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Chapter-1
Agricultural Extension System in India
Agriculture Extension system in India: After independence in 1947, the government's first
step toward building an agricultural extension system was expansion of the World War II
Grow More Food Campaign. Administrators and extension workers were exhorted to
convince cultivators of the gains in yields that could be obtained through the use of improved
seeds, compost, farmyard manure, and better cultivation practices. Rural agents, often
inundated with other assignments, had little or no training for extension work, however.
Gains in yields were minimal, and India's leaders came to realize that converting millions of
poor farmers to the use of new technologies was a colossal task.
The Community Development Program in India was inaugurated in 1952 to implement a
systematic, integrated approach to rural development. The nation was divided into
development blocks, each consisting of about 100 villages having populations of 60,000 to
70,000 people. By 1962 the entire country was covered by more than 5,000 such blocks. The
key person in the program was the village-level worker, who was responsible for transmitting
to about ten villages not only farming technology, but also village uplift programs such as
cooperation, adult literacy, health, and sanitation. Although each block was staffed with
extension workers, the villagers themselves were expected to provide the initiative and much
of the needed financial and labor resources, which they were not in a position to do or
inclined to do.
Although progress had been made by the early 1960s, it was apparent that the program was
spread too thin to bring about the hoped-for increase in agricultural production. Criticism of
the program led to more specialized development projects, and some of the functions were
taken up by local village bodies. There was only a negligible allocation for community
development in the sixth plan, however, and the program was phased out in the early 1980s.
The Intensive Agricultural District Program, launched in five districts in 1960 by the central
government in cooperation with the United States-based Ford Foundation, used a distinctly
different approach to boosting farm yields.
Chapter-2
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION - THE NEXT STEP
The Arrangements:
The arrangements for agricultural extension in India have grown, over the last five decades,
in terms of activities, organizational types and available manpower. Public sector extension,
represented mainly by the State Department of Agriculture (DoA), continues to be the most
important source of information for the majority of farmers. Activities of other extension
agencies, be it Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), input agencies, mass media,
research institutions or farmers associations, though increasing, are still restricted to certain
regions, crops and enterprises. The performance of public sector extension is under scrutiny
for quite some time and questions are being raised on its capability to deliver goods in the
rapidly changing environment. The shifting emphasis of Indian agriculture towards
diversification, commercialization, sustainability and efficiency has made it necessary for the
state extension organizations to critically examine their extension approaches. DoA in several
states made changes in some of their approaches towards the late 1980's as the Training and
Visit System of Extension was coming to an end. But the basic issues regarding the type of
support required by the farmers and the changes in extension organization needed to provide
these were not addressed
Linkages
Though extension has to maintain effective linkages with several systems, only the ResearchExtension linkages capabilities of the KVK and the quality of linkage have been so far
emphasized. "Information flow has been mostly top-down" (Macklin. M (1992) Agricultural
Extension in India, World Bank technical paper 190, World Bank, Washington, D.C ) and
"the weak feedback has not resulted in any fundamental change in the way research priorities
are set at the research stations" (Jha, D and Kandaswamy. A (Eds) (1994) Decentralizing
Agricultural Research and Technology Transfer in India, ICAR. New Delhi and IFPRI.
Washington. D.C.). Apart from linkages for obtaining technology, the capabilities of the
extension agency to assess and refine them for its integration in their knowledge base has
been very weak, mainly due to lack of qualified staff.. In many cases, KVKs were found to be
wanting in both. Efforts to develop functional linkages with other systems had been adhoc
with no real outcome. With its main emphasis on transfer of technology and implementation
of schemes, which are input distribution related, the extension system never did take the other
systems seriously though its performance did depend upon all these factors. As Mosher
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all staff members have access to all knowledge which is available in the organization,
one learns from experience on how to develop more effective extension methods,
there is a social climate which stimulates sharing of knowledge and a critical analysis
of the knowledge developed or used by colleagues (van den Ban, A.W (1997)
The most important challenge for the future extension managers would be the Management
of Knowledge. The success of a farmer in the years to come is going to be primarily
dependent upon his level of knowledge. The real prices of agricultural products are falling,
because knowledge makes it possible to produce products with less land, labour and other
resources. In many countries, farmers, who are farming at a knowledge level a good farmer
had 10 years ago, have to go out of business because they can no longer compete with more
competent farmers.
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Chapter-3
1. INTRODUCTION
The well-being of the rural population worldwide is invariably linked to the performance of
the agricultural sector and to the sector's ability to cope with the challenges that result from
rising population pressures, changing demand for food and agricultural products, resource
scarcity, climate change, and greater production uncertainty. The World Development Report
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The ultimate choice of the agricultural extension approach depends on (1) the policy
environment; (2) the capacity of potential service providers, another case in point is China.
Because India and China pursued different policies to initiate the economic transition, the
case of China is not further considered. See Gulati, Fan, and Dalafi (2005) for a comparison
of the development paths of India and China. Authors computations from the World
Development Indicators (2006) and information from the World DevelopmentReport 2008
(World Bank 2007). Diao et al. (2006) and the references therein provide details on the
relationships that explain the importance of the agricultural sector for the nonagricultural
rural sector. Anderson and Feder (2004) and Anderson (2007) describe the properties of a
poorly performing extension system. (3) the type of farming systems and the market access of
farm households, and (4) the nature of the local communities, including their ability to
cooperate.
Different agricultural extension approaches can work well for different sets of frame
conditions. In order to use extension approaches that best fit a particular situation, the
agricultural extension system has to be sufficiently flexible to accommodate the different
options. To this end, the recent agricultural-sector reforms have been geared toward creating
a demand driven, broad-based, and holistic agricultural extension system (Sulaiman and Hall
2002, 2004; India, Planning Commission 2005). This has involved the design and
introduction of a multitude of integrated measures that, on the demand side, enable service
users to voice their needs and hold service providers accountable, and on the supply side,
influence the capacity of service providers to respond to the needs of the extension service
users (that is, the farmers). This chapter analyzes Indias major reform initiatives
implemented to create a demand-driven, broad-based, and holistic agricultural extension
system.
The reform projects are studied with regard to (1) the governance structures of the
agricultural extension system and the institutional arrangements for funding and providing
agricultural extension services, (2) the actions taken to improve the capacity of extension
service providers and users to supply or demand agricultural extension services, and (3) the
methods of providing agricultural extension services. The ultimate objective is to gain a view
on what works, where, and why in improving the effectiveness of Indias agricultural
extension system, to identify measures that strengthen and improve agricultural extension
service provision, and to reveal existing knowledge gaps. As per the policy framework
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2. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
In order to analyze India's recent agricultural extension reforms, we apply the conceptual
framework in Figure 1, first presented in Birner and Palaniswamy (2006). The framework
identifies the major governance structures, organizational and managerial characteristics, and
frame conditions (for example, socioeconomic characteristics) by which public-sector
extension reforms can improve the organizational and managerial performance of service
provision, lead to better public-sector governance outcomes, and generate sustainable propoor development. Public-sector governance outcomes can be evaluated in terms of the
efficiency, effectiveness, and long-term sustainability of service provision, regulatory quality,
rule of law, the degree of corruption, and equity aspects. Demand-side approaches of publicsector service reforms aim at improving the ability of the private sector (such as farm
households and profit-oriented firms) and the third sector (such as nongovernmental
organizations, farmers' organizations, and rural women's groups) to demand better
governance and to hold public officials accountable by strengthening the voice of clients. To
this end, demand-side approaches include policies that increase information and coordination
in voting, strengthen the citizens' right to information, and improve the credibility of political
promises. Demand-side approaches of rural service provision also involve policies that
promote the political decentralization of service delivery to local governments, reserve seats
in local councils for women, and advocate participatory planning and implementation
methods, among others. Figure 1 indicates that demand-side reforms are likely to be more
effective if they directly address socioeconomic and socio-cultural obstacles that prevent
citizens from exercising their voice and demanding accountability.
