Final

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF HYBRID DRYER
BASED ON SOLAR AND ELECTRICAL ENERGY
lkSj ,oa fo|qr tkZ ij vk/kkfjr ladj 'kq"dd dh

lajpuk ,oa fodkl
BY
Arpita Nagori
THESIS
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
(RENEWABLE ENERGY ENGINEERING)
2013
DEPARTMENT OF RENEWABLE ENERGY
ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
MAHARANA PRATAP UNIVERSITY OF
AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
UDAIPUR - 313001
DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF HYBRID DRYER

BASED ON SOLAR AND ELECTRICAL ENERGY
lkSj ,oa fo|qr tkZ ij vk/kkfjr ladj 'kq"dd dh

lajpuk ,oa fodkl
BY
Arpita Nagori
THESIS
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
(RENEWABLE ENERGY ENGINEERING)
2013
DEPARTMENT OF RENEWABLE ENERGY
ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
MAHARANA PRATAP UNIVERSITY OF
AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
UDAIPUR - 313001
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter No.
Description
Page No.
i.
List of Tables
ii
ii.
List of Figures
iii
iii.
List of Plates
iv
iv.
Abbreviations and Symbols
v.
List of Nomenclature
v-vi
vii-viii
Introduction
1-10
II
Review and Literature
11-20
III
Materials and Methods
21-42
IV
Result and Discussion
43-49
Summary and Conclusions
50-52
VI
Suggestion for Future Work
53
VII
References
54-57
Abstract in English
58
Abstract in Hindi
59
Appendices
60-67
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Title
Page
3.1
Dimensions of hybrid dryer
24
3.2
Design considerations of hybrid dryer
30
4.3
Economic indicator for hybrid dryer
49
ii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Title
Page
1.1
Leading onion producing states in India
3.1
Layout of hybrid dryer
21
4.1
Performance curve for no load without electric heater
44
4.2
Performance curve for no load with electric heater
45
4.3
Performance curve for full load testing
46
4.4
Variation in moisture content with respect to time
46
4.5
Variation in drying rate with respect to time
47
4.6
Variation in hourly electricity consumption with respect to time
47
iii
LIST OF PLATES
Title
Plate No.
Pages
3.1
Drying chamber view
23
3.2
Heat exchanger cum Storage tank view
23
3.3
Evacuated tube collector
25
3.4
3.5
Heat exchanger cum storage tank

Electric heater
26
26
3.6
Blower
27
3.7
Drying chamber
27
3.8
Automatic temperature controller and display unit
28
3.9
Energy meter
28
3.10
Hybrid drying system
29
3.11
Instruments used
42
4.1
Onion flakes before drying
48
4.2
Onion flakes after drying
iv
48
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

Abbreviation
Meaning
- Per cent
- Micron
- Degree centigrade
- Ampere
a.m.
- Anti meridian
Approx.
- Approximately
BC ratio
- Benefit cost ratio
cal/cm2 day
- Calorie per square centimeter per day
Cm
CERC
Cp
- Centimeter
- Central electricity regulatory commission
- Specific heat of water, kcal /kg C
CTAE
- College of Technology and Engineering
Cu. M
- Cubic meter
Cu. m/day
- Cubic meter per day
d. b.
- Dry basis
DM
- Dry matter
DC
- Direct current
DR
- Drying rate, g of water evaporated. / g of dry matter hr
- East
e.g.
- Example
et al.
- and others
etc.
- et cetra
evap.
- Evaporated
Fig.
- Figure
G. I.
- Galvanised iron
HUF
- Heat utilization factor
i.e.
- That is
IRR
- Internal rate of returns
It
- Solar insolation, kcal /h m2
- Degree Kelvin
Kcal/m2 h
- Kilo calorie per square meter per hour
Kg/m2
- Kilogram per square meter
Kg/cm2
- Kilogram per square centimeter
kW/m2
- Kilo watt per square meter
kWh/Sq.m/ day - Kilo watt hour per square meter per day
kWh/Sq.m/
year
LR
- Kilo watt hour per square meter per year
Mm
- Millimeter
m/s
- Meter per second
M3
- Cubic meter
MC
- Moisture content
NPW
- Net present worth
p. m.
- Post noon
PB
- Pay back period
PV
RGGVY
REC
RPO
Rs.
Rs./m3
SERC
SPV
- Rupees per cubic meter

