Introductions To Pi: Introduction To The Classical Constants

Introductions to Pi
Introduction to the classical constants

General
Golden ratio
The division of a line segment whose total length is a + b into two parts a and b where the ratio of a + b to a is
equal to the ratio a to b is known as the golden ratio. The two ratios are both approximately equal to 1.618..., which
is called the golden ratio constant and usually notated by :
a+b
a
1.618
1+
5
2
The concept of golden ratio division appeared more than 2400 years ago as evidenced in art and architecture. It is
possible that the magical golden ratio divisions of parts are rather closely associated with the notion of beauty in
pleasing, harmonious proportions expressed in different areas of knowledge by biologists, artists, musicians,
historians, architects, psychologists, scientists, and even mystics. For example, the Greek sculptor Phidias (490430
BC) made the Parthenon statues in a way that seems to embody the golden ratio; Plato (427347 BC), in his
Timaeus, describes the five possible regular solids, known as the Platonic solids (the tetrahedron, cube, octahedron,
dodecahedron, and icosahedron), some of which are related to the golden ratio.
The properties of the golden ratio were mentioned in the works of the ancient Greeks Pythagoras (c. 580c. 500
BC) and Euclid (c. 325c. 265 BC), the Italian mathematician Leonardo of Pisa (1170s or 1180s1250), and the
Renaissance astronomer J. Kepler (15711630). Specifically, in book VI of the Elements, Euclid gave the following
definition of the golden ratio: "A straight line is said to have been cut in extreme and mean ratio when, as the whole
line is to the greater segment, so is the greater to the less". Therein Euclid showed that the "mean and extreme
ratio", the name used for the golden ratio until about the 18th century, is an irrational number.
In 1509 L. Pacioli published the book De Divina Proportione, which gave new impetus to the theory of the golden
ratio; in particular, he illustrated the golden ratio as applied to human faces by artists, architects, scientists, and
mystics. G. Cardano (1545) mentioned the golden ratio in his famous book Ars Magna, where he solved quadratic
and cubic equations and was the first to explicitly make calculations with complex numbers. Later M. Mstlin
(1597) evaluated 1 approximately as 0.6180340 . J. Kepler (1608) showed that the ratios of Fibonacci numbers approximate the value of the golden ratio and described the golden ratio as a "precious jewel". R. Simson
(1753) gave a simple limit representation of the golden ratio based on its very simple continued fraction
1
1+
1+
. M. Ohm (1835) gave the first known use of the term "golden section", believed to have originated
1+
earlier in the century from an unknown source. J. Sulley (1875) first used the term "golden ratio" in English and G.
Chrystal (1898) first used this term in a mathematical context.
The symbol (phi) for the notation of the golden ratio was suggested by American mathematician M. Barrwas in
1909. Phi is the first Greek letter in the name of the Greek sculptor Phidias.
http://functions.wolfram.com
Throughout history many people have tried to attribute some kind of magic or cult meaning as a valid description
of nature and attempted to prove that the golden ratio was incorporated into different architecture and art objects
(like the Great Pyramid, the Parthenon, old buildings, sculptures and pictures). But modern investigations (for
example, G. Markowsky (1992), C. Falbo (2005), and A. Olariu (2007)) showed that these are mostly misconceptions: the differences between the golden ratio and real ratios of these objects in many cases reach 2030% or more.
The golden ratio has many remarkable properties related to its quasi symmetry. It satisfies the quadratic equation
z2 - z - 1 0, which has solutions z1 and z2 1 - . The absolute value of the second solution is called the
golden ratio conjugate, F - 1. These ratios satisfy the following relations:
-1
F+1
1
F
Applications of the golden ratio also include algebraic coding theory, linear sequential circuits, quasicrystals,
phyllotaxis, biomathematics, and computer science.
Pi
The constant 3.14159 is the most frequently encountered classical constant in mathematics and the natural
sciences. Initially it was defined as the ratio of the length of a circle's circumference to its diameter. Many further
interpretations and applications in practically all fields of qualitative science followed. For instance, the following
table illustrates how the constant is applied to evaluate surface areas and volumes of some simple geometrical
objects:
sphere
Iof radius r and diameter d M
R3
Hsurface areaL
R3
HvolumeL
S 4 r2 d2
4
3
r3
Rn
Hhyper surface areaL
or r j M
2 n2
GJ N
r2 k
r2
V2 k+1
k
H2
Vn
rn-1
k
k!
V2 k
r2 k-1
k 22 k+1 k!
H2 kL!
S2 k+1
Sn
ellipsoid HspheroidL
Iof semi-axes a , b , c ,
2 k
Hk-1L!
d3 S2 k
Rn
HhypervolumeL
containing
elliptic integrals
4
3
abc
S 2 r Hr + hL
V r2 h
22 k k-1 k!
H2 kL!
S2 k
n-1
Sn
cone
Iof height h and radius r M
S r r+
r2 + h2
r2 h
GJ
n+1
S2 k
n-2
4k k-1 k!
H2 kL!
S2 k+1
r+
k r+
Sn
h2 + r2 r2 k-2
GJ
n+1
2
h2 +r2
n-1
Vn
GJ
n+1
V2 k
ellipse
Iof semi-axes a , b M
S r2
22 k-1
H2
n-1
n GJ
R
R2
HcircumferenceL Hsurface areaL
circle
c 2r d
Iof radius r and diameter d M
rj
k
k!
V2 k+1
Vn
rn-2 r+
n+2
22 k
H2
r2 k-1
k!
n2
GJ
rn
k
H2
V2 k+1
h2 +r2
n-1
k
k!
r2 k-2 HH2 k - 1L h + 2 rL V2 k
HHn - 1L h + 2 rL
n+2
V2 k+1
r2 k-1 Hh k + rL
2 k
k!
S2 k+1
GJ
V2 k
containing
elliptic integrals
Vn
cylinder
Iof height h and radius r M
n2
d2
containing
S ab
elliptic integrals
Different approximations of have been known since antiquity or before when people discovered some basic
properties of circles. The design of Egyptian pyramids (c. 3000 BC) incorporated as
22 7 3 + 1 7 H ~ 3.142857 L in numerous places. The Egyptian scribe Ahmes (Middle Kingdom papyrus, c.
2000 BC) wrote the oldest known text to give an approximate value for as H16 9L2 ~ 3.16045. Babylonian
mathematicians (19th century BC) were using an estimation of as 25 8, which is within 0.53% of the exact
value. (China, c. 1200 BC) and the Biblical verse I Kings 7:23 (c. 971852 BC) gave the estimation of as 3.
Archimedes (Greece, c. 240 BC) knew that 3 + 10 71 < < 3 + 1 7 and gave the estimation of as 3.1418.
Aryabhata (India, 5th century) gave the approximation of as 62832/20000, correct to four decimal places. Zu
Chongzhi (China, 5th century) gave two approximations of as 355/113 and 22/7 and restricted between
3.1415926 and 3.1415927.
A reinvestigation of began by building corresponding series and other calculus-related formulas for this constant.
Simultaneously, scientists continued to evaluate with greater and greater accuracy and proved different structural
properties of . Madhava of Sangamagrama (India, 13501425) found the infinite series expansion
1-
1
3
1
5
1
7
1
9
- (currently named the Gregory-Leibniz series or Leibniz formula) and evaluated with
11 correct digits. Ghyath ad-din Jamshid Kashani (Persia, 1424) evaluated with 16 correct digits. F. Viete (1593)
represented 2 as the infinite product
2
2
2+ 2
2
2+
2+ 2
2
. Ludolph van Ceulen (Germany, 1610)
evaluated 35 decimal places of . J. Wallis (1655) represented as the infinite product
2 2 4 4 6 6 8 8
1 3 3 5 5 7 7 9
. J.
Machin (England, 1706) developed a quickly converging series for , based on the formula
4 4 tan-1 I 5 M - tan-1 I 239 M, and used it to evaluate 100 correct digits. W. Jones (1706) introduced the symbol
1
for notation of the Pi constant. L. Euler (1737) adopted the symbol and made it standard. C. Goldbach (1742) also
widely used the symbol . J. H. Lambert (1761) established that is an irrational number. J. Vega (Slovenia, 1789)
improved J. Machin's 1706 formula and calculated 126 correct digits for . W. Rutherford (1841) calculated 152
correct digits for . After 20 years of hard work, W. Shanks (1873) presented 707 digits for , but only 527 digits
were correct (as D. F. Ferguson found in 1947). F. Lindemann (1882) proved that is transcendental. F. C. W.
Stormer (1896) derived the formula
44 tan-1 I 57 M + 7 tan-1 I 239 M - 12 tan-1 I 682 M + 24 tan-1 I 12 943 M, which was

