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Part I:
Geophysical Considerations
Rock types
Reservoir characteristics
Primary Porosity
Secondary Porosity
Permeability
Saturation
The Borehole
Log Heading
API Log Grid
Tracks
Columns
Depth Scales
Grid Scales
Well Evaluation
Lithology
Spontaneous Potential
Gamma Ray
Shale Volume
Resistivity Logging
Resistivity concepts
Resistivity Tools
Jump to Part II
Jump to Part IV
Geophysical Considerations
ROCK TYPES:
A thorough understanding of reservoir characteristics is an important part of
evaluating oil, gas or water bearing formations. This understanding makes it
possible to understand how geophysical measurements made by the many
types of logging tools are related to reservoir parameters. What type of rock
is a reservoir rock and what type is not? How do we quantify the value of a
reservoir rock and the three important primary rock parameters; porosity,
permeability and water saturation?
RESERVOIR ROCKS:
Igneous rocks are volcanic in origin and rarely contain oil, gas or water.
Metamorphic rocks are sedimentary rocks that have been recompressed thru
a combination of extreme heat and pressure into solid rock material.
Metamorphic rocks are not a favorable reservoir rock.
Sedimentary rocks are formed thru erosion of igneous and metamorphic
rocks or thru organic deposition. Most reservoir rocks are sedimentary in
origin.
The three general sedimentary rock types of importance are Sandstone,
Limestone and Dolomite.
Clastic sediments are composed of broken and worn particles of pre-existing
minerals, rocks and shells. These sediments are transported and eventually
deposited in successive layers.
Non-clastic (carbonates) are characteristically Limestone or Dolomite. The
rock matrix is generally composed of once living organisms found in sea
water. Fossil remains of this sea life are found in the rock matrix.
RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS:
Complete analysis of a reservoir requires three pieces of data: porosity,
permeability and saturation.
Porosity is the capacity of a formation to contain fluids. By definition, porosity
is the percent of void volume divided by the total volume.
The symbol for porosity is the Greek symbol .
Porosity () = void volume / total volume
PRIMARY POROSITY:
Primary porosity results from the void space between inter-granular rock
fragments and particle grains after their accumulation as sediments. The
theoretical maximum porosity based on spherical sand grains stacked on top
of each-other is 46.7 percent. Primary porosity is a function of the
depositional environment, compaction, and cementation.
SECONDARY POROSITY:
Secondary porosity results from leaching of sediments or other actions that
remove material and form fractures, channels, caverns or vugs in a
formation. Carbonate rocks are frequently found to contain secondary
porosity in the form of vugs, solution cavities or channels.
In general, porosity decreases with depth. As depth increases, the increasing
pressure causes compaction. The older more cemented formations exhibit
lower porosity. A shallow, younger formation may have a porosity of 25
percent and an older deeper formation may have less than 10 percent
porosity.
PERMEABILITY:
Porosity and permeability of selected oil sands: (Note: actual values may
vary from those given here)
Sandstone formation:
Porosity:
Permeability:
9.6
.9
17.5
25.0
24.9
147.5
22.1
3390.0
Excellent:
Very good:
Good:
> 1000 md
250 1000 md
50 250 md
Moderate
15 50 md
Poor to fair:
< 1 15 md
SATURATION:
The fluid saturation of a rock is the ratio of the volume of fluid filled porosity
to the total porosity. Fluid saturations are expressed as a percent of total
pore volume. For example, a water saturation of 20 percent means that 20
percent of the pore volume is water filled. In a hydrocarbon reservoir, other
fluids usually hydrocarbons fill the remaining pore space.
The portion of pore space that does not contain formation water is assumed
to contain hydrocarbons.
The Borehole
As the borehole fluid is forced into the surrounding formation, a mud cake
having resistivity (Rmc) and thickness (hmc) is formed on the wall of the
borehole.
Fluid from the borehole that enters into the immediate surrounding rock
formation and which flushes that part of the formation has resistivity (Rxo)
and also is called mud filtrate (Rmf) resulting in saturation of the flushed
zone (Sxo).
Continuing outward from the borehole, the invaded zone having resistivity
(Ri) and (Rz) is saturated with water and is defined as (Swi).
Beyond the invaded zone is a zone that is not invaded by borehole fluid. This
zone is called the uninvaded zone. The uninvaded zone contains fluid (water)
having resistivity (Rw) and total resistivity (Rt) with water saturation (Sw).