- State electricity regulatory commission
- Solar Photovoltaic
SPRERI
- Sardar Patel Renewable Energy Research Institute
S. No.
- Serial number
V
Wp
- Volt
- Peak watt
- Weight of product, kg.
w. b.
- Loading rate
Photovoltaic
Rajiv Gandhi Grameen vidyutikaran yojana
Rural electrification corporation limited
Requirement process outsourcing
Rupees
- Wet basis
2
W/m
- Watts per square meter
- Latent heat of vaporization
vi
LIST OF NOMENCLATURE
Nomenclature
Meaning
Ac
Collector area required (m2)
AD
Drying area (m2)
Cw
Specific heat of water (kcal / kg C)
Ca
Specific heat of air (kcal / kg C)
He
Humidity ratio of ambient air (kg of water vapour per kg of dry

air)
Hd
Ma
MW
Humidity ratio of exhaust air (kg of water vapour per kg of dry

air)
Mass of air required for drying, (kg)
Mass of water to be removed during drying, (kg)
mf
Final moisture content (%)
mi
Initial moisture content (%)
Total energy required (kcal)
Qt
Energy required per hour (kcal/h)
It
Solar insolation (W/m2)
THo
Temperature of hot water outlet (C)
Temperature of hot air (C)
T1
Tray 1 temperature (C)
T2
T3
Ta
Ambient temperature (C)
Tco
Temperature at collector outlet (C)
THa
vii
td
Assumed drying time (h)
Drying time, (h)
Td
Drying temperature (C)
Tdo
Temperature at dryer outlet (C)
Wav
Average of parameters during without recirculation test
Wd
Weight of dry matter (kg)
WML
Weight of moisture loss (kg)
Density of water (kg/m3)
Density of air (kg/ m3)
viii
Chapter I
Introduction
1.1 General
Energy is the key input for socio-economic development of any Nation. The
fast Industrialization and rapid urbanization besides mechanized farming have
generated a high demand of energy in all forms i.e. thermal, mechanical and
electrical. To meet this ever increasing demand, fossil fuels such as coal, oil and
natural gas have been overexploited in an unsustainable manner. The over
exploitations of fossil fuels have been posing serious environmental problems such as
global warming and climate change. While we have shortage of energy and more
dependent on imports in case of petroleum, we are fortunate enough to be blessed
with plenty of natural sources of energy such as solar, wind, biomass and hydro.
These sources are environmentally benign and non-depleting in nature as well as are
available in most parts of the country throughout the year.
Energy is the most important, critical and vital component in rural agro
processing industries for development, employment generation and economic growth
as this sector constitute a major consumer of commercially produced energy. For the
sustainable development of a region, industrialization is to be supplemented with
integrated energy planning approaches. The conservation of energy in industrial
sector can be achieved through end use efficiency improvement and utilization of
renewable energy technologies which are renewable in nature and which could be
harnessed in a decentralized way. The naturally available solar energy can effectively
be utilized for drying with process time reduction. The integration of these renewable
technologies with non-renewable is the need of agro industry for better performance
and sustainable development.
In recent years availability of power in India has both increased and improved
but demand has consistently outstripped supply and substantial energy and peak
shortages prevailed in 2009-10. There are also various estimates of 25000 to 35000
MW of power being produced by diesel combustion to meet the deficits. Electricity
shortage is not the only problem. Its spread is an equally serious issue. In the past, the
selection of an energy resource for electricity generation was dominated by finding
1
the least expensive power generating plant. Although such an approach is essential,
there is growing concern about other aspects of power generation such as social,
environmental and technological benefits and consequences of the energy source
selection. It can be observed that coal has the maximum global warming potential
followed by Natural Gas and others. Further, it needs to be re-emphasized that for
India, like most developing countries, the cost of producing electricity is of paramount
concern while planning for the type of plant to be installed and commissioned and
more so with abundant supply of coal. However, in the long run if we take the effect
of the pollutants on human health and environment and cost as well as efforts needed
to improve or alter the path of degradation, the initial higher cost of using renewable
resources for producing energy may not be too big.
A high degree of caution is also needed as emerging economies like India
may not at present have financial resources to leapfrog directly to cleaner mechanisms
of energy. Since global warming is an international phenomenon and it has no
boundaries there is an urgent need for the transfer of technology and development of
appropriate financial instruments from developed the world to nations who are still
trying to find their rightful places. No argument is needed to understand the world is
today facing the problem of global warming due to rapid industrialization and
urbanization followed by the western world. In terms of per capita equity India is
145th in the world with a release of 1.25 t CO2 per annum.
To improve the overall efficiency, hybridization of renewable energy
technologies with non- renewable energy technologies plays an important role. A
simple method of harnessing solar energy is the thermal conversion system that
collects and utilizes the suns energy in the form of heat. Collection of solar radiation
and its subsequent transfer to a fluid is essentially achieved by solar thermal
collectors. The use of collectors is to produce the thermal energy required for many
applications like heating water, air, space heating, drying, electricity generation, etc.
1.2 Climate Change Scenario
Climate change is one of the primary concerns for humanity in the 21st
century. It may affect health through a range of pathways, for example as a result of
increased frequency and intensity of heat waves, reduction in cold related deaths,
increased floods and droughts, changes in the distribution of vector-borne diseases
2
and effects on the risk of disasters and malnutrition. The overall balance of effects on
health is likely to be negative and populations in low income countries are likely to be
particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects. The experience of the 2003 heat wave in
Europe showed that high-income countries may also be adversely affected. The
potentially most important environmental problem relating to energy is global climate
change (global warming or the greenhouse effect). The increasing concentration of
greenhouse gases such as CO2, CH4 , CFCs, halogens, N2O, ozone, and
peroxyacetylnitrate in the atmosphere is acting to trap heat radiated from the Earths
surface and is raising the surface temperature of the Earth. Many scientific studies
reveal that overall CO2 levels have increased 31% in the past 200 years, 20 Gt of
Carbon added to environment since 1800 only due to deforestation and the
concentration of methane gas which is responsible for ozone layer depletion has more
than doubled since then. The global mean surface temperature has increased by 0.4
0.8 C in the last century above the baseline of 14C. Increasing global temperature
ultimately increases global mean sea levels at an average annual rate of 12 mm over
the last century. Arctic sea ice thinned by 40% and decreased in extent by 1015% in
summer since the 1950s.
India is facing with the challenges of sustaining its rapid economic while
dealing with the global threat of climate change. This threat emanated from green
house gas emissions in the atmosphere, anthopogenically generated through long term
and industrial growth and high consumption life style in developed countries.
Climate change may alter distribution and quality of Indias natural resources
and adversely affect the livelihood of its people. With an economy closely tied to its
natural resource based and climate sensitive sectors such as agriculture, water and
forestry, India may face a major threat because of the projected change in climate. An
approach must be based on a global vision inspired by Mahatma Gandhis wise
dictum. The earth has enough resources to meet peoples need, but will never have
enough to satisfy peoples greed. Thus we must not only promote sustainable
production processes, but equally, sustainable lifestyles across the globe.
The success of our national efforts would be significantly enhanced provided
the developed countries affirm their responsibility for accumulated greenhouse
emissions and fulfill their commitments under the UNFCC to transfer new and
3
additional financial resources and climate friendly technologies to support both

