Journal of Hydrology 196 (1997) 361377

Modelling the hydrological behaviour of a mountain catchment

using TOPMODEL
L. Holko a, A. Lepisto b
a

Institute of Hydrology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Ondrasovecka 16, 031 01 Liptovsky Mikulas, Slovakia
b
Finnish Environment Agency, Kesakatu 6, 00260Helsinki, Finland
Received 11 December 1995; revised 30 May 1996; accepted 5 July 1996

Abstract
The mathematical catchment model TOPMODEL was used to simulate the hydrological behaviour of a mountain catchment at Jalovecky Creek, Western Tatras, Slovakia. The model provided
adequate results in simulation of daily runoff from the catchment for the period 1 August 198731
October 1993. Air temperature inversions, typical of certain periods in mountain catchments, caused
overestimation of simulated runoff because of treatment of snowfall as rainfall. A single value of the
temperature limit for solidliquid precipitation was also not appropriate for some events. Similarly,
the single value of the degreeday factor for the entire period used in the snow subroutine has led to
higher simulated snowmelt runoff in some years. Hourly data were used for runoff simulation during
the short period between 15 August and 7 September 1993. The results indicate that more effort will
be required to improve the simulation, although the total simulated runoff for the whole period was
close to the measured runoff. The areal extent of the saturated area calculated by TOPMODEL for
the two short-term events was comparable with the results based on isotopic runoff separation.
However, saturated areas estimated by TOPMODEL may provide both event and pre-event water,
whereas areas contributing new water estimated by the isotopic method provide pre-event water by
definition. q 1997 Elsevier Science B.V.

1. Introduction
Water-related phenomena connected with migration of chemical substances within the
catchment require a better understanding of the flow paths of water. Processes of runoff
generation are still not completely understood, despite the progress made during the last 30
years. It is now generally accepted that runoff in many natural catchments is dominated by
subsurface flow (Hewletts concept of variable contributing areas), but the mechanisms that
are responsible for rapid delivery of subsurface water to the stream are still open to discussion.
0022-1694/97/$17.00 q 1997 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved
PII S00 22-1694(96)032 37-4

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The quasi-physically based mathematical model, TOPMODEL (Beven and Kirkby,

1979), can be used to model the dynamics of contributing areas. The number of applications of the model in different catchments has recently increased (e.g. Hornberger et al.,
1985; Durand et al., 1992; Robson et al., 1993; Quinn and Beven, 1993; Lepisto, 1994).
This reflects the ability of the model to use distributed information on catchment
topography and its relatively simple structure (which needs only few parameters, but
provides good results in simulation of catchment runoff); moreover, it tests the internal
processes acting in the catchment that are connected with runoff generation. As pointed
out by Durand et al., 1992, detailed analysis of the model is required in a variety of
environments.
In this study, the model has been applied in the mountain catchment which represents
hydrological conditions in the highest part of the Carpathians. The aim of the modelling
was (1) to test the applicability of the model for runoff simulations in the given catchment,
(2) to compare the fractions of saturated areas given by TOPMODEL and by the isotopic
method.

2. Brief description of topmodel

As pointed out by Beven et al. (1995), TOPMODEL is not intended to be a traditional
model package, but more a collection of concepts. Therefore, many versions of the model
exist and are used for different purposes. In this study, the single subcatchment version
was used, to which a snow subroutine was added at the University of Linkoping, Sweden.
Since the concept and detailed description of the model can be found elsewhere (Beven
and Kirkby, 1979; Beven et al., 1995), only the basic ideas are given here (Beven et al.,
1995; Wolock, 1993). TOPMODEL is based on the variable source area concept of runoff
generation (Hewlett and Hibbert, 1965). The basic model assumptions are:
1. Dynamics of the saturated zone can be approximated by successive steady-state representations.
2. Hydraulic gradient of the saturated zone can be approximated by the local surface
topographic slope, tan b; groundwater table and saturated flow are parallel to the
local surface slope;
3. Distribution of downslope transmissivity with depth is an exponential function of
storage deficit or depth to the water table.
It follows from these three assumptions that the main factor determining the relationship
between catchment mean water table (storage deficit) and local water table level (storage
deficit) is the topographic index (Kirkby, 1975), given as ln (a/tan b) where a is the area of
the hillslope per unit contour length that drains through the given point.
The hydrological behaviour of the catchment in TOPMODEL is modelled as follows:
Precipitation enters the catchment either as rain or snow, depending on the air temperature,
and contributes accordingly to the rise of the snow water equivalent or infiltrates into the
soil. Infiltrating water, along with the water draining from other parts of the catchment,
causes the groundwater table to rise. If the groundwater table rises to the land surface, the
area becomes saturated. Precipitation or snowmelt on saturated areas produces saturation