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Here equity outcomes refer to the ability of governance reforms to be inclusive, that is, to
improve the access and the availability of services to the poor, to marginalized groups, and to
women. The third sector is also known as the civil society sector. Strategies to strengthen the
demand side of rural service provision will have little effect if they are not accompanied by
strategies to increase the capacity of service providers to finance and deliver the respective
services, to apply the rules of law and regulation, and to control corruption. Supply-side
approaches to public service delivery reforms include the administrative and fiscal
decentralization of service delivery, public expenditure management reforms, training
programs for public officials, changes in procurement and audit procedures, and efforts to
coordinate the activities of government agencies and departments. Another popular supplyside approach reduces the tasks that are performed by public-sector agencies. The respective
strategies include outsourcing of service provision to organizations in the private and third
sectors, publicprivate partnerships, pluralistic forms of service delivery, devolution of
authority to user groups, and privatization. Recent reform trends emphasize the need for the
state to play a coordinating and facilitating role and to create an enabling environment for the
private and third sectors. Supply-side approaches also include strategies for cost recovery that
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Supply-side Reforms
According to the conceptual framework in Figure 1, supply-side reforms emphasize (1)
public, private, and third-sector service provision and financing; (2) administrative and fiscal
decentralization; and (3) capacity strengthening and building. This section describes the
different supply-side mechanisms for agricultural research and extension, mainly within the
framework of the DASP and NATP programs. The supply-side reforms of the NATP
program aim to (1) increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the research system, (2)
intensify and support agro-ecological systems research, (3) improve the efficiency and
outreach of technology dissemination, and (4) strengthen human capital development and
capacity in project management and project implementation.
Closely related, the supply-side reforms of the DASP initiative emphasized (1) technology
dissemination, (2) private-sector involvement and publicprivate partnerships in agribusiness
development, (3) rural infrastructure development and marketing support, and (4) project
management and capacity building for economic policy analysis. In promoting rural
infrastructure development, private-sector involvement and publicprivate partnerships in
agribusiness development, the DASP supply-side reforms were more far-reaching than those
of the NATP.
Administrative and Fiscal Decentralization
Organizational structure of the Agricultural Technology Management Agency
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Demand-side Reforms
A review of the literature shows that the supply-side reforms of the DASP and NATP
programs emphasized the need to make technology development and dissemination broadbased in order to promote the productive efficiency of the agricultural and hence rural
sectors. As will become evident, the demand side reforms supported this objective. The
discussion of the conceptual framework in Figure 1 indicates that demand-side reforms
include the empowerment of the rural population by means of political decentralization,
participatory planning and implementation (for example, farmer field schools and the farming
system approach), and affirmative action. For the set of reforms that we analyze, participatory
planning and implementation appear to be the most prominent modes of empowerment, at
least in technology development and technology dissemination.
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Chapter-4
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Knowledge Gaps
Given the existing methodological constraints and the small number of evaluation studies,
major knowledge gaps prevail with respect to (1) the real effects of research and extension
reforms, and (2) what works, where, and why. This section discusses knowledge gaps in the
area of identification, theoretical foundations, and equity and efficiency in more detail.
Identification Problems: The performance and impact assessments of reform initiatives ask
whether the pursued program activities successfully promote agricultural and rural
development and empower women and disadvantaged groups. In most instances, the answer
is likely to be biased as it does not filter or identify the (indirect) effects associated with the
simultaneous implementation of other development projects. For example, we cannot tell to
what extent the 19992005 NATP influenced the performance of the 19932005 MAPWA
project in Madhya Pradesh. Identification problems not only prevail among projects but also
within projects, if they consist of several interacting subcomponents. Project performance
then depends on the relative importance of the individual project subcomponents and their
interaction. Unfortunately, there are pronounced knowledge gaps regarding the relative
importance of the individual project subcomponents for the aggregate reform effect. The
knowledge gaps are attributable to the lack of empirical evidence and to the absence of
theoretical foundations that guide the agricultural sector reform process and identify the
channels through which individual reform components affect the agricultural and rural
sectors. Agricultural reform initiatives mainly emphasize strategies that are assumed to be
effective on the grounds of sheer beliefs and common perceptions.
Efficiency, Effectiveness, and Equity Considerations
Given the literature review, it appears that substantial knowledge gaps also prevail with
respect to the optimum mode of service provision. In order to decide on the optimum method
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Chapter-5
CONCEPT AND OPERATION OF AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY
MANAGEMENT AGENCIES (ATMAs)
In order to address the key constraints faced by extension system in the country with
respect to reducing capacity of public extension services, its lack of decentralized and
demand driven focus, the Innovations in Technology Dissemination component of National
Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) was implemented in seven States in the country
namely, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Orissa, Maharashtra and
Punjab through four project districts in each State. This component aimed at pilot testing
new institutional arrangements for technology dissemination at district level and below in
order to move towards an integrated extension delivery. The project process involved
adopting bottom up planning procedures for setting the research and extension agency in
order to make the technology dissemination farmer driven and farmer accountable. The
extension delivery was oriented towards group approach catering to the location specific
requirement of the farmers. Gender concerns have been given adequate emphasis under the
project. To operationalize the above reform initiatives under ITD - NATP an Agricultural
Technology Management Agency (ATMA) has been established in each district as an
autonomous institution providing flexible working environment involving all the stakeholders
in project planning and implementation.
Recently Policy Committee of the scheme decided representative of Growers
Association/ Federation, Industry and Trade be nominated as a member of the Governing
Board of ATMA. The ATMA is a unique district level institution, which caters to activities
in agriculture and allied departments adopting a Farming System Approach. It can receive
funds directly (Government of India/States, Membership fees, beneficiaries contribution etc).
Local research and extension priorities are set through Strategic Research and Extension
Plans (SREPs) which are developed by using participatory methodologies such as
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). ATMA is be supported by a Governing Board (GB) and
a Management Committee (MC). In order to manage programme implementation at block
level and below, ATMA has established a Farm Information and Advisory Centre (FIAC) at
each block in the district. In effect the FIACs acts as extension planning and operational arm
of ATMA. These are supported by two groups; one, a group of technical officers at block
derived from different functional areas termed as Block Technology Team (BTT), whereas,
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STRUCTURE
OF
AGRICULTURAL
Chairman
2.
Vice-Chairman
Member
4.
Member
Kendra
5.
Member
6.
Member
7.
Member
8.
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Member
Group
10.
Member
11.
A representative of NGO
12.
Member
13.
Member
14.
Member
Board
15.
Member
Associations
16.
Member
17.
MemberSecretary-cumtreasurer (Exofficio)
Some initial appointments are staggered to ensure that about two-thirds of the
members are carried over for an additional year on the GB.
Thirty per cent of the farmer representatives on the GB are reserved for women
farmers to ensure their interests are fully represented.
3.
4.
5.
Review and approve Strategic Research and Extension Plan (SREP) and annual action
plans that are prepared and submitted by the participating units.
Receive and review annual reports presented by the participating units, providing
feedback and direction to them as needed, for various research and extension
activities being carried out within the district.
Receive and allocate project funds to carry out priority research, extension and related
activities within the district.
Foster the organization and development of Farmers Interest Groups (FIGs) and
Farmers Organizations (FOs) within the district.
Facilitate the greater involvement of private sector and firms and organizations in
providing inputs, technical support, agro-processing and marketing services to
farmers.
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11.
12.
Chairman
Member
Member
Member
Member
Member
To be effective and to remain relevant in the years to come, the state extension departments
should initiate the following structural reforms in the organization.
Strengthen its understanding on matters with respect to technology, markets, prices, demand
and policies. Departments have to either recruit specialists or have to hire the services of
professionals in these areas.
Recruit better qualified staff - States have to initiate (as Punjab has done) measures to
ensure that, the minimum essential qualification for an extension staff should be a graduation
in agriculture. In total the states employ some 1,10,000 extension staff of whom presently
only around 20 percent are graduates.
