetak yang harus mati untuk menjadi membuka atau menghapus. Kemudian
mechine againts untuk menutup lagi dalam mengatur lain, adalah sebuah proses
yang berisik. Dia meletakkan tangannya di atas tingkat umum dari pompa
hidrolik. Katup, dan garis. Ketika jet udara yang digunakan untuk menghapus
bagian dalam, dari cetakan thye diproduksi tanpa suara yang nyaring, menghapus
dengan memotong dari yang berisik. Ada yang besar. ada sebuah cetakan dalam
suntikan tersebut. Mampu diuapkan panas dari bahan yang meleleh, tapi tidak
seperti biasanya uap mudah terkendali.
12. Molding pukulan
Molding pukulan yang digunakan untuk membuat lekukan seperti botol dan
kontainer. Molding di extrusion pukulan, sebuah tabung plastik panas dan
akhirnya yang terjadi adalah
Sumber.Zat kimia yang menghasilkan polimer dari perusahaan dijual
untuk memproduksi.Seseorang yang biasanya disintesis thermoplastics, dicampur
dengan additives, seperti kantung pallets dan dikirim.Itu yang dibuang ke pallets
hoopers emanufacturing mesin di pabrik, dari yang mereka menjadi tawar dan
mereka dengan produk.Produk machined ini dapat menjadi, atau otherwish
reshaped dan mungkin dihiasi.Dalam kasus thermoplastics, sedikit dilakukan di
pabrik kimia di pabrik.
Kami akan berbaur dengan pendapat yang baik dari properti bersama
yang lebih monomer untuk menghasilkan copolymer.Produk akhir untuk
menunjukkan kontribusi dari semua monomers.Umum adalah contoh umum
copolymers sarantmand abs plastik.Adalah sarantm copolymer vinylidene dan
vinil klorida dan klorida. Sedangkan dari industri copolymers yang biasa
digunakan untuk memberi makan pada 16.4
Polimer menggunakan kemampuan untuk menunjukkan derajat dari
berbagai polimer yang berdiri di atas sebuah aturan untuk membuat rapi.Hal ini
tergantung pada variabel dengan keteraturan dari bentuk polimer dari kekuatan
dan kehadiran attractivesforces kimia dengan struktur khusus pada untaian, dan
kekakuan dari kelopak.Yang adalah plastik yang sangat kacau termed tak
berbentuk.Tak berbentuk plactics lebih lentur resistanceto tetapi memiliki bawah
air.Saat ini, daerah yang tertib plastik disebut crystallities, ini menjadi lebih kuat,
dan jumlah 16.2 kaku ( ).Tingkat crystallities dapat bervariasi untuk membuat
plastik.Tidak dipengaruhi oleh cara dari pengolahan limbah plastik.Secara plastik
ketika didinginkan setelah molding. Memiliki suara banyak waktu untuk saling
wisata, mereka bereaksi untuk untuk mengatur diri dalam, dan pola-pola.Ini
berarti crystallities atau proporsi yang lebih tinggi dari wilayah yang tak
berbentuk dan itu berarti lebih crystallities.
Toksisitas monomer yang dipilih
Monomer
Akrilamida
Akrilonitril
Butadiena
Chloroprene
Diglycidyl ether
Ephichlorohydrin
Etilena
Formaldehida
Isopropil glisidil eter
Akrilat maleat
Metil akrilat
Metilen bisphenyl
isosianat
Fenol
Fosgen
Stirena
Anhidrida ftalat
Toksik (airbone)
LC50
ppm
mg/m3
425
259,000
2, 300 11,
800
30
250
950,000
-
92 400
Batas Pajanan
PEL
ppm
mg/m3
0.3
2
1000
2200
25
90
0.5
5
1 ( 10 ppm
peak)
2.8
19
-
1,100
1,500
1, 350
50
240
12, 800
0.25
10
1
35
178
0.02
0.2
74 177
1,000 10,000
9,500 24,000
5
0.1
2
100, 200
19
0.4
12
-
Toluena diisosianat
Vinil klorida
Viniliden choride
10
180,000
6,350
(ceiling)
0.02
0.14
cancer suspented agent
1
4
Dengan penerimaan paparan dari 200 ppm dan menerima maksimal pada
puncak 600 ppm tidak lebih dari 5 menit tiap 3 jam per periode. Stirena dikirim
dicampur dengan penghambat butilcathecol dan hidrokuinon untuk
mempersiapkan polimerasi prematur yang cepat. Keduanya menggunakan bahan
yang sensitif.
