CONTROL SYSTEM

NOTES
(For Bachelor of Engineering)
MAHARASHI DAYANANAD UNIVERSITY

Topic remaining will be updated soon

CONTROL SYSTEM ENGINEERING

Section-A
INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS :System/Plant model, types of models, illustrative examples of plants and their
inputs and outputs, controller servomechanism, regulating system, linear time-invariant (LTI) system, timevarying system, causal system, open loop control system, closed loop control system, illustrative examples
of open-loop and feedback control systems, continuous time and sampled data control systems. Effects of
feedback on sensitivity (to parameter variations),stability, external disturbance (noise), overall gain etc.
Introductory remarks about non-linear control systems.
Section-B
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING :Concept of transfer function, relationship between transfer function and
impulse response, order of a system, block diagram algebra, signal flow graphs : Masons gain formula &
its application, characteristic equation, derivation of transfer functions of electrical and electromechanical
systems. Transfer functions of cascaded and non-loading cascaded elements. Introduction to state variable
analysis and design.

Section-C
TIME DOMAIN ANALYSIS :Typical test signals, time response of first order systems to various standard

inputs, time response of 2nd order system to step input, relationship between location of roots of
characteristics equation, w and wn, time domain specifications of a general and an under-damped 2nd order
system, steady state error and error constants, dominant closed loop poles, concept of stability, pole zero
configuration and stability, necessary and sufficient conditions for stability Hurwitz stability criterion Routh
stability criterion and relative stability. Root locus concept, development of root loci for various systems,
stability considerations..
Section-D
FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS , COMPENSATION & CONTROL COMPONENT :Relationship between

frequency response and time-response for 2nd order system, polar, Nyquist, Bode plots, stability, Gainmargin and Phase Margin, relative stability, frequency response specifications. Necessity of compensation,
compensation networks, application of lag and lead compensation, basic modes of feedback control,
proportional, integral and derivative controllers, illustrative examples. Synchros, AC and DC techogenerators, servomotors, stepper motors, & their applications, magnetic amplifier.

What is a Control System?

A Control System consists of subsystems and processes (or plants) assembled to control the outputs
of a process.

Typical Examples
Central Temperature Control
Fluid Level maintenance systems
Battery Voltage Control
Human has numerous control systems built in it.

Control System - another view

A Control System is an arrangement of physical components connected/related in such a manner as to
command, direct or regulate itself or another system.

Main Components

Output:-the actual response obtained from the system

Input :- the stimulus or excitation applied to a control system from an external source
Control:- it means direct or command a system so that desired output is attained
Plant:-the portion of the system which is to be controlled or regulated is called as plant or process

Human like Control

Autonomous planning and Exploration

Industry

Classification of control systems:

Open loop and closed loop control system
Linear and non-linear control system
Static and dynamic system
Continuous and discrete data system
SISO and MIMO systems

Advantages of a Control System

1.Convenience of input form :In a temperature control system, the input is the position on a
thermostat and the output is the heat. Thus a convenient position input yields a desired thermal output.

2.Compensation for disturbances :In an antenna system that points in a commanded direction,
wind can force the antenna to deviate from commanded direction. The system should detect the
disturbance and act accordingly.

Classical Control Systems

Liquid Level Control

Open-Loop Systems
An open-loop system cannot compensate for any disturbances that add to the controllers driving signal
or to the process output.

Closed-Loop (Feedback Control)

A closed-loop system can compensate for disturbances by measuring the output, comparing it to the
desired output, and driving the difference toward zero.

Closed-Loop (Feedback Control)

Feedback :Feedback is a key tool that can be used to modify the behavior of a system.
This behavior altering effect of feedback is a key mechanism that control engineers exploit deliberately
to achieve the objective of acting on a system to ensure that the desired performance specifications are
achieved.

Closed-Loop (Feedback Control)

Greater accuracy than open-loop systems
Transient and steady-state responses can be controlled more easily
More complex and expensive than open-loop systems
Requires monitoring the plant output

Why Control Systems for CSE and ECE?