Improve social science skills of extension personnel. Apart from technical skills, "extension
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Chapter-6
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION EDUCATION
Introduction
The worlds populations in the underdeveloped countries are living the life of poverty. This
area encompasses South-east Asia, Africa and Middle East. These countries were for many
years/centuries under foreign rule and subjected to exploitation. As a result, state of
ignorance, superstitions, unhealthy environment and illiteracy took roots in these countries.
India is also one of these countries, which was under foreign rule. In India, 60% people are in
the grip of poverty and about 67% people are illiterate. Population, in India is increasing
continuously and land ratio per person is decreasing. The total land area of India is 143
million hectares of which 108 million hectares is dependent on annual rainfall and from this
type of dry land only 42% of total agricultural production is produced. In such critical
conditions an all-round development of people is a tough task. But, through the medium of
Extension Education it has become a slightly easier task.
The Goal of Extension Education is an all-round development of rural people.
There are certain other questions, which come to the minds of the students. They are:
(i) What is Extension Education?
(ii) When and where did it originally begin?
(iii) What were the circumstances responsible for it?
The word Extension was first time used in Britain in 1840 in the form of University
Extension or Extension of the University. In 1850, William Sewell of Britain used it in his
report entitled suggestions for the extension of the university. But, this word was first used
in a practical way by James Stuart of Trinity College, Cambridge University in 1867-68,
when he was addressing Women Association and Working Mens Clubs of North England.
Again in 1871, he appealed to the officials of the Cambridge University to establish extension
centres under the supervision of university, so that these centres can be used as a platform to
deliver lecture to the people. His effort in this field was responsible for him being called
Father of University Extension. In a formal way, Cambridge University in 1873, London
University in 1876 and Oxford University in 1878 developed extension system, which
worked among people. In 1880, his work came to be known as Extension movement . In
the eighth decade of the 19th century, the word Extension was used in the form of Extension
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Extension
Education
Education)
1.
Education)
syllabus.
There
is
is
given
participating student.
to
the in
an
examination
evaluation;
certificates
the
are
and
after
degrees
and
awarded
to
the
student.
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3.
In it, the problems of the people are 3. In it the problems of the student
solved by the people.
4.
People involved are of different age Students are of same age and the
and abilities.
5.
same qualification.
6.
7.
The rural people learn with their In it, the students have to learn
own desire.
8.
9.
compulsory.
In extension education the teacher In it, the teacher, only instruct the
also learns from the learner.
10.
compulsorily.
student.
the
knowledge
of
student
is
increased.
5. ReconsiderationIf our evaluation results indicate that our aim and objectives are not
fulfilled and that we have to do the work again than we should repeat educational
process from first step to the last step.
In this way, the extension educational process continuously goes on till the all-round
development of people is achieved.
Objectives of Extension Education: The main aim of Extension Education is to bring about
all-round development of rural people. In this all-round development educational, social,
economic and political developments are included. The first aim of Extension Education is to
bring change in the behaviour, in work capacity and in attitude in wider context. The second
aim of Extension Education like social, economic and political change is automatically
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know-how,
information),
humanware
(human
ability),
orgaware
(organizational, management aspects) and the final product (including marketing) are
rendered accessible to the end-users (farmers).
10. Appropriate technology: Appropriate technology refers to a technology package, which
must be technically feasible, economically viable, socially acceptable, environment-friendly,
consistent with household endowments, and relevant to the needs of farmers. Technologies
are subject to adjustment, change and evolution.
11. Sustainability: The underlying definition is the one adopted by the FAO in 1988,
sustainable development is the management and conservation of the natural resource base,
and the orientation of technological and institutional change in such a manner as to ensure the
attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for present and future generations.
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Achievements: (1) After spending a lot of money, some problems were tackled in the end.
(2) The crop production increased due to new seeds and chemical fertilizers provided to the
farmers. (3) From this campaign, the production of cotton and jute increased appropriately.
Limitation: (1) Its work field was limited. (2) The campaign was deemed to be temporary
hence the work was done. (3) The economic help, the distribution of good seeds and
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National level
State level
State Development Committee
(Chairman-Chief Minister)
Block level
Village level
People
Gram Panchayat
(President, Gram Pradhan)
Three Tier Panchayati Raj System
IIIrd level (Districtlevel) Zilla Panchayat
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Chapter-8
Training &Vsit System
In order to realize agricultural potential and to increase agricultural yields, Indias extension
system has experienced major conceptual, structural, and institutional changes since the late
1990s. This chapter reviews existing reform programs and strategies currently existing in
agricultural extension in India. It distinguishes strategies that have been employed to
strengthen both the supply and demand sides of service provision in the area of agricultural
extension, and it reviews the effects of the demand- and supply-side strategies on the access
to and the quality of agricultural extension services. The ultimate objectives are (1) to gain a
view on what works where and why in improving the effectiveness of agricultural extension
in a decentralized environment; (2) to identify measures that strengthen and improve
agricultural extension service provision; and (3) to reveal existing knowledge gaps.
Although the range of extension reform approaches is wide, this chapter shows that an
answer to the question of what works where and why is complicated by the absence of sound
and comprehensive qualitative and quantitative impact and evaluation assessment studies.
Even evidence from the National Agricultural Technology Project and the Diversified
Agricultural Support Project of the World Bank, the women empowerment programs of the
Danish International Development Agency, the Andhra Pradesh Tribal Development Project,
and the e-Choupal program of the Indian Tobacco Company is subject to methodological and
identification problems. Conclusions regarding the importance (1) of implementing both
decentralized, participatory, adaptive, and pluralistic demand- and supply-side extension
approaches; (2) of involving the public, private, and third (civil society) sectors in extension
service provision and funding; and (3) of strengthening the capacity of and the collaboration
between farmers, researchers, and extension workers are necessarily tentative and require
further quantification. The paper seeks to inform policymakers and providers of extension
services from all sectors about the need to make performance assessments and impact
evaluations inherent components of any extension program so as to increase the effectiveness
of extension service reforms.
The Bank has supported the Training and Visit (T&V) system of agricultural extension in
India since the early 1970s. OED reviewed five of the statewide extension projects (in West
Bengal, Bihar, Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu) covering more than 10 years of Bank
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Common characteristics
The extension projects included: - appointment of full-time village extension workers
(VEWs) to work exclusively on extension, and establishment of a single line of command
between the VEWs and extension headquarters in a unified extension system;
-
Establishment of a fixed, regular cycle of fortnightly visits by VEWs, and the use of
simple, practical, relevant messages concentrated on the most important crops;
Initiation of a system of feedback from farmers via extension staff to researchers; and
Development
of
monitoring
and
evaluation
(M&E)
procedures.
The T&V system differed from earlier approaches to agricultural extension in India
mainly in the responsibilities that were assigned to the front-line field officers in the
villages and in the organizational structure of the state's extension services. The T&V
system sought the full-time commitment of VEWs, with no responsibilities other than
disseminating technology to farmers. Organizationally, the institution of a single line
of command provided that the VEWs would be both technically and administratively
supervised through a chain of command under the extension headquarters.
Contact Farmers in general, and others who are visited regularly by extension staff,
tended to adopt technology sooner and achieved higher yields. However, the positive
results were neither exclusively attributable to the projects nor to the T&V extension
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Implementation
In general, each of the states tried to carry out the programs agreed to at appraisal, and to
adopt the key principles of T&V extension during the early years of the projects. But they
modified the original approach, to varying degrees, during the later years, as a result of
implementation problems:
-
Higher costs than at appraisal and restrictions on implementation resulting from the
need for large-scale recruitment of new staff. State governments were unable or
unwilling to transfer staff into extension from existing positions, as had been
envisaged.
- Strictly against T&V principles, the diversion of extension staff at all levels to duties
other than extension, such as supplying farm and non-farm inputs, and implementing
a host of specialized schemes with demanding targets. The latter took up much of the
time of Subject Matter Specialists (SMS), keeping them from acting as technical
specialists.