C. Monomer resin epoxy
Toksisitas, sangat bermasalah. Ephichlorohydrin iritasi untuk kulit,
menyebabkan kulit terbakar, gatal, kemerahan, dengan rasa sakit dan muncul rasa
terik setelah terkena langsung. Itu bisa menyerap langsung ke dalam kulit dan
membuat iritasi mata, menyebabkan bahaya konsentrasi tinggi. Ephichlorohydrin
beberapa mengiritasi paru paru, meningkatkan produksi cairan paru paru
beberapa jam setelah terpapar. Di tubuh menghasilkan bahaya bagi hati dan ginjal
dan menyebabkan kemandulan. PEL 5 ppm. Komposisi yang digunakan dengan
ephichlorohydrin untuk memproduksi resin epoxy meningkatkan bisphenol A, eter
glycidyl, dan alifatik poliamin hingga menjadi P fenildiamin, dietilamin dan
trietiltetramin. Semuanya menyebabkan iritasi dan sensitif. Partikel poliamin
menyebabkan bahaya, dan menyebabkan beberapa iritasi, kulit terbakar, memerah
dan gatal pada kulit, rasa terik, wajah berkeringat dan asma. Mereka bisa
menyebabkan bronkitis dan batuk selama beberapa hari setelah terpapar.
Penggergajian atau menyelesaikan proses pada plastik bisa meningkatkan
produksi amin dan tidak bereaksi ephichlorohydrin.
D. Fenolik dan monomer resin amin
Fenolik memproduksi termoset plastik dengan reaksi dari varietas fenol
dengan formaldehid atau furfural. Fenol memasukkan bahannya sendiri berupa
kresol, xylenol, p- t butifenol Dn resorcinol. Semua senyawa, fenol dan aldehid
menyebabkan iritan. Diatas 3 ppm formaldehida menyebabkan iritasi untuk mata
dan sistem pernapasan bagian atas. Dibagian lainnya formaldehid menyebabkan
sensitifitas. Hasil lainnya tentang formaldehid sangat memungkinkan untuk
menyebabkan kanker bagi manusia dan dibawah standar untuk keamanan dirubah
menjadi tingkat 1 ppm di 1987. Resin amino sama dengan fenol, Formaldehid
menjadi masalah serius. Heksametiltetraamin digunakan menjadi bentuk polimer,
kandungan untuk memberikan formaldehid dan amoniak keduanya menyebabkan
iritasi.
E. Diisosianat
dengan acid anhydrides dapat menyebabkan beberapa gangguan pada kulit atau
mata. Diamines bersifat iritan dan sensitif jadi harus berhati hati jika kontak
langsung dengan diamines. Amino acid caproclactam digunakan untuk membuat
nilon 6 yang menyebabkan hidung dan tenggorokan iritasi mudah marah, dan
gugup.
I. Vinylidene Klorida
Merupakan monomer gabungan dari vinil klorida. Menyebabkan iritasi
pada kulit dan mata dam meningkatkan inhibitor phenolic sehingga meningkatkan
potensi terjadinya iritasi. Jika terhirup dapat menyebabkan mabuk.
J. Vinil Asetat
Monomer digunakan sebagai pembuat polivinil alkohol. Merupakan
kelompok kelompok ester khususnya asetat yang dirubah setelah proses
polimerasi. Uapnya meningkatkan iritasi sistem pernapasan dan narkotik.
K. Etil
Etil diperoleh dari proses kilang minyak dan polimerasi yang
menggunakan perioksida organik sebagai katalisator. Etil mempunyai racun yang
rendah, tetapi dapat menyebabkan api yang tinggi dan bahaya ledakan yang tinggi.
L. Komponen Rayon Viscose
Salah satu cara pembuatanya menggunakan polimer selulosa denga
dimodifikasi. Komponen berbahaya saat proses dengan karbon disulfida dengan
uap yang mudah sekali menguap dan titik nyala yang sangat rendah. Akibatnya
dapat mempengaruhi sistem saraf pusat, pusing dan gangguan psikologi
kelelahan. Dan juga iritasi pernapasan.
M. Komponen Asetat Selulosa
Selulosa atau bubur kayu atau kapas dicampur dengan glacial acetic acid,
sulfuric acid, dan acetic anhydride untuk memproduksi polimer. Beberapa ester
saling berkaitan untuk perubahan hidrolisis katalisis asam untuk menyesuaikan
perangkat polimer. Penggilingan selulosa menyebabkan proses yang bising dan
debu dari selulosa dan uap asam yang jelas menimbulkan masalah. Pencucian
dengan air meningkatkan kondisi kelembaban yang tinggi, menambah potensi
stress yag disebabkan oleh cuaca panas. Pengeringan dan pengemasan produk
akhir sedikit menimbulkan masalah debu.
N. Katalisis (Pengawetan Produk)
Sample pada umumnya digunakan sebagai katalisis. Reaksi dari bentuk
penambahan polimer sangat sering menimbulkan mekanisme bebas radikal.
Mekanisme requires sumber struktur bebas radikal dengan tidak merubah elektron
elektron untuk memulai reaksi kimia. Yang sering digunakan peroksida organik.
Melampaui 50% perbedaan komponen yang tersedia terutama ester dan karbonat.
Benzoil peroksida dan MEK peroksida mewakili dan frekuensinya ditemui.