Engineering involves the study of design and analysis of engineering systems.
Engineering systems are physical systems which could be modeled mathematically (mathematical
models).
Many engineering or physical systems are control systems. Examples are: central heating system, auto
pilot, robots, automobiles, etc.
Software engineers and Electronics engineers often participate in the development of softwares and
hardwares for control systems, e.g. software for the control of the space shuttle.
LTI system:
Linear time-invariant systems :A linear system satisfies the principles of superposition and homogeneity.
TYPE OF SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS
TIME INVARIANT SYSTEMS
A time invariant system has parameters which are independent of time.
Expressing this mathematically, if
y(t)=s[u(t)]-------------------------------------(15)
then
y(t+)=s[u(t)]----------------------------------(16)
for a time variant system.
Thus any system is involving switches or having a time varying parameters is not time invariant. A simple example
of a time varying system is a system where the gain is equal to the time t.
As an example consider a system where
s[u(t)]=tu(t) ---------------------------------------(17)
where the input is a pulse.

LINEAR TIME INVARIANT (LTI) SYSTEMS

If a system is both linear and time invariant then we call it a linear time invariant system. Most of the techniques
for analysing systems in this study rely on the system being (LTI) or a close approximation.
In practice analysis based on assuming a LTI is very powerful, because
- it is good approximation to most real word systems
- it is easy to analyse and obtain results
- it is easy to predict its behaviour

CAUSAL SYSTEM
No real word system can have an output which precedes the input, e.g.
y(t)=x(t-14) -------------------is a causal system.
y(t)=x(t+14)------------- is an anti-causal system
because the value of y(t) at time t = 0 depends on the value of x(t) at time t = 14, i.e. at some time in the
future.

A bank account is an example of a causal system since before the system gives you an output (interest)
you have to insert an input (i.e. deposit). Banks do not give interest on money that you have yet to deposit
and thus are firm believers in causality.

THE ROLES OF FEEDBACK

Benefits:
Reduce error (eliminating the error)
Reduce sensitivity or Enhance robustness
Disturbance rejection or elimination
Improve dynamic performance or adjust the transient response (such as reduce time constant)

Goal
We extend the ideas of modeling to include control system characteristics:
- Sensitivity to model uncertainties,
- Steady-state errors,
- Transient response characteristics to input test signals,
- Disturbance rejection.

Feedback control

Advantages of the closed-loop feedback control

Decreased sensitivity of the system to variations in the parameters of the process

Improved rejection of the disturbances
Improved measurement noise attenuation
Improved reduction of the steady-state error of the system
Easy control and adjustment of the transient response

3.3 Transient response of system

Transient response is the response of a system as a function of time. It is one of the most important
characteristics of control system.
If transient response is not satisfying, what shall we do?

Disturbance in a feedback control system

Disturbance signal is an unwanted extraneous input signal that affects the systems output signal,
such as noise for amplifier, wind gusts for radar antennas, etc.
Feedback control can completely or partially eliminate the effect of disturbance signal.

The cost of feedback

Increase of complexity
Loss of gain
Instability

MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
Why
1) Easy to discuss the full possible types of the control systems only in terms of the systems mathematical
characteristics.
2) The basis of analyzing or designing the control systems.
What is Mathematical models of systems the mathematical relation- ships between the systems variables.
HOW GET
1) theoretical approaches
2) experimental approaches
3) discrimination learning
TYPES
1) Differential equations
2) Transfer function
3) Block diagrams signal flow graph
4) State variables

MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF SYSTEMS

EXAMPLE : A

EXAMPLE : A DC

Steps to obtain the input-output description (differential equation) of control systems

1) Identify the output and input variables of the control systems.
2) Write the differential equations of each systems component in terms of the physical laws of the components.
* necessary assumption and neglect.
* proper approximation.
3) dispel the intermediate(across) variables to get the input-output description which only contains the output and
input variables.
4) Formalize the input-output equation to be the standard form:
Input variable on the right of the input-output equation .
Output variable on the left of the input-output equation.
Writing the polynomialaccording to the falling-power order.
GENERAL FORM OF THE INPUT-OUTPUT EQUATION OF THE LINEAR CONTROL SYSTEMS
A nth-order differential equation:

TRANSFER FUNCTION
Another form of the input-output(external) description of control systems, different from the differential equations.
Transfer function: The ratio of the Laplace transform of the output variable to the Laplace transform of the input
variable with all initial condition assumed to be zero and for the linear systems, that is:

C(s) Laplace transform of the output variable

R(s) Laplace transform of the input variable
G(s) transfer function

Notes:
* Only for the linear and stationary(constant parameter) systems.
* Zero initial conditions.
* Dependent on the configuration and coefficients of the systems, independent on the input and output variables.