Few of the VEWs had agricultural qualifications and even fewer were agricultural
graduates. Training in the projects generally could not overcome the deficiencies
inherent in the unacceptably low basic education level; their low educational levels
also made it difficult to use the VEWs for a more responsive form of extension.
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Though the initial extension "messages" concentrated on important items for major
crops it was later agreed that all the significant technical constraints in the production
system had to be addressed.
Extension "messages", in general, did not have adequate economic focus and often
took no account of farmers' resource circumstances. Many farmers did not see them as
relevant. And because the "messages" given in their training sessions were defined for
very large areas, many SMSs could not adapt them to the local circumstances faced
by the VEWs. The poor qualifications of many SMSs inhibited communication
between them and researchers.
- Selection of contact farmers was often deficient; many of those chosen had little
influence on their neighbors. This was partly a project design problem resulting from a
failure to understand and build on the social characteristics of communities.
- M&E capability was developed in all the projects and some surveys and studies led
managers to make changes, but in general, M&E information was not adequately used.
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Chapter-9
INNOVATIONS IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN INDIA
INTRODUCTION
India is a vast country with marked regional diversities in agro-climatic environment, resource
endowment and population density. Agriculture (including cropping, animal husbandry,
forestry and agro-forestry, fisheries and agro-industries) currently accounts for 24.7 % of the
national gross domestic product (GDP) and provides employment to about 57% of the total
work force. 78% of the land holdings are small (less than two hectares) and in 1991, they
commanded only 33% of the total net-cropped area. Though the four fold increase in food
grain production (mainly from irrigated regions) during the last four decades improved the per
capita availability of food, 26.1% of the population were living below the poverty line in
1999-00. Poverty in India remains predominantly rural; three out of every four poor persons
live in rural areas. Agricultural growth would continue to be an important strategy for
increasing rural incomes. Indian agriculture face serious challenges because of everincreasing population, limited land and water availability and degradation of natural
resources. The national average yields of most commodities are low. In many areas there are
limits to achievable increase in productivity, unless appropriate institutions that can help
farmers to access information, inputs and services are strengthened, and joint action for
natural resources management, marketing and processing are promoted. New opportunities
(and threats) for trade in international markets have also added a new challenge for Indian
farmers. Agricultural extension services (in the public as well as private sector) need to play a
much larger role in assisting farmers in meeting the above challenges.
Current status
In India agriculture is a state subject and the main extension agency is the state Department of
Agriculture (DoA). All states have a separate DoA. Most of these states have a separate wing
(under DoA) or a Department for Horticulture, Soil and Water Conservation and Watershed
Development. Among the various line departments, DoA has the maximum number of field
staff for extension. The Department of Agriculture and Co-operation of the central Ministry
of Agriculture has a separate Division of Extension. Extension Division lays down major
policy guidelines on extension matters and the Directorate of Extension implements specific
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Some features of T & V still continue in the organisational structure of DoA and
implementation of extension programs. The notable among them is the mechanism of
research-extension linkages through monthly/bi-monthly workshops, fortnightly
meetings, meeting of zonal research extension advisory committee etc. States such as
Tamil Nadu still follow the permanent field visit schedule for village extension
workers.
iii.
iv.
DoA has a number of farms for producing seeds and other planting materials, several
training centres for training staff and farmers and labs for testing seeds, pesticides and
fertilisers. Delivery of inputs such as fertilizers is an important activity of DoA in
North-Eastern States like Tripura.
v.
Relatively few staff at operational level (district and below) to implement large
number of programs. Restrictions on fresh recruitment, reduction of cadre strength
and deputation of staff to other departments are the main reasons for this situation.
The manpower available with the Department of Horticulture in all the states is
limited, with the exception of Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal.
vi.
There are serious constraints on mobility of staff for implementation and monitoring
of program due to limited operational budgets
vii.
DoA staff performs a very narrow extension role, limited to technology dissemination
for increasing agricultural productivity.
Group approach
Kerala initiated the group approach to extension for rice farming in 1989 and this was
subsequently extended to other crops. This approach envisaged formation of commodity
groups to improve productivity and reduce cost of cultivation through collective purchase of
inputs and services. To strengthen this approach, extension efforts and delivery of subsidized
inputs were routed through these farmers groups. Rajasthan adopted the group approach to
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ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
24 training programs at the district level and 107 training programs at the
block level
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Demonstrations-Kharif 7, Rabi 9
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
The group considers this investment as a way of improving its corporate image. Sponsorship
or joint funding and implementation of extension program provide them an opportunity to
reach new customers. For the government, its participation with the group provides access to
funds to supplement its limited operational budget and thereby improve program coverage.
It is too early to draw major lessons from this initiative. However, there are two important
observations. a. There is a need to educate the public sector staff at the district and block
levels on the importance of partnerships and b. More serious attempts to honor the
commitments in the MoU and initiate implementation of all items by both parties are also
required.
In Madhya Pradesh, one or two members and chairman of the permanent agricultural
committee are declared as "kisan bandhus" and are trained to perform the role of master
trainers. They are expected to train other farmers in the village. There are about 50,000 kisan
bandhus in Madhya Pradesh.
Women in Agriculture
Since the 1980s, special programs to address the information and technological needs of
women farmers were initiated through the DoA in several states. These include:
a. Danish assisted programs in Karnataka (WYTEP, since 1982); Tamil Nadu
(TANWA, 1986 to 2003); Orissa (TEWA, 1998 to 2003); Madhya Pradesh
(MAPWA, 1993-2002)
b. Dutch assisted programs in Gujarat (TWA, 1989 to 2003); and Andhra Pradesh
(ANTWA, 1994- 2007)
c. Central Sector Scheme for Women in Agriculture (CSSWA) in one district each in
15 States (1992-2003)
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During the Xth Plan, (2002-2007), the Department of Agriculture and Co-operation of the
Ministry of Agriculture, propose to implement a restructured centrally sponsored scheme to
support extension programs of states (Box 3). This new scheme is an instrument to
operationalise the reforms as conceived in the Policy Framework for Agricultural Extension.
The salient features of the program are as follows.
Box 3: Central government support to extension in X Plan
Each state prepares a state extension work plan (SEWP), comprising a mix of
ongoing extension programs from the IX plan and a set of new initiatives.
The expenditure for implementing the programs in the SEWP would be shared
between the centre and the state in the ratio of 90: 10.
No funds would be provided for vehicle, major civil works and staff salary. Funding
for core establishment and infrastructure (for ATMA like model) has to be borne by
the states
Size of funding would be proportionate to reforms proposed, its coverage and state's
commitment.
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Chapter-10
Participatory Approaches in Agricultural Extension
Introduction
Participation is a dynamic group process in which all members of a group contribute, share
and are influenced by the interchange of ideas and activities toward problem-solving or
decision making, an empowering process which enables local people to do their own
analysis, to take command, to gain in confidence, to make their own decisions, plan and take
action. Participatory management has been defined as a process whereby those with
legitimate interests in a project both influence decisions which affect them and receive a
proportion of any benefits which may accrue (ODA, 1996). It is now widely accepted that to
enhance and sustain the productivity of natural resources, those engaged in and affected by
managing the resource at the most basic level, its users must participate in planning its
rehabilitation and management. Their participation will generate a stake in the process and
enhance the prospects of both institutional and ecological sustainability. A participatory
approach therefore, implies a major, but not exclusive role for local populations in allocating
rights and responsibilities over resources. It may involve partnerships with other interest
groups at micro and macro levels, such as district level agencies. Understanding the process
of participatory management would help the extension functionaries to encourage
participation at field level and to play an effective role in sustainable development of
agriculture as a facilitator and catalyst.
Perspectives of participatory extension: Sen indicates that Peoples participation is a
central feature of contemporary rural development and extension efforts throughout the
developing countries across the world. There appears to be an increasing consensus that
participation is essential for sustenance of all development initiatives. Present concerns with
participation are rooted in a complex historical context. Peoples participation has been a
constant theme since the beginning of rural development in all the Asian and African
countries; those have emerged free from the colonial powers. In case of organizing extension
efforts, though it primarily took the form of state-run centralized outreach activities, asking
people to participate, with the passage of time, decentralization of extension in various forms
started emerging across the developing world. A critical examination of the history of
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ii.