1
used in 2002 for the evaluation of 1,241,100,000,000 digits of . D. F. Ferguson (1947) recalculated to 808
decimal places, using a mechanical desk calculator. K. Mahler (1953) proved that is not a Liouville number.
Modern computer calculation of was started by D. Shanks (1961), who reported 100000 digits of . This record
was improved many times; Yasumasa Kanada (Japan, December 2002) using a 64-node Hitachi supercomputer
evaluated 1,241,100,000,000 digits of . For this purpose he used the earlier mentioned formula of F. C. W.
Stormer (1896) and the formula
12 tan-1 I 49 M + 32 tan-1 I 57 M - 5 tan-1 I 239 M + 12 tan-1 I 110 443 M. Future improved

1
results are inevitable.

Degree
Babylonians divided the circle into 360 degrees (360), probably because 360 approximates the number of days in
a year. Ptolemy (Egypt, c. 90168 AD) in Mathematical Syntaxis used the symbol sing in astronomical calculations. Mathematically, one degree H1 L has the numerical value

180
180
Therefore, all historical and other information about can be derived from information about .
Euler constant
J. Napier in his work on logarithms (1618) mentioned the existence of a special convenient constant for the calculation of logarithms (but he did not evaluate this constant). It is possible that the table of logarithms was written by
W. Oughtred, who is credited in 1622 with inventing the slide rule, which is a tool used for multiplication, division,
evaluation of roots, logarithms, and other functions. In 1669 I. Newton published the series
2 + 1 2! + 1 3! + 2.71828 , which actually converges to that special constant. At that time J. Bernoulli
tried to find the limit of H1 + 1 nLn , when n . G. W. Leibniz (16901691) was the first, in correspondence to C.
Huygens, to recognize this limit as a special constant, but he used the notation b to represent it.
L. Euler began using the letter e for that constant in 17271728, and introduced this notation in a letter to C.
Goldbach (1731). However, the first use of e in a published work appeared in Euler's Mechanica (1736). In 1737 L.
Euler proved that and 2 are irrational numbers and represented through continued fractions. In 1748 L. Euler
represented as an infinite sum and found its first 23 digits:
k=0
1
k!
1+
1
1
2!
1
3!
+ .
4!
D. Bernoulli (1760) used e as the base of the natural logarithms. J. Lambert (1768) proved that pq is an irrational
number, if p q is a nonzero rational number.
In the 19th century A. Cauchy (1823) determined that lim H1 + 1 zLz ; J. Liouville (1844) proved that does
z
not satisfy any quadratic equation with integral coefficients; C. Hermite (1873) proved that is a transcendental
number; and E. Catalan (1873) represented through infinite products.
The only constant appearing more frequently than in mathematics is . Physical applications of are very often
connected with time-dependent processes. For example, if w HtL is a decreasing value of a quantity at time t, which
decreases at a rate proportional to its value with coefficient -, this quantity is subject to exponential decay
described by the following differential equation and its solution:
w HtL - t ; wHtL c - t
where c wH0L is the initial quantity at time t 0. Examples of such processes can be found in the following: a
radionuclide that undergoes radioactive decay, chemical reactions (like enzyme-catalyzed reactions), electric
charge, vibrations, pharmacology and toxicology, and the intensity of electromagnetic radiation.
Euler gamma
In 1735 the Swiss mathematician L. Euler introduced a special constant that represents the limiting difference
between the harmonic series and the natural logarithm:
lim
n
k=1
1
k
- logHnL .
Euler denoted it using the symbol C, and initially calculated its value to 6 decimal places, which he extended to 16
digits in 1781. L. Mascheroni (1790) first used the symbol for the notation of this constant and calculated its
value to 19 correct digits. Later J. Soldner (1809) calculated to 40 correct digits, which C. Gauss and F. Nicolai
(1812) verified. E. Catalan (1875) found the integral representation for this constant 1 -
t2 +t4 +t8 +
t+1
t.
This constant was named the Euler gamma or Euler-Mascheroni constant in the honor of its founders.
Applications include discrete mathematics and number theory.
Catalan constant
The Catalan constant C 1 - 1 32 + 1 52 - 1 72 + 0.915966 ... was named in honor of Eu. Ch. Catalan
(18141894), who introduced a faster convergent equivalent series and expressions in terms of integrals. Based on
methods resulting from collaborations with M. Leclert, E. Catalan (1865) computed C up to 9 decimals. M. Bresse
(1867) computed 24 decimals of C using a technique from E. Kummer's work. J. Glaisher (1877) evaluated 20
digits of the Catalan constant, which he extended to 32 digits in 1913.
The Catalan constant is applied in number theory, combinatorics, and different areas of mathematical analysis.
Glaisher constant
The works of H. Kinkelin (1860) and J. Glaisher (18771878) introduced one special constant:
A exp
1
12
- H-1L ,
which was later called the Glaisher or Glaisher-Kinkelin constant in honor of its founders. This constant is used in
number theory, Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac statistics, analytic approximation and evaluation of integrals and
products, regularization techniques in quantum field theory, and the Scharnhorst effect of quantum electrodynamics.