How to obtain the transfer function of a system

1) If the impulse response g(t) is known

2) 2) If the output response c(t) and the input r(t) are known

3)

If the input-output differential equation is known

Assume: zero initial conditions;
Make: Laplace transform of the differential equation;
Deduce: G(s)=C(s)/R(s).

4) For a circuit
* Transform a circuit into a operator circuit.

* Deduce the C(s)/R(s) in terms of the circuits theory.

5) FOR A CONTROL SYSTEM

Write the differential equations of the control system;
Make Laplace transformation, assume zero initial conditions, transform the differential equations into
the relevant algebraic equations;
Deduce: G(s)=C(s)/R(s).

block diagram models (dynamic)

Portray the control systems by the block diagram models more intuitively than the transfer function or
differential equation models

SERVO MOTOR FIELD CONTROLLED D.C.MOTOR

Jm moment of inertia
Fm coefficient of friction
m angular shift
m angular velocity
Tm motor torque
Kf is motor torque constant

SERVO MOTOR Armature CONTROLLED D.C.MOTOR

Relation between torque and back e.m.f constant Kb

Sensitivity
System sensitivity is the ratio of the change in the system transfer function to the change of a process transfer
function (or parameter) for a small incremental change.
System are time-varying in its nature because of inevitable uncertainties such as changing environment , aging , and
other factors that affect a control process.All these uncertainties in open-loop system will result in inaccurate output
or low performance. However, a closed-loop system can overcome this disadvantage.

A PRIMARY ADVANTAGE OF A CLOSED-LOOP FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM IS ITS ABILITY TO REDUCE THE SYSTEMS
SENSITIVITY TO PARAMETER VARIATION.
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
ROBUST CONTROL
EFFECT OF PARAMETER VARIATIONS If process is change as
Open-loop system
Closed-loop system
SENSITIVITY
Measure of the effectiveness of feedback in reducing the influence of the variations (changing environment) on
system performance.
It gives an assessment of the system performance as affected due to parameter variation.

Mathematical Modelling
Definition of Transfer Function

Transfer Function reveals how the circuit modifies the input amplitude in creating output
amplitude.
Therefore, transfer function describes how the circuit processes the input to produce
output.

Transfer Function is the ratio of the output of a system to the input of a system, in the Laplace domain
considering its initial conditions to be zero.

Frequency Domain

Frequency Domain

Definition of Transfer Function

Transfer Function is the ratio of the output of a system to the input of a system, in the Laplace domain
considering its initial conditions to be zero.

Frequency Domain

Impedances in series

Impedances in parallel

Impedance Approach

Derivation of Transfer Function

Derivation of Transfer Function

Derivation of Transfer Function

Derivation of Transfer Function

Block diagram reduction technique

BLOCK DIAGRAM
IT REPRESENTS THE STRUCTURE OF A CONTROL SYSTEM.
IT HELPS TO ORGANIZE THE VARIABLES AND EQUATIONS REPRESENTING THE CONTROL SYSTEM.
IT IS COMPOSED OF:

Boxes, that represents the components of the system including their causality;
Lines with arrows, that represent the actual dynamic variables, such as speed, pressure,
velocity, etc..
SIMPLEST OPEN-LOOP CONTROL EXAMPLE & ASSOCIATED BLOCK DIAGRAMS

SPECIFIC & GENERIC COMPONENT BLOCK DIAGRAMS

DEFINITIONS OF PROCESS, ACTUATOR & PLANT

COMPONENTS OF A BLOCK DIAGRAM

A.

CASCADED SUBSYSTEMS;

B.

EQUIVALENT TRANSFER FUNCTION

LOADING IN CASCADED SYSTEM

A.

PARALLEL SUBSYSTEMS;

B.

EQUIVALENT TRANSFER FUNCTION

A.
B.
C.

FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM;

SIMPLIFIED MODEL;
EQUIVALENT TRANSFER FUNCTION

BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA FOR SUMMING JUNCTIONS

A. TO THE LEFT PAST A SUMMING JUNCTION;
B. TO THE RIGHT PAST A SUMMING JUNCTION

BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA FOR PICKOFF POINTS EQUIVALENT FORMS FOR MOVING A BLOCK
A. TO THE LEFT PAST A PICKOFF POINT;
B. TO THE RIGHT PAST A PICKOFF POINT

EXAMPLE

STEPS IN SOLVING EXAMPLE :

A. Collapse summing junctions;
b. Form equivalent cascaded system in the forward path and equivalent parallel system in the feedback path;
C. Form equivalent feedback system and multiply by cascaded g1(s)