Information: When stakeholders are informed about their rights, responsibilities, and
options, the first important step towards genuine participation takes place. The main
drawback at this stage is that emphasis is placed on one-way communication, with
neither channel for feedback nor power for negotiation.
iii.
iv.
Consensus building: Here stakeholders interact in order to understand each other and
arrive at negotiated positions, which are tolerable to the entire group. A common
drawback is that vulnerable individuals and groups tend to remain silent.
v.
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Risk sharing: This level builds upon the preceding one but expands beyond decisions
to encompass the effects of their results, a mix of beneficial, harmful and natural
consequences. Things being constantly in flux, there is always the element of risk, where
even the best intended decisions might yield the least desired results. Hence
accountability is fundamental at this level, especially when those with the greatest
leverage may be the ones with the least at risk.
vii.
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Key features: Critical tendencies assessed in the course of a program / project usually
include:
i)
ii)
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Participatory Evaluation:
i) Insiders take the lead in participatory evaluation: A Participatory Evaluation is an
opportunity for both outsiders and insiders to stop and reflect on the past in order to make
decisions about the future. Insiders are encouraged and supported by outsiders to take
responsibility and control of: planning what is to be evaluated how the evaluation will be
done. carrying out the evaluation analyzing information and presenting evaluation results.
Insiders already intuitively and informally evaluate in the light of their own individual and/or
group objectives. This is because: Development activities often require involvement and
inputs from insiders it is ultimately insiders who reap the benefits and bear many of the
costs of the project insiders choose whether to continue or discontinue activities when the
outsiders leave. Thus, it makes sense for outsiders to help insiders conduct an effective
evaluation. With the results of evaluation, insiders may choose to continue activities, modify
all or some, change the strategy, change the objectives or discontinue activities. ii) Outsiders
facilitate Participatory evaluation: Outsiders assist insiders in planning and conducting the
evaluation. They lead but do not direct. They can provide the focus, the idea, and some help,
intervening when assistance is required.
Participatory Evaluations are not conducted for the purpose of answering the questions that
outsiders need answered. However, in many instances, insider and outsider evaluation
questions may be the same and both may be answered through Participatory Evaluation.
Governments and donors may want very specific information, but both will need for to know
if the activities are relevant to the problems perceived by insiders and if they are likely to
continue when the outsiders withdraw support. iii) Information to guide management
decisions. A Participatory Evaluation should not be thought of as a final judgement on
whether activities are successful or unsuccessful. The information should encourage changes
and adjustments either during the life span of the activities, for future phases of the activities,
or for future new activities. In a Participatory Evaluation, people learn more about the things
that have worked well, and why they worked. They also learn more about the things that have
not worked well, and why they did not. When the people involved go through the process of
examining, it is more likely that corrective measures will be implemented in the future
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Chapter-11
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To ensure that people are not excluded from participation, these techniques avoid writing
wherever possible, relying instead on the tools of oral communication like pictures, symbols,
physical objects and group memory. Efforts are made in many projects, however, to build a
bridge to formal literacy; for example by teaching people how to sign their names or
recognize their signatures.
A 'new professionalism' for development
A key idea that has accompanied the development of PRA techniques is that of a new
professionalism. Robert Chambers has explained this as follows:
The central thrusts of the [new] paradigm are decentralization and empowerment.
Decentralization means that resources and discretion are devolved, turning back the inward
and upward flows of resources and people. Empowerment means that people, especially
poorer people, are enabled to take more control over their lives, and secure a better livelihood
with ownership and control of productive assets as one key element. Decentralization and
empowerment enable local people to exploit the diverse complexities of their own conditions,
and to adapt to rapid change. To be an external agent of change within this discipline
implies two-way learning. Development agents learn to both appreciate and lever the power
of oral culture and the transformations that are possible within it. Walter J. Ong has argued
that many of the contrasts often made between western and other views seem reducible to
contrasts between deeply interiorized literacy and more or less residually oral states of
consciousness.
The limits of PRA
There are those who see limits to PRA. This is on a range of grounds - for example that it
doesn't work, that it reveals the secrets of rural communities to be managed by development
agencies, or that it is a tool of coopration into neo-liberal development agendas. These were
summarized
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PRA Tools
Organizing PRA
Sequence of Techniques
References
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Preference ranking
Organizing PRA
A typical PRA activity involves a team of people working for two to three weeks on
workshop discussions, analyses, and fieldwork. Several organizational aspects should
be considered:
1. Logistical arrangements should consider nearby accommodations, arrangements for
lunch for fieldwork days, sufficient vehicles, portable computers, funds to purchase
refreshments for community meetings during the PRA, and supplies such as flip chart
paper and markers.
2. Training of team members may be required, particularly if the PRA has the second
objective of training in addition to data collection.
3. PRA results are influenced by the length of time allowed to conduct the exercise,
scheduling and assignment of report writing, and critical analysis of all data,
conclusions, and recommendations.
4. A PRA covering relatively few topics in a small area (perhaps two to four
communities) should take between ten days and four weeks, but a PRA with a wider
scope over a larger area can take several months. Allow five days for an introductory
workshop if training is involved.
5. Reports are best written immediately after the fieldwork period, based on notes from
PRA team members. A preliminary report should be available within a week or so of
the fieldwork, and the final report should be made available to all participants and the
local institutions that were involved.
Sequence of Techniques
PRA techniques can be combined in a number of different ways, depending on the topic
under investigation. Some general rules of thumb, however, are useful. Mapping and
modeling are good techniques to start with because they involve several people, stimulate
much discussion and enthusiasm, provide the PRA team with an overview of the area, and
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Build rapport with men and women, rich and poor, young and old, and people with
different ethnic or social group backgrounds.
Being friendly, interested, culturally sensitive, relaxed and open, avoiding making
people feel uncomfortable.
Listening and probing, and leaving time in conversation for additional comments.
Selecting PRA tools that suit local conditions and recognizing that not all PRA tools
are suited to all situations or social groups.
Sharing information.
Being self-aware and self-critical, using own judgment, avoiding personal biases.
Frequently reflecting on what information has been gained and where the gaps are.
Trying to ensure that villagers expectations are not raised too early, and avoiding
making promises that cannot be fulfilled.
Asking questions that invite explanations or viewpoints rather than yes or no.
Scheduling PRA activities so that they fit in as much as possible with seasonal and
daily routines of villagers.
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Farmer
Extension worker
Extension objective
Assessment and
solutions
meetings/workshops
possible solutions
planning workshops
Action plan
Execution
workshops
Validation
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Chapter-12
ICT Initiatives in INDIA
ICTs are increasingly considered to include a converging spectrum of technologies that
consist primarily of telecommunications, computing and broadcasting. The Internet is the
latest in the range of ICTs available. The collapsing boundaries between these different kinds
of communication technologies have made it possible no only to collect information that
went once largely unrecorded, but also to make it relatively easy to store, analyze and retrieve
in various ways. The role of ICTs in poverty alleviation needs to be examined in the context
of extreme deprivation and poverty in which a majority of people live, not only in India but in
the entire developing world. The World Bank in its annual report on 'Global Economic
Prospects' has highlighted that the population of the poor living on less than one dollar per
day has increased from 474.4 million in 1987 to 552 million in the year 2000. Needless to say
a dollar a day is a measure of extreme poverty. It may be worthwhile to note that the increase
in the poverty in the developing world is happening in the backdrop of increasing global
economic competition, fundamental transformation in the nature of the national economies as
well as that of global economy itself, and falling agricultural and industrial returns coupled
with downside agricultural, industrial and services work environments.