Khinchin constant
The 1934 work of A. Khinchin considered the limit of the geometric mean of continued fraction terms
lim Ink=1 qk M
1n
q0 +
1
q1 +
1
q2 +
and found that its value is a constant independent for almost all continued fractions:
x qk N+ .
1
q3 +
The constantnamed the Khinchin constant in the honor of its founderestablished that rational numbers, solutions of quadratic equations with rational coefficients, the golden ratio , and the Euler number upon being
expanded into continued fractions do not have the previous property. Other site numerical verifications showed that
continued fraction expansions of , the Euler-Mascheroni constant , and Khinchin's constant K itself can satisfy
that property. But it was still not proved accurately.
Applications of the Khinchin constant K include number theory.
Imaginary unit
The imaginary unit constant allows the real number system R to be extended to the complex number system C.
This system allows for solutions of polynomial equations such as z2 + 1 0 and more complicated polynomial
equations through complex numbers. Hence 2 -1 and H-L2 -1, and the previous quadratic equation has two
solutions as is expected for a quadratic polynomial:
z2 -1 ; z z1 z z2 -.
The imaginary unit has a long history, which started with the question of how to understand and interpret the
solution of the simple quadratic equation z2 -1.
It was clear that 12 H-1L2 1. But it was not clear how to get -1 from something squared.
In the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries this problem was intensively discussed together with the problem of solving
the cubic, quartic, and other polynomial equations. S. Ferro (Italy, 14651526) first discovered a method to solve
cubic equations. N. F. Tartaglia (Italy, 15001557) independently solved cubic equations. G. Cardano (Italy, 1545)
published the solutions to the cubic and quartic equations in his book Ars Magna, with one case of this solution
communicated to him by N. Tartaglia. He noted the existence of so-called imaginary numbers, but did not describe
their properties. L. Ferrari (Italy, 15221565) solved the quartic equation, which was mentioned in the book Ars
Magna by his teacher G. Cardano. R. Descartes (1637) suggested the name "imaginary" for nonreal numbers like
1 + -1 . J. Wallis (1685) in De Algebra tractates published the idea of the graphic representation of complex
numbers. J. Bernoulli (1702) used imaginary numbers. R. Cotes (1714) derived the formula:
cosHL + sinHL,
which in 1748 was found by L. Euler and hence named for him.
A. Moivre (1730) derived the well-known formula HcosHxL + sinHxLLn cosHn xL + sinHn xL ; n N, which bears
his name.
Investigations of L. Euler (1727, 1728) gave new imputus to the theory of complex numbers and functions of
complex arguments (analytic functions). In a letter to C. Goldbach (1731) L. Euler introduced the notation for the
base of the natural logarithm 2.71828182 and he proved that is irrational. Later on L. Euler (17401748)
found a series expansion for z , which lead to the famous and very basic formula connecting exponential and
trigonometric functions cosHxL + sinHxL x (1748). H. Khn (1753) used imaginary numbers. L. Euler (1755)
used the word "complex" (1777) and first used the letter i to represent
interpretation of complex numbers.
-1 . C. Wessel (1799) gave a geometrical
As a result, mathematicians introduced the use of a special symbolthe imaginary unit that is equal to =
-1 :
2 -1.
In the 19th century the conception and theory of complex numbers was basically formed. A. Buee (1804) independently came to the idea of J. Wallis about geometrical representations of complex numbers in the plane. J. Argand
(1806) introduced the name modulus for
x2 + y2 , and published the idea of geometrical interpretation of com-
plex numbers known as the Argand diagram. C. Mourey (1828) laid the foundations for the theory of directional
numbers in a little treatise.
The imaginary unit was interpreted in a geometrical sense as the point with coordinates 80, 1< in the Cartesian
(Euclidean) x, y plane with the vertical y axis upward and the origin 80, 0<. This geometric interpretation establishes
the following representations of the complex number z through two real numbers x and y as:
z x + y ; x R y RHx, yL
z r cosH L + r sinH L ; r R r > 0 R,
x2 + y2 is the distance between points 8x, y< and 80, 0<, and is the angle between the line connecting
where r =
points 80, 0< and 8x, y< and the positive x axis direction (the so-called polar representation).
The last formula lead to the following basic relations:
r
x2 + y2
x r cosH L
y r sinH L
tan-1
y
x
; x > 0,
which describe the main characteristics of the complex number z x + ythe so-called modulus (absolute value)
r, the real part x, the imaginary part y, and the argument .
The Euler formula cosHL + sinHL allows the representation of the complex number z, using polar coordinates Hr, L in the more compact form:
z r ; r R r 0 @0, 2 L.
It also allows the expression of the logarithm of a complex number through the formula:
logHzL logHrL + ; r R r > 0 R.
Taking into account that the cosine and sine have period 2 , it follows that has period 2 :
+2 H+2 L cosH + 2 L + sinH + 2 L cosHL + sinHL .
Generically, the logarithm function log HzL is the multivalued function:

logHzL logHrL + H + 2 kL ; r R r > 0 R k Z.
For specifying just one value for the logarithm logHzL and one value of the argument for a given complex number
z, the restriction - < is generally used for the argument .
C. F. Gauss (1831) introduced the name "imaginary unit" for

x + y, and called
x2
y2
-1 , suggested the term complex number for
the norm, but mentioned that the theory of complex numbers is quite unknown, and in
1832 published his chief memoir on the subject. A. Cauchy (17891857) proved several important basic theorems
in complex analysis. N. Abel (18021829) was the first to widely use complex numbers with well-known success.
K. Weierstrass (1841) introduced the notation z for the modulus of complex numbers, which he called the absolute
value. E. Kummer (1844), L. Kronecker (1845), Scheffler (1845, 1851, 1880), A. Bellavitis (1835, 1852), Peacock
(1845), A. Morgan (1849), A. Mobius (17901868), J. Dirichlet (18051859), and others made large contributions
in developing complex number theory.
Definitions of classical constants and the imaginary unit

Classical constants and the imaginary unit include eight basic constants: golden ratio , pi , the number of radians
in one degree , Euler number (or Euler constant or base of natural logarithm) , Euler-Mascheroni constant (Euler
gamma) , Catalan number (Catalan's constant) C, Glaisher constant (Glaisher-Kinkelin constant) A, Khinchin
constant (Khintchine's constant) K, and the imaginary unit . They are defined by the following formulas:
K1 +
1
2
-1
H-1Lk
2k+1
k=0
5 O expIcsch H2LM
180
k=0
1
k!
lim
n
k=0
A exp
k=1
- logHnL
H-1Lk
H2 k + 1L
1
12
K 1+
k=1
- H-1L
1
k Hk + 2L
log2 HkL
-1 .
The number is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter.
Connections within the group of classical constants and the imaginary unit and with
other function groups
Representations through functions
10
The classical constants , , , , , C, A, and the imaginary unit can be represented as particular values of
expressions that include functions (Fibonacci F , algebraic roots, exponential and inverse trigonometric functions,
complete elliptic integrals KHzL and EHzL, dilogarithm Li2 HzL, gamma function GHzL, hypergeometric functions p Fq ,
p Fq ,
Meijer G function Gm,n

p,q , polygamma function HzL, Stieltjes constants n , Lerch transcendent FHz, s, aL, and
Hurwitz and Riemann zeta functions Hs, aL and HsL), for example:
1
2
K 5 F1 +
5 F12 - 4 O
2-1 K 5 F +
1
R >0
exp Icsch H2LM

-1
4 tan-1 J 2 N + 4 tan-1 J 3 N
1
5 F2 + 4 cosH L O
1
1
4 J4 tan-1 J 5 N - tan-1 J 239 NN
8 tan-1 J 3 N + 4 tan-1 J 7 N
1
4 tan-1 J 2 N + 4 tan-1 J 5 N + 4 tan-1 J 8 N