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE:
Hydrostatic pressure is a measure of the pressure at any given point in a
well. The pressure is a function of the weight of the fluid in the well and the
depth. Water has a weight of approximately .4 lbs. PSI per foot.
A water filled well would have a pressure of 400 PSI at 1000 feet. Drilling
fluid may have heavy chemicals added to increase the hydrostatic pressure.
If the hydrostatic pressure is greater than the pressure exerted by the
surrounding formations then positive hydrostatic pressure occurs. When a
well is drilled using rotary drilling methods, it is customary to maintain the
weight of the drilling fluid at a weight that gives positive hydrostatic
pressure.
The advantage of positive hydrostatic pressure is that the formation fluids do
not escape. It is also an advantage that the pressure is greater in the well
that fluid flows from the well into the surrounding formation. As fluid flows
into a formation, a mud cake is formed on the sides of the well.
WATER LOSS OF MUD:
A well having positive hydrostatic pressure will have water loss as water
within the well invades into the surrounding formations. The higher the water
loss, the deeper the invasion will be.
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE:
Invasion is a function of Differential Pressure. As the Differential Pressure
increases, the amount of invasion also increases. Drilling fluids are designed
to minimize water loss thru the process of creating a mud cake that limits
invasion of fluids into the formation.
TIME:
The length of time that a formation is exposed to the forces of a mud column
in a well also affects the amount of invasion. It is important to know that the
longer a formation is exposed to invasion, the deeper the invasion.
POROSITY:
Under given conditions, a formation having greater porosity will invade LESS
deeply than a formation having lower porosity.
PERMEABILITY:
Normally, the permeability of the mud cake is low and it controls the amount
of invasion. When a formation is highly permeable, it may have greater
control over the amount of invasion than the mud cake. It is interesting to
note in a given well, the differences in filtrate invasion and resulting
thickness of mud cake from one formation to another.
BOREHOLE TEMPERATURE:
Borehole temperature increases from a surface average temperature (Tsurf)
to a maximum borehole temperature (TTD) assumed to be at the termination
depth or TD. This differential is usually measured in degrees per 1000 feet
and is referred to as geothermal temperature gradient.
Often times it is necessary to calculate the temperature at an intermediate
depth (Tf) in the well.
If the average surface temperature is 70 degrees F and the Temperature at
TD of 10000 feet is 170 degrees, What is the temperature at 3500 feet?
The temperature differential is 100 degrees over 10000 feet or 10 degrees F
per 1000 feet.
Tf = (TTD-Tsurf)/TD * Fd + TSurf)
Tf = (170 -70 )/10000 * 3500 + 70 = 105 degrees at 3500 feet.
Temperature versus depth is often obtained from a chart.
SYMBOLS:
A few symbols used in Well Drilling, Well logging, and Well Log Analysis: (this
is not a complete list)
d
hole
di =
diameter
=
diameter
Porosity
of
invasion
density
h = thickness of a formation bed
Delta T
of
the
=
t =
= Formation factor
= Cementation factor
= Saturation exponent
The API Log Grid is the standard format used for recording Well Logging
measurements.
Other
formats
that
may
at http://www.rockware.com .
be
acceptable
can
be
seen
TRACKS:
The log is organized into three tracks in the following format:
From left to right;
A single track (on the left) (track 1), a depth track, and two tracks called
track 2 and track 3. Each track is 2.5 inches wide. The depth track is .75
inches wide. Each track is divided or scaled.
COLUMNS:
Tracks appear as columns. Each track may contain one or more curves
representing the logged data at a given depth.
DEPTH SCALES:
The Depth scale is established in terms of inches of log per 100 feet of well.
Standard scales are:
1 inch per 100 feet
called 1 inch
called 2 inch
called 5 inch
GRID SCALES:
The divisions within a track are referred to as the grid scale.
Three types of grid scales are available; Linear, Logarithmic, and Split Grid.
Data that is linear in nature is recorded on a linear scale. For example
porosity on a scale from 0 to 40 percent across 10 linear divisions provides 4
percent porosity per division.
Data that needs a larger dynamic scale for example resistivity, may be
indicated on a logarithmic scale. A typical logarithmic scale may be two cycle
meaning the scale is from 1 to 10 to 100 ohm-meters or it might be on a four
Most oil producing states in the United States have websites that contain LAS
files on wells drilled in that state.
Later in this webinar, log interpretation including import to Microsoft Excel
spreadsheets. Charting is performed on LAS files.