adaptation and mitigation in developing countries.
In this connection, India is determined that its per capita green house
emissions will at no point exceed that of developed countries even as we pursue
development objectives.
1.3 Scope of Renewable Energy Technologies in India
India has been making continuous progress in conventional as well as
renewable power generation. It is observed that renewable grid capacity has increased
more than 5 times in a span of 8 years and this compares favorably with the EU and
far exceeds that of the US. The growth so far is largely based on thermal but all other
sources have also made important contributions. However, problems are beginning to
occur in each sector of conventional power. Mining and import of coal are both facing
problems, especially for the huge quantities required. Moreover, at projected usage
levels, questions are also raised about the period Indias extractable coal reserves
could last.
Environmental and climate change threats are getting more severe and project
clearances more difficult to obtain. In spite of many policy and infrastructural
initiatives, it appears unlikely that quantities required to achieve projected
conventional power capacity will be available. Large hydro projects are also facing
problems largely related to environmental issues and some to project execution in
difficult areas along with attendant issues of building long transmission lines. Natural
gas difficulties and its competitive usages also do not create optimism. Nuclear power
capacity building continues to face its own problems, especially with the huge targets
proposed. In the above backdrop, therefore, it could reasonably be expected that there
could be substantial and worrisome slippages in creating conventional power
capacities over the next two decades and even in the long term. It is almost inevitable
that this would lead to more consumption of diesel, furnace oil and kerosene. In a
situation where India is currently importing more than 80% of the countrys fuel
needs and with internal reserves unlikely to improve this percentage, serious problems
of energy security would arise. Moreover, these may entail rising financial burdens of
import and internal financial burdens of subsidies, which are already controversial. It
is, therefore, imperative that substantive measures be taken to reduce their
4
consumption for energy purposes and also reducing consumption drastically in