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363

excess overland flow. Infiltration excess overland flow is calculated according to the
GreenAmpt method. Any water stored in the saturated subsurface zone is assumed to
move downslope as subsurface flow. Total flow is calculated as a sum of overland and
subsurface flows.
Evaporation and its structure are calculated according to air temperature, presence of
snow in the catchment and interception. No evaporation is assumed if the air temperature
is below 58C and if there is snow on the land surface. If the air temperature is between 5
and 108C, a linear increase in potential evaporation is assumed.
If the air temperature is below 08C, precipitation increases the snow water equivalent.
The snow cover is set to hold as much as 10% of water. The snow starts to melt when the
air temperature exceeds the critical value which is given as the model parameter. The rate
of melting depends on the difference between the air temperature and this critical value,
and on the value of the degreeday factor given as a parameter.

3. Catchment and input data

Jalovecky Creek catchment (22.1 km 2) is located in the Western Tatra Mountains.
Hydrological research in the catchment started in 1986 and its main aim is to improve
water balance computations in the mountain environment. Elevation ranges between 800
and 2178 m a.s.l., with a mean of 1500 m a.s.l. The slopes in the catchment are rather
steep, with a mean value of 288. Mean annual air temperature at the catchments mean
elevation is 3.58C, mean precipitation is 1435 mm and mean runoff is 858 mm.
Catchment bedrock is formed mainly by Paleozoic crystalline schists, gneisses, migmatites and granodiorites which cover 93% of the catchment area. The rest is made up by
Mesozoic complexes (limestone, dolomite, shale). Due to the intensive tectonic activity
during geological development of the Carpathians and the presence of glaciers in the
Pleistocene, the bedrock is densely fissured and the weathered zone can be fairly deep.
The bedrock is covered by glacial and glaciofluvial sediments and shallow soils. Soil types
are represented by Cambisols, Podzols and Rankers (Kostka, 1995). From the hydrogeological point of view, there are good conditions for groundwater recharge and discharge
within the catchment (Melioris, 1980). Vegetation is represented by forests (45% of the
area, with spruce dominating), dwarf pines (31%) and alpine meadows and open bedrock
areas (24%). Because the catchment is situated within the Tatra National Park, human
activities are restricted to tourism only.
The version of TOPMODEL used in the present study requires precipitation, potential
evapotranspiration and the values of topographic indexes as input data. Topographic
indexes were calculated with the computer program GRIDATB distributed
together with TOPMODEL (Beven et al., 1995). The calculation was based on
topographic data from the map of scale 1:10 000 and the grid size used in the calculations
was 100 100 m.
Two files with precipitation, runoff and potential evapotranspiration data were prepared
for the simulations. The first includes daily data from the period 1 August 198731
October 1993. The second contains hourly data from the period 15 August 19937
September 1993.

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Daily runoff was based on hourly water level records measured at the catchment outlet.
Estimates of daily precipitation were derived from weekly totals measured by the raingauge located at the mean elevation of the catchment according to daily measurements at
the nearest meteorological station, which is approximately 8 km from the catchment outlet. Since November 1988, the reliability of areal precipitation estimates has been verified
by data from six other gauges located in the catchment. Mean daily temperature was
calculated from hourly measurements at the mean elevation of the catchment. A rough
estimate of the potential evapotranspiration was given by Thornthwaites method
(Thornthwaite, 1948). Monthly totals of potential evapotranspiration were divided by
the number of days to obtain estimates of the daily values.
It is obvious that the results of modelling depend on the quality of input data. The above
mentioned data included some uncertainties in the areal estimates of precipitation, characterization of air temperature for a relatively large catchment with frequent inversion
situations in late autumn and early spring with a single value, and the rough estimates of
potential evapotranspiration. The hourly data for a short period between 15 August and 7
September 1993 was therefore used to avoid most of the above uncertainties.
Hourly precipitation was measured by a tipping bucket raingauge located in the catchment, and areal estimates were checked by measurements of other seven raingauges in the
catchment. Runoff and air temperature data were measured as mentioned above. Hourly
values of potential evapotranspiration were derived from the daily estimates calculated by
the method mentioned above. The calculation was based on the temperature index, i.e.
E h = T h(E d/T d), where E and T denote potential evapotranspiration and air temperature
respectively, h stands for hourly values and d for daily totals.
The areal extent of saturated areas calculated by TOPMODEL was compared with the
results from isotopic runoff separation. Deuterium was used as a tracer in a two-component separation model. According to this model, the event water fraction (contribution of
water from precipitation to runoff) is calculated as:
Xevent = 1 [(ds dp )=(dg dp )]