Information from the base log that indicates lithology or formation type is
examined to determine which zones have sufficient porosity and
permeability to be of most interest for production. The resistivity anomalies
are then further evaluated.
No definite conclusions can be made at this point regarding the commercial
value of the well. Further information on porosity must be obtained in order
to make a quantitative evaluation.
Note: The porosity logs only respond to variation in porosity. Therefore
logging engineers are advised that the porosities calculated from tool
response may be subject to correction after further evaluation.
When Lithology, resistivity, and porosity logs are available then the analyst
has sufficient information to proceed with a numerical analysis of
porosity and saturation. This data combined with other geological
information provides the basis for determination of the commercial value of a
well.
WHAT ASTM says about Log Interpretation:
The American Society for Testing and Measurement is actively involved in
testing a measurement processes and setting acceptable standards.
ASTM, founded in 1898, is a developer and publisher of technical information
designed to promote the understanding and development of technology and
to ensure the quality of commodities and services and the safety of products.
WELLOG strongly recommends the following ASTM publication:
ASTM standards on Ground water and Vadose Zone investigations Drilling,
Sampling,
Geophysical
logging,
Well
Installation
and
Decommissioning. Stock #: Drill99
Lithology Identification
LITHOLOGY IDENTIFICATION:
A logging tool that could measure lithology and produce a lithology Log
would be a valuable tool! When software is applied to multiple logs in a well
defined area, methods have been demonstrated that give lithological
representations.
One tool that is considered by many to measure lithology is the Photoelectric
Density tool. The measurement of bulk density when plotted with a
Density:
Cross-section:
Dolomite
2.850 gm/cc
4.78
Sandstone
2.655 gm/cc
8.66
Limestone
2.690 gm/cc
8.72
Anhydrite
2.950 gm/cc
12.30
The SP curve is recorded in track 1 (left-hand track) of the well log. The
intensity of the Spontaneous potential can be determined by charts using the
resistivity of the mud filtrate (Rmf) and the Formation water resistivity (Rw).
SP is expressed as:
SP = -(60 + .133T) log10 (Rmf/Rw)
Where:
T = temperature
Rmf = Resistivity of the mud filtrate
Rw = resistivity of the formation water.
SSP = -(K) log10 (Rmfe/Rwe)
Where:
T = temperature
Rmfe = Resistivity of the mud filtrate effective.
Rwe = resistivity of the formation water effective.
Rmfe and Rwe are obtained from charts
EXERCISE 1:
Generate an MS excel spreadsheet with 4 columns. Calculate SP in the
4th column.
Use the following values:
Temp: Rmf:
Rw:
SP:
110
100
.5
110
100
.5
GAMMA RAY:
Clean sandstones and carbonates are low in gamma radiation. In contrast
formations containing shale are higher in gamma radiation.
Gamma radiation is statistical in nature because the radioactive decay of
radioisotopes is random.
Because radioactive isotopes tend to concentrate in shale or clay formations
and clean sandstone and carbonate formations are low in radioactive
isotopes, the Gamma ray tool may be used to infer lithology.
Gamma tools should be calibrated with a reference test source in order to
perform in a standardized manner.
Spontaneous Potential and Natural gamma ray curves are positioned in track
one of the log and indicate sandstone or carbonate formations when at the
extreme left of the scale and indicate shale or clay at the extreme right side
of the scale.
CORRECTION FOR SHALE:
Certain porosity logs require correction for shale volume (Vsh). Neutron
porosity is optimistic in shale. Acoustic porosity is optimistic in shale. When
shale is present, effective porosity, (phi subscript e), can be used to more
accurately determine water saturation (Sw) .
Using information from the natural gamma log;
Shale Volume = Vsh = (Gr Grcs) / (Grsh Grcs)
Where:
Gr = Gamma ray counts in the zone of interest
Grcs = Gamma ray counts in a clean sand
Grsh = Gamma ray counts in a shale zone
Using information from the SP log;
Shale Volume = Vsh = (sp spcs) / spsh spcs)
Where:
SP = SP in zone of interest
Spcs = sp in clean sand
Spsh = sp in shale zone
Resistivity Logging
RESISTIVITY CONCEPTS:
Resistivity can be defined as the degree to which a substance resists the flow
of electric current.
R = Resistance
V = Voltage
I = Current
R=V/IxG
ra = V / I x G
Where:
The greek symbol (r) is commonly used in geophysics and (R) is used in the
well logging industry for Resistivity.