This fundamental economic transformation has had the greatest impact on the poor. In the
name of globalization and free trade, developing countries are being increasingly pushed to a
noncompetitive situation. The World Bank in its above cited annual report ridiculed the
double standards of industrialized countries, which keep exports of developing countries
down by charging tariffs as high as 550 per cent for the developing countries. The Bank
points out that the QUAD countries (the US, the European Union, Japan and Canada) trade
among themselves at tariffs ranging from 4.3 per cent in Japan to 8.3 per cent in Canada; and
only 1.2 per cent of tariff lines are subject to NTB (non-tariff barriers); however most of the
NTBs are found in the agriculture, textiles and clothing where developing countries have a
comparative advantage. Products with high tariffs in QUAD countries include major
agricultural staple food products, such as meat, sugar, milk, dairy products and chocolate, for
which tariff rates frequently exceed 100 per cent; tobacco and some alcoholic beverages;
fruits and vegetables and textiles, clothing and footwear. In the US, only 311 of 500 tariff
lines are above 15 per cent. Yet 15 per cent of exports from the least developed countries to
the US face these tariffs. There might be considerable potential for the least developed
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the research data and disseminate information to every nook and corner of the country. In the
existing system knowledge management in rural communities still continue to have difficulty
in accessing crucial information and understand easily without dissemination loss. A wide
gap between the researcher/experts and farmers, exists. It is true that India possess a valuable
agricultural knowldeg and expertise but it is not in structured electronic form that can be
easily accessed. Web services can provide solution to rural masses such as e-chaupal and IKisan. I-Kisan is being developed as a comprehensive Agri Portal to address the information,
knowledge and business requirement. Certainly the powerful and speedy electronic medium
like internet has revolutionized the information availability, acquisition, processing and
utilization but what sounds alertness is the likely emergence of digital divide in society. The
wide disparities among farming communities with respect to socio-economic conditions,
infrastructure base and physical accessibility may lead to differential gain and resulting in
imbalance growth. Application of ICT needs a closer examination to identify and analyse the
constraints. Illiteracy, unpreparedness of farmers for virtual learning, physical inaccessibility
to ICT, lack of skilled ICT professionals to manage ICT Kiosks in rural areas, poor
infrastructure base like computer and computer network and power supply, cultural barriers
etc. There is lack of opportunity for skill development of farmers in utilizing internet
facilities and retrieving information from larger pool. Though there were several initiatives
from public and private sectors for promoting ICT application, lack of capacity building
programme and insufficient budgetary provision for installing ICT infrastructure facilities at
village level remain a challenging impediment. Development of appropriate content for
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introduction of Training and Visit (T&V) extension management, starting in the mid-1970s.
the emphasis was on the role of extension in technology transfer to encourage utilization of
research results. The T&V approach was somewhat like a campaign approach and succeeded
to some extent where the client's need and technology potential matched. The system was
found to be too narrow in its approach and not suitable for small farmers and rain-fed areas.
In between the ICAR launched its FLD programmes namely Operatioal research Project
(ORP), krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVKs), Lab to Land and National demonstraion (ND) with the
same objectives in mind. All these programmes were later merged under the programme of
KVK. The need for technology appraisal, refinement and transfer was felt and IVLP
(Institutional Village Linkage Programme) based on participatory methodology was launched
in selected locations in the country.
ITD Component of NATP The project was implemented in seven states since November,
1998. The major shift was from top-to-bottom to bottom up approach. New institutional
arrangements for technology dissemination through establishment of ATMA, moving
towards integrated extension delivery and addressing gender concerns in agriculture. Under
the project, a state level Agricultural Management and Extension Training Institute
(SAMETI)
has been created in all the project states to provide training to state extension
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Conversely, national and local extension organizations need to develop their capacity for
online services management in order to make effective use of ICT-based channels that are
increasingly becoming available with local and community-based organizations. It is clear
that further experiments on a much larger scale are necessary to assess the usefulness of ICTmediated information services in supporting extension in general and in improving the coping
strategies for coping with drought. It is also clear that expert-based and expert-derived
information services can be easily aggregated into a digital knowledge organization that can
combine different types of sources. For more effective extension support, new information
delivery and exchange services covering both digital and non-digital channels need to be
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managing accounting and budgeting so that you have better information about your
financial situation
Larger organization may use ICT to carry out increasingly complex functions, which may
include complicated software solutions and hardware set-up. Increasingly ICT is vital in the
work of organizations so an understanding of how to manage this important and potentially
expensive resource needs to be developed. It is essential for organizations to focus on what
they want to gain using their ICT and then put in place systems to help them achieve this.
Your organizations goals must come first. In the same way that organizations recognize the
need to manage their premises, accounting and other office equipment, it is essential that
managing ICT is recognized as fundamental to the development of the organization. ICT is
too important to be ignored, even by people and organizations who feel they don't know
much about it. Careful management of ICT will not only help organizations meet their aims
and objectives, it will also prevent organizations making possibly expensive mistakes. A
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Chapter-13
National Agricultural Technology Project
The National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) was launched by the ICAR on June
30, 1998, with the support of the World Bank, to strengthen and complement the existing
resources and to augment the output of the National Agricultural Research System (NARS) .
The NATP implemented its objectives through strategies for Organization and Management
Reforms and Research. The Research comprised various modes of objective-based funding,
namely, Teams of Excellence (ToE), Mission Mode (MM), Production Systems Research
(PSR), Institution Village Linking Program (IVLP) and Competitive Grants Program (CGP).
Another important component, which was funded under NATP, was Innovations in
Technology Disseminations (ITD). Projects under ITD were executed by the Department of
Agriculture and Co-operation (DAC), Government of India, and the ICAR. Production
Systems Research (PSR) Mode of funding was divided Agro-ecological-Zone-wise into five
sub-modes, namely, Rainfed, Irrigated, Arid, Coastal, and Hill & Mountain. All five submodes were recognized as respective Agro-ecosystem Directorates and were empowered to
source funds and administer & monitor the progress of the projects.
NATP initiated in India with the financial assistance from World Bank by the Govt. of India
during November, 1998. It consists of three main components. The first is to improve the
efficiency of the organizational and management system of the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR). Second one is to enhance the performance and effectiveness of research
programs and scientists in responding to location specific needs of farmers. Third one is to
pilot testing innovations to improve management of technology dissemination activities with
greater accountability to and participation by the farming community. The first two
components are to be implemented by the Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR) in
India with the financial provision of Rs 736.94 crores. The third component is to be
implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India in 28 districts of seven states (4
districts in each state i.e. Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Bihar, Jharkhand, Punjab and
Himachal Pradesh) with the financial provision of Rs 124.37 crores. In Himachal Pradesh
Shimla district was selected during 1st phase Hamirpur in 2nd, Kangra in 3rd and Bilaspur in
4th phase. As a crucial requirement of this component the concept of Agricultural
Technology Management Agency (ATMA) at district level has been introduced, as an
autonomous organization by providing flexible environment with an objective of integrating
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NATP was the world's biggest World Bank assisted agriculture project worth Rs. 992
crores developed and executed by NARS
NATP lifespan was seven years, starting from June 30, 1998 to June 30, 2005
NATP was the first project in NARS to shift the focus from discipline oriented
research to production system research
NATP was the first project in NARS to involve competitive funding, & have
pluralistic approach to involve & fund partners from outside NARS
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STRATEGIES OF NATP
Adapting the organization and management, staff skills, modes of operation and
programs of public research and technology assessment and transfer services to make
them more relevant to current and upcoming needs, especially for location-specific
inter-disciplinary programs of production systems research and development focused
on technologies in the public goods category;
PROJECT COMPONENTS
Organization and Management System: ICAR felt the need for further improving its
capabilities, to deal with new issues and challenges to improve the quality of the technology
generation as well as to enhance its accountability to an increasingly varied group of
stakeholders, funding agencies and beneficiaries. Therefore, ICAR, through NATP, addressed
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3.