(1)

where d is the relative isotopic ratio of the sample (e.g. 2H/ 1H) with respect to that of
the standard Vienna SMOW, and d s, d p and d g represent isotopic composition of
streamwater, precipitation and groundwater respectively. On the assumption that
the event water flows to the stream channel as a result of precipitation (or snowmelt)
falling on saturated areas in the catchment, the fraction of saturated area (event
water-contributing area) can be estimated by dividing the discharge by the rate of
precipitation (snowmelt) and multiplying the result by the event water fraction
(Rodhe, 1987).
Saturated area fractions were calculated for the summer months in 1992 and 1993
(monthly data) and for two events at the end of August 1993 (mean values for
the events). Monthly weighted means of precipitation and runoff used in the calculation
of monthly values of X event were based on the samples collected once a week. The
deuterium content of groundwater was assumed to equal the annual mean of deuterium in precipitation; during the two events at the end of August 1995 the deuterium
content in the groundwater was assumed to equal that of the stream baseflow before
the events.

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4. Results and discussion

4.1. TOPMODEL parameters
The number of parameters depends on the processes which the model takes into account
during the simulations. The version of TOPMODEL used in this study contains the snow
subroutine, calculates infiltration excess, and considers interception of precipitation. Consequently, the number of parameters has increased. The influence of different parameters
on the results of simulations varied. The most important parameters were:
1. szf (m 1) scaling model parameter; this, together with the next parameter T 0,
indirectly controls the simulation of the recession limb of a hydrograph;
2. alnT 0 catchment mean value of ln T 0, where T 0 (m 2 h 1) is the lateral transmissivity
of the soil when it is just saturated;
3. aK 0 catchment mean value of saturated conductivity at the surface, K 0 (m h 1). This
parameter is used during the modelling of fluxes in the unsaturated zone;
4. dth1, dht2 these parameters outline the basic soil structure; dth1 (m) represents the
difference between soil water content at saturation point and at field capacity, dth2 (m)
is the difference between field capacity and wilting point;
5. cmelt, csf, ttmelt parameters of the snow subroutine; csf () is the correction factor
that takes snow interception losses into account, cmelt (mm day 1 8C 1) is the degree
day factor and ttmelt (8C) represents the limiting air temperature above which the snow
cover starts to melt.
Preliminary runs were carried out for the Jalovecky Creek catchment to select an initial
set of values for all the parameters and to choose which parameters to optimize. After the
satisfactory modelling of the recession limbs for the majority of runoff events, the parameters szf, alnT 0 and aK 0 were kept constant and the soil and snow subroutine parameters
were allowed to vary in the manual optimization. Automatic optimization did not lead to
better results. The values of the most important parameters are given in Table 1.
Parameter aK 0 was set as the value of saturated conductivity of the soil samples taken
from the catchment, although from its definition it follows that the real value of K 0 (as well
as that of T 0) can hardly be measured. Due to the porous character of the catchment, the
Table 1
Main TOPMODEL parameters for simulations with daily data during the period 1 August 198731 October 1993
and hourly data during the period 15 August7 September 1993; szf is scaling model parameter, dth1 and dth2 are
storage parameters of soils, aK 0 is catchment mean value of saturated conductivity, cmelt is degreeday factor,
csf is snow interception factor, ttmelt is limiting air temperature for the start of snowmelt and alnT 0 is the
catchment mean value of lateral transmissivity when the soil is just saturated

daily data
hourly data
a

szf

dth1 (m)

dth2 (m)

aK 0
(m h 1)

cmelt
(mm day 1 8C 1)

csf

ttmelt
(8C)

alnT 0
(m 2 h 1)

4.0
6.3

0.13
0.13

0.15
0.15

0.125
0.125

2.5
2.5 a

0.9
0.9 a

1.5
1.5 a

1.0
0.55

Since simulation with hourly data was performed for the summer period, the snow subroutine parameters were
not used.