1
4 J6 tan-1 J 8 N + 2 tan-1 J 57 N +
1
tan-1 J 239 NN
1
45
1
1
J4 tan-1 J 5 N - tan-1 J 239 NN
1
45
Jtan-1 J 2 N + tan-1 J 3 NN
1
45
1
45
-1
4 tan-1 J 8 N
1
45
J6 tan-1 J 8 N + 2 tan-1 J 57 N +
1
tan-1 J 239 NN
1,0
G0,1
1
45
Jtan-1 J 2 N + tan-1 J 5 N +
1
z ;
tan-1 J 8 NN
1
4 J6 tan-1 J 8 N + 2 tan-1 J 57 N
1
-1
+ tan
1
J 239 NN
1
45
J6 tan-1 J 8 N + 2 tan-1 J 57 N
1
-1
88 tan-1 J 28 N + 8 tan-1 J 443 N 1
20 tan-1 J 1393 N - 40 tan-1 J 11 018 N

1
+ tan
1
45
20 tan-1 J 99 N + 32 tan-1 J 307 N

1
1
45
5 tan-1 J 99 N + 8 tan-1 J 307 NN

1
p N+ q N+
1
45
2 KH0L 2 EH0L
KH0L
90
1
180
6 Li2 H1L
J12 tan-1 J 18 N + 3 tan-1 J 70 N +
4 Jtan-1 J q N + tan-1 J p+q NN ;

q-p
5 tan-1 J 1393 N - 10 tan-1 J 11 018 NN
1
J 239 NN
log HL
J22 tan-1 J 28 N + 2 tan-1 J 443 N -
48 tan-1 J 18 N + 12 tan-1 J 70 N +
1 2
Jtan-1 J 2 N + tan-1 J 5 N + tan-1 J 8 NN
GJ2N
0 F0 H
4 tan-1 J 2 N + 4 tan-1 J 5 N +
1
0 F0 H
J2 tan-1 J 3 N + tan-1 J 7 NN
Iz; z2 - z - 1M2
Jtan-1 J q N + tan-1 J p+q NN ;

p
q-p
p N+ q N+
EH0L
90
GJ 2 N
1 2
1
180
6 Li2 H1L
Representations through related functions

The four classical constants , , , and and the imaginary unit can sometimes be represented through other
classical constants and the imaginary unit by formulas such as the following:
11
5 cos-1 J 2 N
2 cos J 5 N
1
2
1
2
secJ
2
N
5
cscJ 10 N
-5 log
1
36
1
2
1
2
2 cosH36 L
1
2
1
2
- logH-1L
5 +
90 k k ; k Z
180 -1
360 1
180 k H-1Lk ; k Z
180
- logH-1L
- 180
1
1-
logJ 1+
90
-90 k
180 -1
360 1
180 k H-1Lk
-
Evaluation of specific values
-1
2 1
k H-1Lk ;
2
-1
2 1
k H-1Lk ; k Z
first 50 digits
number of digits computed in year
1.6180339887498948482045868343656381177203091798057
2002, near 3 141 000 000 digits
3.1415926535897932384626433832795028841971693993751
December 2002, near 1 241 100 000 000 digits
0.017453292519943295769236907684886127134428718885417 December 2002, near 1 241 100 000 000 digits
2.7182818284590452353602874713526624977572470936999
2003, near 50 100 000 000 digits
0.57721566490153286060651209008240243104215933593992
December 2006, near 116 580 000 digits
0.91596559417721901505460351493238411077414937428167
2002, near 201 000 000 digits
1.2824271291006226368753425688697917277676889273250
December 2004, near 5000 digits
2.6854520010653064453097148354817956938203822939944
1998, near 110 000 digits
2 -1.
Values
The imaginary unit satisfies the following relation:
logH-1
The best-known properties and formulas for classical constants and the imaginary unit
C
A
K
180 -1
360 1
-1
2 1
k H-1Lk ; k Z

- logH-1L
1-
-1
2 logJ 1+ N
2
1
2
k H-1Lk ; k Z
-1
2 1
k H-1Lk ;
-90 k
4 - 2
5 +
cscH18 L
180
secH72 L
4 - 2
180
cos-1 J 2 N
- 36 log
12
For evaluation of the eight classical constants , , , , , C, A, and K, Mathematica uses procedures that are
based on the following formulas or methods:
basic formula or method
z Jbecause
Karatsuba's modifications of Newton's methods for evaluations