personalized urban and long-distance freight transport. If energy shortages persist it is
difficult to expect much improvement in energy access. India has an ambitious
program of rural electrification as named RGGVY.
However, even though this may provide grid connectivity to many uncovered
areas (still leaving substantial numbers unconnected), actual supply of electricity
through the grid would remain both constrained and unpredictable. Providing energy
access and energy security for the poor would, therefore, continue to be a major issue
and problem. Solutions to this simply have to be found but which no longer appear
possible from conventional sources. It is clear that Indias need for secure, affordable,
and environmentally sustainable energy has become one of the principal economic
and development challenges for the country. It is also clear that while energy
conservation and energy efficiency have an important role to play in the national
energy strategy, renewable energy will become a key part of the solutions and is
likely to play an increasingly important role for augmentation of grid power,
providing energy access, reducing consumption of fossil fuels and helping India
pursue its low carbon developmental pathway.
India is endowed with vast solar energy potential. About 5,000 trillion kWh
per year energy is incident over Indias land area with most parts receiving 4-7 kWh
per sq. m per day. Hence both technology routes for conversion of solar radiation into
heat and electricity, namely, solar thermal and solar photovoltaics, can effectively be
harnessed providing huge scalability for solar in India. Solar also provides the ability
to generate power on a distributed basis and enables rapid capacity addition with short
lead times. Off-grid decentralized and low-temperature applications will be
advantageous from a rural electrification perspective and meeting other energy needs
for power and heating and cooling in both rural and urban areas. From an energy
security perspective, solar is the most secure of all sources, since it is abundantly
available. Theoretically, a small fraction of the total incident solar energy (if captured
effectively) can meet the entire countrys power requirements. It is also clear that
given the large proportion of poor and energy un-served population in the country,
every effort needs to be made to exploit the relatively abundant sources of energy
available to the country. While, today, domestic coal based power generation is the
cheapest electricity source, future scenarios suggest that this could well change.
The National Action Plan on Climate Change also points out: India is a
tropical country, where sunshine is available for longer hours per day and in great
intensity. Solar energy, therefore, has great potential as future energy source. It also
has the advantage of permitting the decentralized distribution of energy, thereby
empowering people at the grassroots level.
With the objective to establish India as a global leader in solar energy, by
creating the policy conditions for its diffusion across the country as quickly as
possible Government of India has launched Jawahar Lal Nehru National Solar
Mission.
The National Tariff Policy was amended in January 2011 to prescribe solarspecific RPO be increased from a minimum of 0.25 per cent in 2012 to 3 per cent by
2022. CERC and SERCs have issued various regulations including solar RPOs, REC
framework, tariff, grid connectivity, forecasting etc. for promoting solar energy.
Many States have come up with up their own solar policy.
In view of the ongoing efforts of Central and State Governments and various
agencies for promoting solar energy, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy has
undertaken an exercise to track and analyze the issues in fulfillment of Solar Power
Purchase Obligation and implementation of Solar REC framework in India. This
would help various stakeholders to understand the challenges and opportunities in the
development of solar power.
1.3.1 Solar energy potential
Among the various renewable energy resources, India possesses a very large
solar energy potential; most parts of the country are blessed with good amounts of
sunshine. There are about 300 clear sunny days in a year in most parts of country. The
average solar radiation incident over India varies from 4 kWh/day - 7 kWh/day. The
solar radiation received over the Indian land area is estimated to be about 5,000
trillion kWh / Yr. In June, 2008, a National Action Plan on Climate Change was
announced, which included eight major national missions with the one on solar
energy being the centre piece. This mission envisages a major step up in the
utilization of solar energy for power generation and other purposes.
The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) was launched by the
Prime Minister of India in January 2010, with a target of 20,000 MW grid solar power
(based on solar thermal power generating systems and solar photovoltaic (SPV)
technologies), 2000 MW of Off grid capacity including 20 million solar lighting
systems and 20 million sq.m. solar thermal collector area by the year 2022. The
Mission will be implemented in three phases. The first phase will be of three years (up
to March, 2013), the second up to March 2017 and the third phase will continue until
March, 2022. The target for phase-I is to set up 1,100 MW grid connected solar plants
including 100 MW of roof top and small solar plants and 200 MW capacity equivalent
off-grid solar applications and 7 million sq. m solar thermal collector area. A new
system has been designed for the 1000 MW projects. These will be implemented
through NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam (NVVN). NVVN will sell the solar power to
the State utilities after bundling solar power with the equivalent capacity of thermal
power. CERC has announced tariffs for the purchase of solar power by NVVN. The
tariff in the year 2011 for PV was Rs.17.91 per unit and Rs. 15.31 per unit for solar
thermal power. The main objectives of the mission are to help reach grid parity by the
year 2022 and help in set up indigenous manufacturing capacity.
1.4 Problems and Justification
Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of major bulb crop grown in India which
presently attracting attention of all persons due to rise in prices. The price is directly
related to supply-demand of the commodity. An Indian farmer normally pays more
attention to grow those crops which are fetched very good market prices by the year
2012. To get the very good prices during year 2013, many farmers switch to grow
Onion crop due to which supply in the market increases many fold and market glut,
fetches very low prices to farmers commodity such as onions. Onion has special
qualities such as adding taste and flavour to the food hence it is mainly used in several
cuisines and culinary preparations. In addition to that, it is also relished in raw form
with meals. The pungent taste of onion is due to the volatile oil, allyl propyl
disulphide present in it. India has the largest area under onion in the world but is
second to China in production. A number of agencies is involved in research for
improving the quality, production and productivity of onions. The nasik region of
Maharastra is the major producer of onion in the country accounting for almost 30%
of the total crop. It is followed by Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
Figure 1 Leading onion producing states in India