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Fig. 1. Influence of bypass flow parameter pmac on simulated values of catchment mean soil moisture; daily data
from August 1987 to October 1993.

thickness of the capillary fringe was assumed to be negligible as well as the area of the
bare rocks in the catchment.
It was assumed arbitrarily that 20% of precipitation under all soil moisture conditions
reaches the groundwater table as macropore flow; this value was not verified by measurements. Different values of the parameter changed the proportions of modelled subsurface
and overland flow, but the total simulated flow remained constant. The more remarkable
influence of the bypass flow could be observed by the simulated soil moisture. Simulated
soil moisture during the winter periods was kept at its maximum value which was determined by parameter dth2. The lengths of these periods were shorter during the simulations
with high bypass flow (Fig. 1).
Parameters dth1, dth2 were first estimated according to the above mentioned definition
(differences in water contents at saturation, field capacity and wilting point) using the
same soil samples as were estimated from the value of parameter aK 0. However, it was
found that runoff simulation was not very sensitive to the values of dth1 and dth2. Parameter dth2 decreased or increased the absolute values of simulated soil moisture, but had
no influence on its temporal variability.
The aim of the simulation strategy was to obtain the best possible reproduction of
measured runoff and an adequate water balance with realistic values of model parameters. During the simulation with the daily data (1 August 198731 October 1993), the
parameters were kept constant to test the model potential in long-term runoff simulations.
It is obvious that simulations in such a case do not fit the measured data (runoff, snow
water equivalent, etc.) equally well during the whole period of simulation.

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Fig. 2. Daily precipitation, measured and simulated runoff in hydrological years 1988 and 1989.

367

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Fig. 3. Daily precipitation, measured and simulated runoff in hydrological years 1990 and 1991.

L.Holko, A. Lepisto/Journal of Hydrology 196 (1997) 361377

Fig. 4. Daily precipitation, measured and simulated runoff in hydrological years 1992 and 1993.

369

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During the simulation with hourly data (15 August7 September 1993) it was necessary
to adjust some of the parameters to improve the results (Table 1).
4.2. Runoff simulation
4.2.1. Daily input data
The results of runoff simulation with the daily input data are given in Figs 24. Considering the uncertainties in the input data, the results are reasonable. Analysis of the
differences between measured and simulated runoff shows that:
1. Overestimation of modelled runoff during snowmelt frequently resulted from the combined effect of snowmelt and liquid precipitation (May 1988, 1989, 1990 and 1992).
Rapid increases in the air temperature caused similar responses in meltwater production. If precipitation occurred under such conditions, the simulated snow cover melted
away very quickly and high runoff peaks resulted. The same situation occurred in May
1991 when the simulated snow water equivalent was higher than in reality. A change in
the water holding capacity of the snow cover, together with variable values of the
degreeday factor, could have improved the simulation in the above-mentioned cases.
2. Remarkable underestimation of runoff occurred in spring 1993 for reasons similar to
those given in the previous paragraph. The snowmelt at the end of April was initiated
by rainfall. High air temperatures caused rapid snowmelt. The simulated snow water
equivalent was very low and, at the time of simulated flow peak, was approaching zero.
Consequently, the simulated hydrograph during the following rainless period exhibited
fast recession. The simulated ground water table dropped to the lowest level in hydrological year 1993 and runoff simulation recovered only at the end of rainy June. A
lower value of the degreeday factor could have improved the simulation during the
snowmelt.
3. Runoff simulation in the summer periods was reasonably good. The recession limbs of
hydrographs indicate that parameters szf and T 0 were appropriate for most events.
Simulated runoff after the extremely high rainfall at the beginning of August 1991
was overestimated, perhaps also because of the rough estimate of potential evapotranspiration. On the other hand, simulated runoff following the extremely dry August 1992
was underestimated for a long period, despite the wet September 1992, and the runoff
reproduction improved only in mid-October. The simulated water table in August 1992
was at the lowest level for the whole period of simulation and was almost twice as deep
as the mimimum levels in other years. This extreme condition could not be simulated
satisfactorily with the model parameters set for the whole simulation period.
It is probable that runoff simulation would be better if the model parameters were
variable; i.e. particular years or seasons would have been simulated. Nevertheless, the
results presented show that the model simulates the seasonal changes in runoff regime
reasonably well (Fig. 5). The data presented in Table 2 show that total simulated runoff for
the whole period was only , 1% higher than the measured runoff. Simulated runoff and
evapotranspiration represented 65 and 32% of measured precipitation, respectively. As
mentioned before, the input data included some uncertainties in the areal estimates of
precipitation because of the mountainous character of the catchment. It is probable that