12
k=0
H-1Lk H6 kL! H545 140 134 k+13 591 409L
1
N
k!
k=0 i=1
logI 3 + 2N + 8
k=0
3
A A limn exp
1
12
xk
i Hk!L2
xk
k=0
Hk!L2
logHxL
2
k!2
H2 kL! H2 k+1L2
logH2 L 2 an log8 H10L+1q-1
21-an log8 H10L+1q j=0
1
2 2
5 NN
k+12
limn Jnk=0
C C
J1 +
k!3 H3 kL! I640 3203 M
180
limx
1
2
K K limn expJ logH2L m=1
en log4 H10Lu+1 1
m
H j+1L2
1
j-an log8 H10L+1q
logH2 H j + 1LL H-1L j k=0
m-1
HH2 mL - 1L 2k=1
The formula for 1 is called Chudnovsky's formula.
an log8 H10L + 1q
k
H-1Lk+1
N
k
- 2an log8 H10L+1q
12
Analyticity
The eight classical constants , , , , , C, A, and K are positive real numbers. The constant is a quadratic
irrational number. The constants , , and are irrational and transcendental over Q. Whether C and are irrational
is not known.
The imaginary unit is an algebraic number.
Series representations
The five classical constants , , , C, and K have numerous series representations, for example, the following:
4
k=0
H-1Lk
2k+1
k=0
k=0
5
4
16k
5
k=0
2 logH2L + 4
k+1
8k+4
2k+1
H-1L
2k
k
k=0
k+1
1
8k+5
1
2k+1
H-1L
f v
k=0
H-1Lk
3k+1
- logH2L
1
8k+6
4
8k+1
F2 k+1 16-k 4 tan-1
k=1
H-1Lk
4k
4k+2
k=0
1
F2 k+1
1
4k+3
2
4k+1
3k - 1
k=1
4k
k=0
Hk + 1L
H2 k - 1L!!
H2 k + 1L H2 kL!!
an + bn
kn
k=1
2k
k
9
2
cn
k=1
k2 n
cn
k=1
2n
3
18
135
k2 H2 kL!
1
2n
432
k=0
H2 kL!!
H2 k + 1L!! 22 k+2 Hk + 1L
6
243
42 795
9
2 355 156
11 797
81
23 594
10
649 231
729
1 298 462
48 314 475
13 318 583
2187
26 637 166
365 306 274
110
H-1Ln-1 H2 nL!
3 385
2187
201 403 930
1
2n
22 n-1 B2 n
cn 2
5 14
2J7N
35 16
J 31 N
4
56
7 18
2 J 127 N
n ; n N+
5
38
14
55 110
J 73 N
910
H-1Ln H2 nL!
22 n-1 B2 n J N
1
2n
1
2
cn
k=0
cn
k=0
H2 k + 1L
2n
2n
H-1Lk
H2 k + 1L
2 n-1
1
2 n-1
n 1
cn 2
;
2
2
3
16
14
26
n 1 2
4
14
2 15
23
cn 4 2 2
23
3 15
2J5N
70 18
J 17 N
35 110
2 J 31 N
4
2
45
n ; n N+
5 17
2 J 61 N
25
H-1Ln-1 2 H2 nL!
I22 n -1M B2 n
57
27
7 19
2 J 277 N
1
2n
n ; n N+
H-1Ln-1 22 n H2 n-2L! 2 n-1

J
N
E2 n-2
1
89
29
100 701 965
n ; n N+
338 514 1418
3 35
4
16
3 1014
6565
243
13 130
7
23 814
67
81
938
2
6
119
81
238
n 1
3
n 1
cn
37
81
74
k2 n
k=1
H-1Lk-1
k!
27
10
an -3
bn
13
14
1

k=0 k!

k=0
1
2
k=0

k=0

k=0
2
3
logHAL
1
2
H-1Lk logHkL
k=2
k
1

k=2
k+1
H2 k+1L!
H-1Lk
k
1 -
k=2
k+1
k!
H3 kL2 +1
H3 kL!
C
C
HkL-1
k
H2 k+1L
4k
H2 k+1L
k=0
k+1
- 2
k=0
logH2L -
1
32
logH2L -
1
32
H-1L j+1
j=0
K exp J logH2L
k=2 log
2
8
H4 k+3L2
1

k=0
logH2L +
k=0
H-1Lk
2 k+1
H-1Lk
2 k+1
k H2 k+1L
42 k
1
2 logH2
K expJlogH2L +

k=0
logH2L +
k=0
C 1 -
k=1
H4 k+1L2
2k mod 2 k!
2
8
Hk+3Lk mod 2
2
k=0
HkL
logH2L -
k=1
3-4 k2
H2 k+1L!
k=0
1
logH2L

k=2 JlogJ1 - k N + k N + 1
2 k+1
H2 kL!
2
k=0
logH2L
K expK logH2L
k=2
H2 k+1L!2
16k k!4 Hk+1L3
HHk + 1L + L
K expJ logH2L J
1
JJk + 2 N + N
3
k=2
k
2k
K expJ logH2L Jlog H2L
H2 k+1L!2
16k k!4 Hk+1L3
1
8
H-1
2
6
K expJ logH2L
k=1
1
Jk + 1, 4 N
1
2
H2
1
k
H j + 1L2 logH j + 1L + .
j
8
Product representations
The four classical constants , , , and A can be represented by the following formulas:
2
k=1
4 k2
H2 k-1L H2 k+1L
2
k=0
GJ +2k+1 N
1
k+1
22
GJ 2 + 2k N
1
2
k=2 secJ k N
2 -1
2
J
j=1 k=0
3
k=0 secJ
12 2k
j-1
N2
2-k-1
A
H-1Lk+1
n
log
n=0 k=0 Hk + 1L
n
k
n+1
2 k+2 j +2
2 k+2 j +1
k=1
k+1
k
2 H-1L
2
k=1 J1 + k N
-2
6
k=1 I1 - pk M
-1

k=1 k
HkL
k
; pk P
Integral representations
The five classical constants , (and
), , C, A, and K have numerous integral representations, for example:
1
2 0 2
t +1
4 0
2 0
15
-0 -t
C
logHtL t
1 - t2 t -0 logH-logHtLL t
1
1-t2
cosHtL
2 0 2
t +1
-0 logJlogJ t NN t
1
1 t -t
-0 t H1-tL
- 0
N t
t ;
C 02 csch
-0
It2 +1M I2 t -1M