FIGURE BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR EXAMPLE

FIGURE 2 SECOND-ORDER FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM

FIGURE FEEDBACK SYSTEM

FIGURE :FEEDBACK SYSTEM

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

CONTROL PRINCIPLES
Block diagram practice
Block diagram
Transfer Function Consists of Blocks Can be reduced

REDUCTION TECHNIQUES
1.Combining blocks in cascade or in parallel

2. Moving a summing point behind a block

3. Moving a summing point ahead of a block

4. Moving a pickoff point behind a block

5. Moving a pickoff point ahead of a block

6. Eliminating a feedback loop

7. Swap with two neighboring summing points

Example 1
Find the transfer function of the following block diagrams

Solution:
1. Moving pickoff point A ahead of block G2
2. Eliminate loop I & simplify

4. Eliminate loop III

EXAMPLE 2

EXAMPLE 3

SECTION-C
Time domain Analysis -Outline
Introduction
Test Input Signals
Performance of a second-order system
Effects of a Third Pole and a Zero on the Second-Order System Response
Estimation of the Damping Ratio
The s-plane Root Location and the Transient Response
Test Input Signal :Since the actual input signal of the system is usually unknown, a standard test input
signal is normally chosen. Commonly used test signals include step input, ramp input, and the parabolic
input.
General form of the standard test signals

r(t) = tn
R(s) = n!/sn+1
Test signals r(t) = A tn

Table Test Signal Inputs

Test inputs vary with target type

Steady-state error
Is a difference between input and the output for a prescribed test input as

Application to stable systems

Unstable systems represent loss of control in the steady state and are not acceptable for use at all.

Steady-state error:
a)
step input, b) ramp input

Time response of systems c(t) = ct(t) + css(t)

The time response of a control system is divided into two parts:
ct(t) - transient response
css(t) - steady state response

Transient response: All real control systems exhibit transient phenomena to some extend before
steady state is reached.

Steady-state response:The response that exists for a long time following any input signal initiation.
Poles and zeros
1. A pole of the input function generates the form of the forced response ( that is the
pole at the origin generated a step function at the output).
2. A pole of the transfer function generate the form of the exponential response .
3. The zeros and poles generate the amplitudes for both the transit and steady state
responses ( see A, B in partial fraction extension)

Poles and zeros of a first order system :

Ct(t)

Css(t)

Effect of a real-axis pole upon transient response

A pole on the real axis generate an exponential response of the form Exp[- t] where is the pole
location on real axis. The farther to the left a pole is on the negative real axis,the faster the exponential
transit response will decay to zero.

Evaluating response using poles

First order system:

First-order system response to a unit step:

Transient response specification:

1.Time-constant, 1/a
2.Rise time, Tr
3.Settling time, Ts

Transient response specification for a first-order system

1.Time-constant, 1/a :Can be described as the time for (1 - Exp[- a t]) to rise to 63 % of initial value.
2.Rise time, Tr = 2.2/a :The time for the waveform to go from 0.1 to 0.9 of its final value.
3.Settling time, Ts = 4/a :The time for response to reach, and stay within, 2% of its final value

Transfer function via laboratory testing

Identify K and a from testing :The time for amplitude to reach 63% of its final value: 63 x 0.72 =
0.45, or about 0.13 sec , a = 1/0.13 = 7.7 From equation, we see that the forced response reaches a
steady-state value of K/a =0.72 . K= 0.72 x 7.7= 5.54 G(s) = 5.54/(s+7.7) .

Steady-state response:If the steady-state response of the output does not agree with the steadystate of the input exactly, the system is said to have a steady-state error. It is a measure of system
accuracy when a specific type of input is applied to a control system.

Y(s) = R(s) G(s)

Steady-state error :

Underdamped

Undamped

Critically damped

Step response for second order system damping cases:

Performance of a second-order system

Response to unit step input

Natural frequency
n
- the frequency of natural oscillation that would occur for two complex poles if the damping were equal to
zero

Damping ratio

- a measure of damping for second-order characteristic equation

Characteristic equation

Finding n and for a second-order system

Second-order responses for

Transit response

Unit impulse response

Standard performance measures

Settling time
The settling time is defined as the time required for a system to settle within a
certain percentage of the input amplitude.

Settling time

Rise time
The time it takes for a signal to go from 10% of its value to 90% of its final value

Rise time

Peak time
Peak time is the time required by a signal to reach its maximum value.