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Fig. 5. Measured and simulated monthly runoff from August 1987 to October 1993, calculated as arithmetic mean
from the daily simulations.

measured precipitation was overestimated to some extent, which resulted in the difference
of 3% in the water balance.
In conclusion, it should be noted that particular short-term runoff events may not always
be simulated correctly in long-term simulations. The snow subroutine should be modified
to improve the runoff reproduction during snowmelt. When more input data are available
in the future, the calibrated model should be verified.
4.2.2. Hourly input data
The results of simulations with the hourly input data for the period of 15 August7
September 1993 are given in Fig. 6. Except for the rough estimate of potential evapotranspiration, the input data are much more reliable than in the case of daily data (areal
Table 2
Main water balance components model inputs and outputs for simulation
Measured runoff
(mm)

Simulated runoff
(mm)

Evapotranspiration
(mm)

Interception (mm)

Input precipitation
(mm)

5088 a
59 b

5110 a
58 b

2074 a
36 b

459 a
7b

7921 a
116 b

a
b

Daily data from 1 August 1987 to 31 October 1993.

Hourly data from 15 August to 7 September 1993.

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Fig. 6. Hourly precipitation, measured and simulated runoff in the period 15 August8 September 1993.

averages of precipitation, no air temperature inversions). However, Fig. 6 indicates that

more effort will be necessary to improve the simulation. Total simulated runoff is 2%
lower than the measured runoff (Table 2). Simulated runoff and evapotranspiration represented 50 and 36% of measured precipitation, respectively.
As was mentioned above, parameters szf and alnT 0 have been changed for the simulation with hourly data in order to achieve better runoff reproduction. The change of szf from
4.0 to 6.3 resulted in substantially higher peakflows. The influence of alnT 0 was not
significant. It was reflected only in a slightly higher value of the efficiency criterion. If
the new values of both parameters were used with the daily input data series, the total
simulated runoff would be overestimated as a result of the high value of szf. Since szf is a
scaling parameter, its change for different runoff events seems reasonable. According to
our experience, the value of szf often varies, especially for simulations with hourly data.
4.3. Snow water equivalent
Snow water equivalent has been measured in the Jalovecky Creek catchment and the
measurements are compared with TOPMODEL simulations in Fig. 7.
The simulated catchment average of snow water equivalent depends on the air temperature and the model parameters described above. Fig. 7 shows simulated snow water
equivalents along with maximum, minimum and arithmetic mean of field measurements.
The field measurements were made only at 512 points in the catchment and the variation

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373

Fig. 7. Simulated and measured values of catchment mean snow water equivalent.

between measurements was very high. Modelled values were similar to measured catchment means in April 1988 and, except for the winters of 1990/91 and 1991/92 (partially),
all lay within the variation of field measurements.
4.4. Saturated areas
The areal extent of saturated areas and their temporal variablity given by the model
could be very useful in the study of the runoff generation process. The mean value of
saturated areas in the catchment given by TOPMODEL simulations with daily input data
in the period 1 August 198731 October 1993 is about 10% of the catchment area (Fig. 8).
Lepisto (1994) found that TOPMODEL provided approximately the same average percentages of saturated areas as the isotopic method in a small forested catchment in southern Finland. A similar comparison was made for the Jalovecky Creek catchment.
TOPMODEL simulations were carried out with the hourly data for the period 15
August7 September 1993, and isotopic runoff separation using deuterium was made
for the runoff events.
The hydrological situation during the period is shown in Fig. 6. An intensive rainfall
burst on the night of 23 August after a long dry period caused an immediate response of the
catchment. The mean contribution of event water calculated by isotopic runoff separation

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Fig. 8. Mean monthly fractions of saturated areas simulated by TOPMODEL from August 1987 to October 1993,
calculated as arithmetic means from the daily simulations.