4. Agro-ecosystem Research:
ICAR has focused research Programs under NATP on the production system research (PSR)
dividing the country broadly into five agro-ecosystems:
1. Irrigated
2. Rainfed
3. Arid
4. Coastal
5. Hill & Mountain
Innovation in Technology Dissemination: This mode was administered by Department of
Agriculture and Co-operation (DAC), Ministry of Agriculture and ICAR. DAC program
brought innovations by decentralizing decision-making to district level through creation of
28 Agricultural Technology Management Agencies (ATMAs). Under the ICAR component,
44 Agricultural Technology Information Centers (ATICs) were established as a "singlewindow" support system linking the various units of a research institution with the
intermediary, end-user and farmers indecision-making and problem solving exercises. 53
Zonal Agricultural Research Stations (ZARS) were remandated to take-up the functions of
KVKs. And Zonal Coordinating Units (ZCUs) & Directorate of Extension of SAUs were
strengthened
1. Production Systems Research (PSR): The main objective was to raise the efficiency,
responsiveness and relevance of agro-ecosystem research. The PSR, therefore, focused on
sustainability issues while responding to farmers needs, improved research, planning &
management, and capacity building at the local level to monitor and addressed research
priority setting, production and sustainability issues. The main departure was the involvement
of farmers and including PRA and other rural diagnostic techniques and on-farm and farmerparticipatory evaluation of research outputs. Additionally, Technology Assessment &
Refinement had also been included with Institute Village Linkage Program (IVLP) so as to
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Program Mode
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
No. of Projects
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065
027
039
030
043
031
442
070
002
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Chapter-14
How to Make Agricultural Extension Demand-Driven?
By: Dr. Rasheed Sulaiman, Director, CRISP
1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, many developing countries have reaffirmed the essential role that agricultural
extension can play in agricultural development (Birner et al. 2006; Anderson 2007). This
renewed interest in extension is linked to the rediscovery of the role that agriculture needs to
play in reducing persistent rural poverty (World Bank 2007b). Yet negative experiences with
extension in the past have sparked considerable debate worldwide about the best way to
provide and finance agricultural extension. What are the roles of the public sector, the private
sector, and the third sector-non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and farmer-based
organizations in providing and financing extension? How will the agricultural sector meet
new challenges, such as helping smallholders access global markets and meet their standards?
How can farmers cope with environmental degradation and climate change and respond to
health challenges such as livestock pandemics? How can extension address the needs of
women farmers and disadvantaged groups? What are the best uses of new information and
communication technologies? All these questions are highly relevant for agricultural
development in India (see, e.g., Vyas 2003). In addition, agricultural extension faces the
challenge of establishing a well-managed, effective, and accountable system that meets the
needs of hundreds of thousands of farmers engaged in diverse and complex farming systems;
the associated problems of monitoring and evaluating extension services and assessing their
impacts; the dependence of extension on the performance of the agricultural research system
and its feedback linkages; and the inherent problems of ensuring political commitment and
fiscal accountability for agricultural extension (Feder, Willett, and Zijp 2001).
The way in which agricultural extension has been organized and provided to meet these
challenges has changed over time, with remarkably similar trends across the globe. These
changes have been linked to general trends in development thinking and practice. A strong
belief in the role of the state as the major actor of development characterized the economic
policies of many developing nations after they reached their independence. The establishment
of public sector extension services fitted well into this paradigm. The Training and Visit
(T&V) system, promoted by the World Bank in more than 50 countries, became a major
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Before discussing the provisions of Indias Policy Framework for Agricultural Extension, a
brief overview of extension in India would be useful. Extension played an important role in
promoting Green Revolution technologies, and the T&V system proved effective in the areas
of India affected by the Green Revolution. However, it was less effective in the rainfed areas.
There is a general perception that, after T&V was phased out in the 1990s, the existing
extension system deteriorated, even though a variety of new approaches to provide and
finance extension emerged (Sulaiman 2003; Sulaiman and Van den Ban 2001).
These approaches included decentralization; contracting; group extension; provision of
extension by para-extension workers, producer cooperatives, or farmer-based organizations;
the establishment of agro-clinics by private entrepreneurs with initial government support;
public-private partnerships in financing and providing extension; and the establishment of
Internet-based extension though village kiosks (e-Choupals) set up by the private sector. As
detailed later in the essay, the Agricultural Technology Management Agency developed a
model that embodies several of these reform elements. In view of low agricultural growth
rates and a vigorous political debate about agrarian distress, the political attention to
agricultural extension also was renewed. As one of the major thrust areas in agriculture,
Indias 10th Five-Year Plan (20022007) emphasizes the need for revamping and
modernizing the extension systems and encouraging the private sector to take up extension
services (Government of India 2002, 528).
As indicated earlier, the national Policy Framework for Agricultural Extension was
developed in 2000 to serve as the basis for the central governments support to the states. In
Indias federal system, the states have the major responsibility for agriculture, including
agricultural extension. The 59th round of the Situation Assessment Survey of Farmers carried
out by the National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) in 2003 provides important
information on the prevailing situation when the framework and the 10th plan were
developed (NSSO 2005). Data for the survey, which is representative at the state level, were
collected from 51,770 households in 6,638 villages. Farmers were asked to identify which, if
any, of the sources they had accessed during the past 365 days to obtain information on
modern agricultural technology. Nearly 60 percent of the farmers had not accessed any
sources. When farmers did use sources, the input dealer was the second-most-used source
after other progressive farmers.
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The provisions made in the Policy Framework for Agricultural Extension is then examined
from this perspective. To identify the reasons for market failures, this section mainly draws
on economic theory, while the broader agricultural extension literature is used as a basis for
discussing the challenges and failures of the public and third sectors. The essay acknowledges
that the analysis of demand-driven services is best approached from a multidisciplinary
perspective. In particular, management sciences and the innovation systems literature, which
focus on organizational learning, knowledge management, partnerships, and institutional
change, can provide important analytical insights for approaches to make extension demanddriven.
Reasons for market failures
Market failure can be defined as the inability of a market production system to provide a
good or service either at all or at a level that is optimal from the societys perspective.
Imperfections in the market mechanism can be caused by the nature of the goods to be
provided or by positive and negative externalities. Market failures can affect both the supply
side and the demand side of service provision (Umali and Schwartz, 1994; Bennett, 1995;
Anderson and Feder 2007). One reason for market failures in extension is that some types of
information are public goods. Knowledge that is not farm specific, such as information about
prices, is considered a public good, especially if it is distributed using a non-excludable
technology, such as the radio. Information provided through the Internet can be made
excludable more easily for example, by requiring that farmers become members of a group to
access password-protected Web sites.
This problem is aggravated when the benefits of extension are perceived as uncertain and
farmers are risk averse. While the nature of public goods leads to market failures on the
supply side, the character of extension as a merit good leads to market failures on the demand
side. Externalities are another reason for market failures. Extension is associated with
positive externalities if the benefits of extension accrue partly to the society as a whole. An
example is the use of extension for reaching national goals such as food security. Extension
services also have positive externalities when they contribute to reducing the negative
environmental effects of agricultural production.
This can also be seen as the use of extension to reduce the negative externalities of
agricultural production. Educating farmers about the negative environmental effects of
production and promoting technologies that help avoid those effects will not necessarily lead
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Institutional design
Decentralization
The framework places strong emphasis on decentralization, in the form of both
deconcentration and devolution. The Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA)
model is proposed as the key concept for decentralizing decision making to the local level.