Peak time

Percent overshoot

 Percent Overshoot is defined as:

P.O. = [(Mpt fv) / fv] * 100%
Mpt = The peak value of the time response
fv = Final value of the response

Percent overshoot

Percent overshoot and normalized peak time versus

Time domain analysis

Time Response:-The response given by the system which is function of the time, to
the applied excitation is called a time response of a control system
The final state achieved by the output is called as steady state
Output variation during the time it takes to achieve the steady state is called as
transient response of the system
Transient response: the output variation during the time ,it takes to achieve its final
value is called as transient Response
Time required to achieve the final value is called as transient period

TIME RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

RISE TIME FOR UNDERDAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

Rise time

Maximum over shoot peak time

The maximum positive deviation of the output
With respect to its desired value Mp
Mp=C(t)max -1
%Mp=C(t)max -1 *100
tp
1

Maximum overshoot: Mp

Delay time& rise time

Time required to reach 50% of the final value in first attempt
Time required to reach its peak value
Settling time: the time needed to settle down afore said oscillations within 2% of
thedesired value

Time delay

Time response of second order system

RISE TIME FOR UNDERDAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

Rise time

Maximum over shoot peak time

The maximum positive deviation of the output With respect to its desired value Mp
Mp=C(t)max -1
%Mp=C(t)max -1 *100
tp

Maximum overshoot: Mp

Delay time& rise time Time required to reach 50% of the final value in first attempt
Time required to reach its peak value Settling time: the time needed to settle down afore
said oscillations within 2% of thedesired value

STEADY STATE ERROR

FINAL VALUE THEOREM

STATIC POSITION ERROR COEFFICIENT

STATIC VELOCITY ERROR COEFFICIENT

STATIC ACCELERATION ERROR COEFFICIENT

STEADY STATE ERROR

STEADY STATE ERROR

STEADY STATE ERROR

STEADY STATE ERROR

STEADY STATE ERROR

STEADY STATE ERROR

Test input signals

Test input signals
Response of a first-order system
Performance of a second-order system
Effects of a third pole and a zero on system response
Root location and the transient response
Steady-state error analysis
Performance indices
The simplification of linear systems
Examples and simulation

Introduction
Transient response
Steady-state response
Design specifications
How to get compromise?
A distinct advantage of feedback control system is the ability to adjust the transient and steady-state
response

3.1 Test input signals

The standard test input signals commonly used are:
Step input
Ramp input
Parabolic input
Sinusoidal input
Unit impulse input
Representation of test signals

Unit impulse response

Standard test signal : The standard test signals are of the general form:

Performance indices
Time delay t d
Rise time t r
Peak time t p
Settling time t s
Percent overshoot
%

Steady-state Performance Steady-state error

3.2 Response of a first-order system
The model of first-order system

For example, temperature or speed control system and water level regulating
system.

Response of first-order system

Unit step response (No steady-state error)
Unit impulse response ( transfer function)
Unit ramp response (Constant steady-state error)
Unit parabolic response ( Infinite steady-state error )

Important conclusion
(for n-order LTI system) From above analysis, we can see that impulse response of a system
is the 1st-order derivative of step response or 2nd-order derivative of ramp response of the
system.
Conclusion:
System response for the derivative of a certain input signal is equivalent to the derivative of
the response for this input signal.

Unit step response of 2nd-order system

Case 1: underdamped
Oscillatory response

No steady-state error
Case 2: critically damped
Mono-incremental response
No Oscillation

No steady-state error
Case 3: overdamped
Mono-incremental response
slower than critically damped
No Oscillation
No steady-state error

Performance evaluation ( underdamped condition)

Performance indices evaluation
1 Time delay 2 Rise time 3 Peak time 4 Percent overshoot 5 Settling time
An example of performance evaluation

3.4 Effects of a third pole and a zero on 2nd-order system response

Effect of a third pole
Effect of a third zero
Dominant poles

3.5 Root location and transient response

Characteristic roots (modes)
Effects of Zeros on response
STEADY STATE ERROR

Magnetic amplifier
INTRODUCTION:The magnetic amplifier (colloquially known as a "mag amp") is an electromagnetic

device for amplifying electrical signals. The magnetic amplifier was invented early in the 20th century, and
was used as an alternative to vacuum tube amplifiers where robustness and high current capacity were
required.