t
JcosHtL -
1
t
0 J logHtL +
1
1
t2 +1
t C
cn
sinn HtL
tn
t ;
1
N t
1-t
8
3
384
115
2
4
1 1
KIt2 M t
2 0
t +
log I2 +
0 Jt - 2 N sec H tL t
1
6
40
11
3N
-1
Hsec HtLL t
3 6 t
4 0 sinHtL
C 02
n 1 2 3 4 5
cn 2 2
-1
1 1 KHtL
4 0
t
N t C -
0 J logH1-tL + t N t
1
-1
-1
C 02 sinh Hcos HtLL t 02 csch HcscHtLL t
+ 2 0
t 02 sinh HsinHtLL t
1 tan-1 HtL
-- t t- t
1
2
C 0
>0 >0
1-t
-t --t
t
log
t2 +1
C -04 logHtan HtLL t 04 logHcotHtLL t
1
t t
-t --t
t
1 1
t2 +1
0 J t -1 -
1 2 t
2 0 sinHtL
C -2 04 logH2 sin HtLL t 2 04 logH2 cosHtLL t
2 0
t -0
1 logHtL
1 1--t --1t
1
t sechHtL t
2 0
C -0
1-
1 t2 t
4 0 t +1
t cscHtL
cosHtL+sinHtL
t -
log H2L - 2 0
1 logH1-tL
log H2L - 0
t Ht+1L
1 logH1-tL
n ; n N+
f
2n n k=02
n-1
log H2L
t2 +1
v H-1Lk Hn-2 kLn-1

k! Hn-kL!
The following integral is called the Gaussian probability density integral:

2 0 -t t.
The following integrals are called the Fresnel integrals:

2
2 0 sinIt2 M t
2 0 cosIt2 M t.
Limit representations
The six classical constants , , , , A, and K have numerous limit representations, for example:
2736
6
exp J 3 0 logH
2
12
16
1+
1+
1+
limn 24 n n
1+
limn zn ;
zn+1 =
lim
limn
1 + zn z0 1
2n
n
k=0
n2
f n v
4 limn k=1
F
F-1
limn
limn
limn
limz0 Hz + 1L1z
lims1 JHsL -
limz
n-k2
n
limn nk=1
z!1z
H2 n+1L H2 nL!
limz J
H2 n+1L H2 n-1L!!2
n!2 Hn+1L2 n
2 +n
limz
2 +3 n+1
2 n2 n
limx1+ I
k=1 Ik
n2 +k
n2 -k
limn J2 nk=0
zz
Hz-1Lz-1
1n
nk
N
k!
Hz-1L
limn HHn-1 - log
z-1
Hz-2Lz-2
N lim0 HliH x L logHLL - log
k2
H2 k+1L2
k=1
pn
limn IHnL
;
k=1 pk M
logIpk M
pk -1
limn
k=1 Jb rn
pn prime HnL
limx0 JEiHlogHx
EiHlogHx + 1LL
logJ1 - x N + N
1
Continued fraction representations

The four classical constants , , , and C have numerous closed-form continued fraction representations, for
example:
1 + Kk H1, 1L
1+
1
1
1
1+
1+
1+
1
1+
3 + Kk IH2 k - 1L , 6M1 3 +
2
6+
25
6+
49
6+
81
6+
6+
121
6+
limn KlogHpn L
HzLz+1 1z
4z
16 limn Hn + 1L nk=1
1
s-1
lims Js - GJ s N
n2 - k2
24 n+1 n!4
2 H2 nL!!
1-
17
3 + Kk I-Ik - H-1L M Ik - H-1L + 1M,

k
2 + H-1Lk M1
1-
3-
1-
20
3-
12
1-
42
314
1 + Kk Ik2 , 2 k + 1M1 1 +
3+
5+
16
7+
25
9+
11 +
2 + Kk 1,
2 Hk + 1L
1
2
I1-H-1LHk+2L mod 3 M
36
13 +
2+
1+
2+
1+
1+
4+
1+
Kk Hk,
2+
3+
4+
5+
6+
1+
1 + Kk H1,
1+
2+
kL1
4 k + 2L1
7
7+
2
1+
1+
6+
10 +
14 +
18 +
22 +
1
26 +
30
3-
C 1-
18
2 3 + Kk KJ2 f
k+1 2
vN ,
2
3Hk-1L mod 2 O
12
1-
3+
1+
16
3+
16
1+
36
3+
1+
1
2
1 + 2 Kk J 16 JIH-1Lk - 1M Hk + 1L + 2 I1 + H-1Lk M k Hk + 2LN, 2 N

2
36
3+
1
2
1
2
12
+
1
1
2
2
1
2
4
1
2
6
1
2
9
1
2
12
1
2
Functional identities
The golden ratio satisfies the following special functional identities:
2 - - 1 0
1+
1+
1
1
1+
1+
1+
1+
1+
1+
1+
1
1+
n n-1 + n-2 ; n N+
2+
H1+L
1+2
2+
Complex characteristics
The eight classical constants (, , , , , C, A, and K) and the imaginary unit have the following complex
characteristics:
Arg HL 0 Re HL Im HL 0
1 Arg HL 2 Re HL 0 Im HL 1 -
Abs
Arg
Re
Im
sgn HL 1 ; 8, , , , , C, A, K<
Conjugate Sign
sgn HL
Differentiation
Derivatives of the eight classical constants (, , , , , C, A, and K) and imaginary unit constant satisfy the
following relations:
19
Hin classical senseL
Hin fractional senseL
z-
GH1-L
; 8, , , , , C, A, K<
z-
GH1-L
Integration
Simple indefinite integrals of the eight classical constants (, , , , , C, A, and K) and imaginary unit constant
have the following values:
f HzL z
-1
f HzL z
z z z-1 z
z z
-1
; 8, , , , , C, A, K<
Integral transforms
All Fourier integral transforms and Laplace direct and inverse integral transforms of the eight classical constants
(, , , , , C, A, and K) and the imaginary unit can be evaluated in a distributional or classical sense and can
include the Dirac delta function:
f HtL Ft @ f HtLD HzL
Ft-1 @ f HtLD HzL
Ft @D HzL
2 HzL Ft-1 @D HzL
Ft @D HzL
2 HzL
Ft-1 @D HzL
F ct @ f HtLD HzL
Fst @ f HtLD HzL
2 HzL Fct @D HzL