was 8%. The areal extent of saturated areas, based on the isotopic method, was 2% of the
catchment area. According to the TOPMODEL simulation, the extent was 1.1% of the
catchment area.
The second event was caused by less intensive but prolonged rainfall on 24 and 25
August. Due to problems with the sampling device, only the falling limb of the hydrograph
was separated directly, giving an event water contribution of 12%. The derived areal
extent of saturated area is 2.1% of the catchment (the TOPMODEL simulation gave
1.7%).
The two-component model failed to explain runoff generation for the following runoff
events, suggesting pre-event water contributions even higher than the total runoff. This
was probably caused by higher contribution of soil water, which was indicated also by the
change in the pattern of the isotopic signature of shallow soil waters monitored at one
hillslope in the catchment (Holko, 1995). During the first two events, the soil water at the
bottom of the slope was isotopically lighter than in its upper part. After the third event it
became isotopically heavier. It was concluded that heavier water from the upper part of the
slope substituted for the lighter water at the bottom of the slope by subsurface lateral flow.
Areal extent of saturated areas given by TOPMODEL and isotopic separation for the
two first runoff events indicates that TOPMODEL results from the short-term simulation
were lower, but fairly close to those given by the isotopic method. However, more events
should be compared in order to generalize the results. Isotopic runoff separations based on
the monthly data were subject to great uncertainty. In comparison with TOPMODEL
simulations, they had a similar order of magnitude.

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375

According to TOPMODEL simulations, the contribution of the subsurface flow to the

total simulated flow in the period 1 August 198731 October 1993 was 84% (simulation
with the daily input data), and 95% in the period 15 August7 September 1993 (simulation
with the hourly input data). The last number compares well with the above-mentioned
results of the isotopic runoff separations.
Robson et al. (1992) concluded that TOPMODEL results compared well with chemical
separation, but pointed out that the results should be analysed carefully. The same is valid
for the comparison of TOPMODEL results with those of isotopic separation. Mechanisms
of the origin of the saturated areas in TOPMODEL and in the isotopic method are different. The soil in TOPMODEL may become saturated by rise of the groundwater level to the
soil surface (by infiltration or return flow), as well as by infiltration excess. Event water
calculated from the isotopic runoff separation is a priori assumed to originate from precipitation or snowmelt on the areas which are already saturated. As noted by Rodhe
(1987), this method gives only a rough estimate of the areal extent of saturated discharge
areas. Numerical similarity of the saturated areas given by both methods should therefore
not be interpreted in terms of their generation. A possible benefit would consist in substitution of the results from isotopic runoff separation by mathematical modelling. For
more detailed conclusions, it is necessary to verify the results given by both methods by
field mapping of saturated areas. Rodhe (1987) found that the results given by 18O for most
snowmelt events compared well with field mapping.
Saturated areas predicted by TOPMODEL, derived from the simulations with the hourly
data, were distributed mostly along the stream channels. Their distribution seems to
compare well with our empirical knowledge of the catchment. However, the grid size
of 100 m is too large for reasonable mapping of predicted saturated areas. Such an analysis
is beyond the scope of this paper. Because this is one of the most exciting parts of
TOPMODEL, a higher resolution digital elevation model is being prepared which,
together with measured field data, can be used for a more detailed analysis of modelled
results.

5. Conclusions
Considering the aims of this study mentioned in the Introduction, it can be concluded
that:
1. Application of TOPMODEL in a porous mountain catchment situated in the highest
part of the Carpathians showed that the model can be helpful in the study of runoff
processes. The long-term runoff simulation was reasonably successful, although particular runoff events have not always been simulated satisfactorily. Relatively good
runoff reproduction was achieved despite the relatively simple structure of the model
and the fact that some model assumptions may not be valid in the catchment (e.g. deep
homogeneous soil profiles). A more sophisticated snow subroutine could provide better
results, but additional parameters would have to be included in the model.
2. Short-term simulation provided promising results from the point of view of reality of
modelled areal extent of saturated areas as checked by the isotopic separation method.

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The results of the first testing of the model in the catchment are promising. An imperative for further development of the model in the Jalovecky Creek catchment is data
better quality input data (spatially distributed precipitation and temperature data), more
accurate estimates of potential evapotranspiration, and field measurements that can be
used for better verification of modelled results (e.g. snow water equivalent, soil moisture,
groundwater table). Field mapping of saturated areas should be done in order to study the
response of the catchment to precipitation events and to verify modelled results.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Prof. K. Beven and the anonymous reviewers for
remarks that helped to improve the manuscript of this paper.

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