The electromagnetic device used for the amplification of electrical signals which utilizes the magnetic
saturation of core principle and certain class of transformers core non linear property is called as Magnetic
amplifier. It is invented in early 1885 and is primarily used in theater lighting and it is designed with basic of
design saturable reactor and hence can be used as saturable reactor in electrical machinery.

The typical magnetic amplifier circuit shown above has the following components:

R1 - load resistance
G - gate winding
C - control winding
Ec - excitation
Es - input from AC source
Is - amplified AC current
Ic - control DC current

Principles of Magnetic Amplifier Circuits

These are divided into two types as half wave and full wave magnetic amplifiers.
Half wave Magnetic Amplifier

Whenever DC supply is given to the control winding then the magnetic flux will be generated in the iron
core. With the increase in this generated magnetic flux the impedance of the output winding will
decreases, then the current flowing from the AC supply through the output winding and load will increases.
Here it utilizes only half cycle of the AC supply; hence it is called as a half wave circuit

.
At the core saturation point, at which the car is having a maximum flux it can hold, as the flux is maximum
the impedance of the output winding will be very low making very high current to flow through the load.
Similarly, if the current through the control winding is zero, then the impedance of the output winding will
be very high making no current to flow through the load or output winding.
Hence, from above statements we can say that by controlling the current through control winding the
impedance of the output winding can be controlled such that we can vary the current through the load
continuously.
A diode is connected to the output winding as shown in the above figure which acts as a rectifier, used for
reversing the polarity of the AC supply constantly from canceling out control winding flux.
To avoid the cancelation and the direction of current flow through the secondary can be varied to reinforce
two fluxes each other created by control winding and the output winding.
Full wave Magnetic Amplifier

It is almost similar to the above half wave amplifier circuit, but it utilizes both half cycles of the AC supply,
hence it is termed as a full wave circuit. Due to wound of the two halves of the output winding the
direction of magnetic flux created by these two halves in center leg is same as direction of control winding
flux.

Even though no, control voltage is supplied there will be some flux present in magnetic core, hence
impedance of the output winding will never attain its maximum value and current through load never
attain its minimum value. The operation of the amplifier can be controlled by using the bias winding. In
case of vacuum tube amplifiers, certain part of its characteristic curve can be operated by the tube.
Many of the magnetic amplifiers will be having an additional control winding which is used to tap the
output circuit current and give it as feedback control current. Hence this winding is used for giving
feedback.

Working of a Magnetic Amplifier: When DC is applied to the second winding, which is called the

control winding, the core will saturate during half of the AC cycle due to the additional magnetization.
When no DC is applied to the control winding, the core flux variation is within the saturation limit. During
this time, the flux swing is very large, so the gate winding offers very large amount of inductance and the
current drawn from the AC source is only the magnetizing current.
Suppose that a current is passed through the control winding on the DC side. The operating point is
suddenly shifted. Now the core becomes saturated during the positive half of the cycle. Under this
condition, the change of flux is very small compared to when there is no control current. The inductance of
the gate winding is reduced to a very small value, and now the entire supply voltage appears across the
load resistance R1.

With increasing DC control current, the core saturates earlier in the positive half cycle, thus delivering
more current to the load. In this way, the saturable reactor works much like a gas-filled Thyraton, where
the voltage shifts the firing angle. Once the tube fires, the grid loses its control, and the plate current is
controlled by the load resistance.
Similarly in a magnetic amplifier, if the control current is such that the core can be saturated, then the
magnetic amplifier will fire at an angle , and once it fires, the load current is determined by the load
resistance alone. By varying the control current, the firing angle can be varied and hence the load current
can be controlled. Thus with an expense of a very small amount of power in the control side, a large
amount of power in the AC side is controlled in the saturable reactor.

Applications of Magnetic Amplifier

These are typically used in radio communications for switching the circuits of high frequency
alternators.

It can be used for the speed regulation of Alexanderson alternators.

Small amplifiers can be used for tuning indicators, controlling the speed of small motors,battery
chargers.

It is used as switching component in power supplies (in Switch Mode Power Supplies)

Before Hall Effect current transducers, for the detection of wheel slip locomotives uses these
amplifiers.

These are in HVDC for the measurement of the high DC voltages without any direct connection to
high voltages.

Due to the advantage of these amplifiers, controlling high currents by using small currents, these
are used for lighting circuits such as stage lighting.

It can be used in arc welders.

In mainframe computers during the 1950s it is used as a switching element.

In 1960s these are typically used in electrical power generation systems.

References:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
https://www.elprocus.com