2 HzL
Fct @D HzL
Lt @ f HtLD HzL
HzL Fst @D HzL
Lt @D HzL
Fst @D HzL
Lt @D HzL
HzL
; 8, , , , , C, A, K<
Inequalities
The eight classical constants (, , , , , C, A, and K) satisfy numerous inequalities, for example:
1+
<<1+
5
3+
1
60
2+
10
71
31
50
<<3+
<<
1
7
1
57
7
10
<<2+
3
4
1+
1
n
n+
1
logH2L
-1
1+
1
n
n+
1
2
; n N+
L-1
t @f
L-1
t @
L-1
t @
1
2
<<
9
10
1+
2+
20
3
5
<C<1
1
4
< A<1+
13
20
3
10
<K <2+
7
10
Applications of classical constants and the imaginary unit

All classical constants and the imaginary unit are used throughout mathematics, the exact sciences, and engineering.
Copyright
This document was downloaded from functions.wolfram.com, a comprehensive online compendium of formulas
involving the special functions of mathematics. For a key to the notations used here, see
http://functions.wolfram.com/Notations/.
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example:
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21

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Introductions To Pi: Introduction To The Classical Constants

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Introductions to Pi

Introduction to the classical constants

. Ludolph van Ceulen (Germany, 1610)

evaluated 35 decimal places of . J. Wallis (1655) represented as the infinite product

44 tan-1 I 57 M + 7 tan-1 I 239 M - 12 tan-1 I 682 M + 24 tan-1 I 12 943 M, which was

12 tan-1 I 49 M + 32 tan-1 I 57 M - 5 tan-1 I 239 M + 12 tan-1 I 110 443 M. Future improved

results are inevitable.

-1 . C. Wessel (1799) gave a geometrical

x2 + y2 , and published the idea of geometrical interpretation of com-

z r cosH L + r sinH L ; r R r > 0 R,

Generically, the logarithm function log HzL is the multivalued function:

C. F. Gauss (1831) introduced the name "imaginary unit" for

-1 , suggested the term complex number for

Definitions of classical constants and the imaginary unit

The number is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter.

Meijer G function Gm,n

exp Icsch H2LM

4 tan-1 J 2 N + 4 tan-1 J 5 N + 4 tan-1 J 8 N

88 tan-1 J 28 N + 8 tan-1 J 443 N 1

20 tan-1 J 1393 N - 40 tan-1 J 11 018 N

20 tan-1 J 99 N + 32 tan-1 J 307 N

5 tan-1 J 99 N + 8 tan-1 J 307 NN

J12 tan-1 J 18 N + 3 tan-1 J 70 N +

4 Jtan-1 J q N + tan-1 J p+q NN ;

5 tan-1 J 1393 N - 10 tan-1 J 11 018 NN

J22 tan-1 J 28 N + 2 tan-1 J 443 N -

Jtan-1 J 2 N + tan-1 J 5 N + tan-1 J 8 NN

Jtan-1 J q N + tan-1 J p+q NN ;

Representations through related functions

Evaluation of specific values

The imaginary unit satisfies the following relation:

Karatsuba's modifications of Newton's methods for evaluations

H-1Lk H6 kL! H545 140 134 k+13 591 409L

logH2 L 2 an log8 H10L+1q-1

21-an log8 H10L+1q j=0

k!3 H3 kL! I640 3203 M

K K limn expJ logH2L m=1

j-an log8 H10L+1q

logH2 H j + 1LL H-1L j k=0

The formula for 1 is called Chudnovsky's formula.

- 2an log8 H10L+1q

F2 k+1 16-k 4 tan-1

365 306 274

H-1Ln-1 22 n H2 n-2L! 2 n-1

100 701 965

338 514 1418

16k k!4 Hk+1L3

K expJ logH2L Jlog H2L

16k k!4 Hk+1L3

), , C, A, and K have numerous integral representations, for example:

It2 +1M I2 t -1M

C 02 sinh Hcos HtLL t 02 csch HcscHtLL t

C -04 logHtan HtLL t 04 logHcotHtLL t

C -2 04 logH2 sin HtLL t 2 04 logH2 cosHtLL t

v H-1Lk Hn-2 kLn-1

The following integral is called the Gaussian probability density integral:

The following integrals are called the Fresnel integrals:

limn HHn-1 - log

N lim0 HliH x L logHLL - log

Continued fraction representations

3 + Kk I-Ik - H-1L M Ik - H-1L + 1M,

1 + 2 Kk J 16 JIH-1Lk - 1M Hk + 1L + 2 I1 + H-1Lk M k Hk + 2LN, 2 N

Hin classical senseL