Peroksida merupakan agen oksidator yang kuat dan mampu bereaksi keras dengan
semua substansi yang diutamakan. Jika berhubungan langsung dengan peroksida
dapat menyebabkab iritasi kulit dan kulit terasa terbakar dan beberapa berpotensi
dapat mengancam mata. Benzol peroksida adalah zat penyebab sensitif pada
bagian tubuh dengan paparan paling kronik menyebabkan ruam pada kulit dengan
PEL 5 mg/m3 dan tingkat IDLH 1000 mg/m3. Keduanya merupakan potensi
berbahaya jika kontak langsung dan dicairkan dengan air dan menggunakan
penanganan pembersihan khusus bila harus dibawa ke air. Dekomposisi rata rata
bahan kimia peroksida meningkatkan suhu dan berhubungan dengan zat yang
mudah bereaksi seperti kertas atau kayu yang bisa menimbulkan api.
Katalisis alumunium alkil menggunakan poliolefin dengan potensi bahaya
fisik yang sangat berbahaya. Mereka bereaksi sangat keras dengan air dan
terbakar dengan sangat cepat di dalam air. Solusinya adalah komponen bisa
menyebabkan rasa terbakar serius di kulit dan uapnya terproduksi berbahaya
untuk paru paru. Garam metal organik atau tersier amin digunakan sebagai
katalisator di poliuretan atau polisonate sintesis. Keduanya menembus ke kulit
dan menyebabkan sensitif.
O. Akselerator
Meskipun tidak mengkatalisis, akselerator membuat katalisis lebih efektif.
Sebagai contoh, kobalt naptane sebagai stimulan untuk merubah komposisi dari
peroksida ke dalam radikal bebas yang sangat reaktif.
Secara umum, komposisi merupakan bahan iritan, contoh penyebab iritasi
pada mata, hidung, dan tenggorokan dan kontak langsung dengan kulit
menyebabkan ruam. Dengan frekuensi sensitif. Thiram dan disulfiram dengan
kemampuan Antabuse untuk menghadang metabolisme etanol dan aldehid. Mual
dan muntah mengikuti jalan masuk etanol setelah kontak dengan komposisinya.
PEL cairan thiram adalah 5 mg/m3. Dimetilanilin digunakan akselerator di
poliester sintesis. Dimetilanilin dengan cepat terserap ke kulit dan salah satu
bagian tubuh adalah sistem pusat depresan. Dimetilanilin juga menyebab bahaya
bagi ginjal dan hati. Dengan PEL adalah 5 ppm dan tingkat IDLH 100 ppm.
P. Stabilisator
Stabilisator atau agen penyaring ditambahkan ke plastik dengan pelapukan
pelan dengan plastik penyebab panas atau cahaya. Pada umumnya sabun metal
yang digunakan dan banyak masalah toksik serius. Timah, barium, kadmium
bahaya serius untuk kesehatan. Salah satu ditubuh digabungkan ke dalam struktur
tulang dan merubah semuanya dalam periode panjang, melepaskan denga n pelan
ke dalam darah. Timah menyebabkan bahaya untuk organ dalam seperti hati dan
ginjal dan menyebabkan bahaya berkepanjangan untuk sistem saraf pusat.
Kadmium merubah tubuh dalam jangka panjang. Dapat membahayakan ginjal dan
tingkat tinggi penyebab masalah otot. Komposisi organotin merupakan penyebab
iritasi yang kuat dan bisa menyebabkan efek kimia terbakar. Hati dan bahaya
sistem jalur uriner, meningkatkan sakit kepala, hilangnya ketajaman visual, dan
masalah kontrol motorik. PEL adalah 0,1 mg/m3 dan tingkat IDLH adalah 200
mg/m3. Dari gabungan kalsium, magnesium dan sabun barium mempunyai toksik
yang rendah.
Q. Plastikator
Plastikator menambahkan ke garis polimer untuk merubah daerah kristal
dari bentuk fisik campur dengan polimer bergaris kedalam kristalisasi. Dengan
mudah plastikator dilain waktu menjadi toksik mematikan. Tricresyl phosphat
menembak sekeliling sistem saraf dan klorin hidrokarbon umumnya merupakan
toksik rendah dan jarang menyebabkan masalah. Contoh dibutil phthalate relatif
tidak menyebabkan iritasi dan tidakvolatile. Dicobakan ke hewan dengan dosis
tinggi penting untuk memproduksi efek toksik. Kemungkinan karsinogenik dietil
2 heksa phthlate untuk manusia. Ester adipic asam dan asam sitrat juga digunakan
dan toksik rendah.
R. Pengisi
Frekuensinya sering digunakan sebagai termoset plastik, pengisi umumnya
stabil dan cairan inert. Clays, silika dan fiber glass merupakan tipe material yang
digunakan. Bahaya sebagian besar sekarang dari partikel dari air, yang dimana
Sistem katalis yang umum digunakan
Etilena
Propil
Stirena
Vinil
klorida
Monomer
Produk
density tinggi polyethylene
density rendah polyethylene
density linear rendah
polyethylene
Polypropylene
Polistirena
Polivinil klorida
Elastomer
Katalis
Alumunium alkil ditambah titanium tetraklorid
Kromium oksida pada alumina atau silika tert
butil peroctoate peresters lainnya
Alumunium dan magnesium alkil ditambah
titanium halida
Alumunium alkil ditambah titanium klorida
Bensoil peroksida peresters
Perikarbonat