Normal array:
Simplified:
-1
G = 4 x p x MN
Where:
meters
Or
Lateral array:
G = 4 p x (1/rAM 1/rAN) -1
Conductivity = 1 / R
Visit this web page for more information on the units of siemens and mhos.
Conduction in liquids is controlled by ion flow. Ions are created when sodium
chloride (or NaCl equivalent i.e. Potassium) are present in drilling and
formation waters. The higher the sodium chloride concentration the higher
the conductivity and lower the resistivity. Ion flow is controlled by fluid
viscosity and therefore temperature affects the flow of ions and
conductivity. Resistivity is affected by temperature. As temperature
increases, conductivity increases and resistivity decreases.
Determination of Rw:
Geothermal gradient:
A FREE CALCULATOR:
F = Ro/Rw
Given Rw = .05,
If Ro = 1.25 then F = 25
If Ro = .55 then F = 11
F = a / fm
The variables (a) and (m) are related to lithology. Cementation factor (m) in a
cemented sandstone or a porous limestone is 2.0 and (a) is equal to 1.0.
F = 1 / f2
Calculation of Formation factor from porosity:
Notice these three Formation Resistivity factors are the same as calculated
with F = Ro/Rw above.
RESISTIVITY TOOLS:
The Electric Logging tool was originally introduced by Conrad and Marcel
Schlumberger in 1927 in Pechelbronn France.
Mono-electrode configuration.
When two electrodes are placed in a oil or water filled well and voltage is
applied to them, a current will flow through the well fluid and formation
fluids. If additional electrodes are placed in the vicinity of the current
producing electrodes, a voltage can be measured. The voltage measured is
directly related to the resistivity of the surrounding formation fluids. Electric
logging tools generate an alternating current and measure the resulting
alternating voltage at measurement electrodes. The depth of measurement
is directly related to the spacing or separation between electrodes. The
depth is approximately equal to of the distance from the measure
electrode and the midpoint between the two current electrodes.
One current electrode (A) on the tool down-hole and the other current
electrode (B) located at the surface. Measurement electrodes (M) are spaced
from the down-hole current electrode at 8 inches, 16 inches, 32 inches or 64
inches above the A electrode depending on tool design. The reference
electrode (N) is on the surface. The most common configuration is 16 inch
(short normal) and 64 inch (long normal) spacing. This configuration results
in a shallow resistivity and deep resistivity measurement.
The advantage of short spacing is better thin bed definition. The advantage
of longer spacing is a deeper measurement of true formation
resistivity. Comparison of deep and shallow resistivity give information about
invasion. If shallow and deep resistivity are the same, no invasion has
occurred. If there is separation, the most probable reason is that invasion
has occurred causing the shallow (invaded) and deep water resistivities to
differ.
The electric logging tool requires a fluid filled borehole in order to have a
complete electrical path.
CONSIDERATIONS:
Bed thickness effect: The curves produced by the normal devices are
affected by bed thickness and resistivity (Lynch 1962).
Formation transitions:
Where the resistive bed is more than 6 AM spacings thick, logging up hole,
there is a gradual increase in resistivity until the M electrode on the sonde
enters the bottom of the bed. This level of resistivity is maintained until the A
electrode enters the bed. As the sonde continues there is a gradual increase
in resistivity until the midpoint of the bed is reached. Thereafter a gradual
reduction occurs in resistivity, which is symmetrical with the curve below the
midpoint of the bed, until the sonde passes out of the bed. The recorded
resistivity approaches but does not fully equal the true resistivity of the bed.
The bed also appears to be 1 AM spacing thinner than it actually is, the
major resistivity deflections occurring AM above the bed bottom and AM
spacing below the bed top. As the bed thickness decreases, the resistivity
peak at the center decreases in amplitude. Further thinning to AM or less
than AM causes the resistivity deflection to disappear entirely, and the curve
actually reverses. The resistive bed now appears to be more conductive than
the surrounding formations.
INVERSION METHODS:
Invasion profiles are obtained from charts available from the logging service
company.
GUARD LOG:
Many specialized varieties of resistivity tools are available. Microresistivity [Wall] devices, for example, micro-log, mini-log, FoRxo, Contact
and others that measure resistivity of the borehole mud cake and flushed
zone. One such tool has a depth of investigation of 2 inches for example.
Sxo = (Rmf/Rxo)1/2
Recently added Electric and Induction tools can perform a synthetic aperture
measuring at a great many different depths into the surrounding formation.