However, the framework itself does not provide further specifications of the ATMA model,
which was originally introduced under an agricultural technology project funded by the
World Bank. The explanations presented here are based on project documents and other
publications (Singh, Swanson, and Singh 2006). The Farmer Advisory Block Technology
Team comprises personnel with extension functions from various departments. The Farmer
Advisory Block Technology Committee plays a key role in ensuring bottom-up planning. It is
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into
Farmers
Organizations/Farmer
Interest
Groups/Watershed
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DISCUSSION
Making Agricultural Extension Demand-Driven
Section 4 identified various strategies to make extension demand-driven. Before discussing
the relevance of the strategies to Indias agricultural extension policies, it may be useful to
summarize them. Three types of extension were distinguished: private sector (market based),
public sector, and third sector. In private sector extension systems, it is the market
mechanism that fosters demand-driven services. If a market for extension does not exist
because government interventions have crowded out private extension providers, reducing
such crowding out and creating a favorable investment climate for private providers is one
strategy to make extension more demand-driven. To what extent crowding out, rather than
other types of market failures, prevents the emergence of a market for extension is an
empirical question. Besides the pure type of market-based extension where private sector
organizations provide extension services and farmers pay for them, other market-based
approaches include agricultural advice provided with the sale of inputs or purchase of
products and advice provided in a contract-farming relationship.
How demand-driven these approaches are depends largely on the bargaining power of the
farmers in these relations. Public sector extension is often not responsive to farmers demands
owing to a range of government failures. Strategies to make public sector extension more
responsive to farmers demands include decentralization of extension agencies, increased
autonomy of extension agencies, contracting extension services and involving farmers in
awarding the contracts, using funding mechanisms such as cost recovery to encourage
farmers to express their demands, using management techniques such as new public
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CONCLUDING REMARKS
Agricultural extension is back on the global development agenda, and reform measures are
being actively pursued in many parts of the developing world. India is an important case to
watch because of its longstanding commitment to supporting the vital role of extension in
agricultural development. Moreover, India is a major reformer, with many exciting
innovations fostering improved service provision and agricultural outcomes. But the process
is thus far incomplete, not only in implementation but also in policy analysis. We have
endeavored to identify some important gaps in analysis and some key issues that still need to
be addressed. This is a time for agricultural policymakers to reflect afresh on the unmet
demands, implicit and explicit, for provision of agricultural extension services to all of
Indias deserving farmers.
Farmer Field Schools: (FFS) is a unique way to educate farmers and is an effective
platform for sharing of experiences and collectively solving agriculture related problems. The
first FFS were designed and managed by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization in
Indonesia in 1989. Since then more than two million farmers across Asia have participated in
this type of learning. During the 1970s it became increasingly apparent that pest resistance
and resurgence caused by the indiscriminate use of insecticides posed an immediate threat to
the gains of the Green Revolution. At the same time, new researches demonstrated the
viability of biological control of major rice pests. However, gaps still existed between the
science generated in research institutions and common farmer practices, conditioned by years
of aggressive promotion of pesticide use. Over the ensuing years, a number of approaches
were tried to bring integrated pest management (IPM) to small farmers - particularly rice
farmers - in Asia, with mixed results. Some experts claimed that the principles of IPM were
too complex for small farmers to master, and that centrally designed messages were still the
only way to convince farmers to change their practices. By the end of the 1980s, a new
approach to farmer training emerged in Indonesia called the Farmer Field School (FFS).
These field schools were designed basically to address the problem of lack of knowledge
among Asian farmers relating to agro ecology, particularly the relationship between insect
pests and beneficial insects. The Farmer Field School brings together concepts and methods
from agro ecology, experiential education and community development. These FFS were
initiated based on two premises. Firstly, although farming itself is done mainly on individual
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inherent limitation of not covering all the farmers for all the crops in all the regions.
Given
the scenario, it is imperative to find newer ways of reaching out to the farmers to provide
quality advisory services at a low cost. With the above in mind, Ministry of Agriculture,
Govt. of India has taken up an initiative to use Mass Media for Agricultural Extension. To
implement this initiative, MANAGE is assigned with the responsibility of capacity building
of personnel from agriculture and development departments, scientists from SAUs and ICAR
and functionaries from Doordarshan and All India Radio in the use of mass media to create
and deliver the agricultural programs for farming community.
The Central Sector Scheme Mass Media Support to Agriculture Extension has been
launched during the Xth Plan Period with a view to contribute to revamping the extension
services in the country by using electronic media for transfer of technology/information to the
farmers. Under the scheme the existing infrastructure of Doordarshan and All India Radio is
being utilized to produce and transmit programs covering a wide spectrum of topics in
agriculture and allied field for bringing the latest information and knowledge to the farming
community. Apart from telecast/broadcast in Hindi, the scheme also aims at disseminating
programs in regional languages and local dialects for the specific needs of different regions
covered under the scheme. Details of the Scheme are given below:
A. DOORDARSHAN PROGRAMMES:
1. Doordarshan through its countrywide network of transmitters is the only agency in the
country which is presently running the terrestrial transmission at National and Regional levels
and has facility to narrowcast locality-specific programs for the farming community through
its various high and low power transmitters (HPTs/LPTs). The overall outreach of
Doordarshan is to 89% of the population of the country and out of 38.7 million rural TV
homes, 25.4 million can see only Doordarshan for various regions. Doordarshan also covers
most regional languages of the country, which is highly significant for the use Mass Medial
facilities in agriculture.
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meet the needs of that particular agro climatic zone. Further specific problems of the
agriculturist residing in that area can be addressed in a specific manner by taking help of the
local and nearest available agriculture research station, as each transmitter operates as a stand
alone station, there is thus need to create content for each of these transmitter locations.
3.
Doordarshan, five days a week, with five transmitters, on an average, sharing the same
program. Thus, w.e.f. 1.4.2005, under the Scheme, 36 DD Stations are producing one hour
fresh program every week and taking remaining from the stock, are transmitting these
programs through various transmitters covered under respective narrow casting clusters. The
total approved outlay for this component is Rs. 115.34 crore.
4.
The Scheme also envisages providing 30 minutes of regional agricultural programs five
days a week, back to back with Krishi Darshan program of Doordarshan, through the
eighteen Regional Kendras of Doordarshan. These programs are repeated during the next
morning through respective Regional Satellite Channels of Doordarshan. Further, a 30 min.
national agricultural program for 6 days a week is telecast on DD National Channel in the
morning. This approach has several advantages. The programs are telecast in terrestrial
mode. The regional programs are in local languages. The National/Regional channels of
Doordarshan are mandatory for cable operators. These are also being carried on the Directto-Home (DTH) platform of Doordarshan. Thus, this approach provides the maximum
outreach to the farming community. Production and transmission of regional programs has
commenced from 2 nd May, 2005 and that of the National Program through CPC of
Doordarshan from 16th May, 2005. The total approved outlay for this component is
Rs.110.36 crore.
B. ALL INDIA RADIO PROGRAMMES:
1. Till now All India Radio has been using the existing MW and SW network for
broadcasting agriculture-based programs. The emerging technology is in the form of the FM
transmitters. This has the capacity to provide high quality output and also deliver local
content in the area of its range. As the infrastructure for the FM transmission is widely
available with the All India Radio, the locality-specific agricultural programs can reach to
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2. Brief history / back ground and objectives of the scheme: The agriculture extension machinery and information support to most states seemed to have
become outmoded. The staff created under World Bank assisted Training & Visit (T&V)
program did not have much mobility. The need to revamp the extension services in the
country by using print and electronic media and information technology along with the
involvement of the private sector was felt increasingly. The private sector specially the
input agencies and traders, were one of the main sources of information for the farmers.
Radio, Television and the print media had become powerful means of education and
technology dissemination. The farmers were now need technology, investment, better
quality inputs and most of all the latest know-how for sustaining commercial agriculture.
As this happened a major shift in the methodology of delivering knowledge to the farm
had to take place. The traditional system of extension would not be able to meet the needs
of a diversified Indian Agriculture. At this juncture, it was felt that by judicious using of
the mass media, the problem of educating and informing the vast mass of agricultural
workers, farmers and public at large could be addressed. The Central Sector Scheme
Mass Media Support to Agriculture Extension has been launched during the Xth Plan
Period with a view to contribute to revamping the extension services in the country by
using electronic media for transfer of technology/information to the farmers. The EFC
approval of the scheme was obtained on 05.01.2004 and later on the CCEA approval of the
revised scheme was obtained and 24.02.2005. This is a new scheme for 10 th five-year
plan.
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