Onion is the major vegetable crop of India. It is grown in almost all countries
in the world. India is one of the leading countries in the world producing onions of
high quality and exports considerable quantities earning substantial foreign exchange.
India ranks first in the world with over 435.28 thousand hectare accounting for about
21 per cent of the world area planted under onion. Leading onion production countries
are China, India, United States, Turkey and Iran, respectively. The production of
onion in India is 5942.50 thousand tons in 2004-2005, with share of around 14 per
cent of world's production. There is an increase in onion production with annual
growth rate of 3.59 per cent in India over last few years. The approximately 10
percent of world onion production is traded internationally. Onion is a pride item of
agricultural exports earning valuable foreign exchange to our country. Onion shares
67 per cent of total fresh vegetable export of the country. There is two folds increase
in annual export of onions from the country that is from 5.00 lakh MT in 2001-02 to
9.00 lakh MT in 2004-05 (MSAMB, 2005).
Onion is perishable due to its higher moisture content (about 82 per cent w.b.).
The quality, appearance, colour, flavour and texture, deteriorates due to spoilage
8
caused by microorganisms, enzymes, vinegar flies, etc. Microorganisms grow,

multiply and thrive in presence of moisture and oxygen to degrade the harvested
onions. The bruises, caused during mechanical harvesting and handling, accelerate the
process and cause internal contamination of onions. Therefore, the harvested onions
should be marketed, processed or preserved as early as possible. To overcome this
problem, drying is prerequisite process for proper storage of onion. Drying enhancing
their shelf life, reduces weight and volume of foods substantially, in addition to it
minimizes packaging, storage and transportation costs. Dehydration of onion permit
transformation of raw onions into various products such as ketchup, chutney, sauce,
puree, dry soup mix etc. Dehydrated onions in the form of flakes and powder are in
extensive demand in several parts of the world i.e. UK, Japan, Russia, Germany,
Netherlands, Spain etc. Presently, the export of this commodity is increasing with an
annual growth rate of 7.64 per cent.
Viewing at the production, requirement of
processing and potential of market for export of onion, onion is selected for the
present research work. Viewing at the production, requirement of processing and
potential of market for export, onion is selected for the present research work.
The world population is more than 6 billion and about 20-25 percent people
does not have enough food to eat. It has been estimated that world as a whole more
than 20-25 percent food grains and 30-50 percent vegetable, fruits etc. are lost before
it reaches to the consumer (Patel et.al, 2013). To overcome spoilage problems of food
grains, vegetables and fruits, various preserving methods have been adopted and
renewable energy sources are the best for this purpose by which one can save the
energy for preservation and keep the product in its natural flavour.
Most of the agricultural products are dried at temperature range of 45-75 0C.
Solar energy can be used to heat air up to this range of temperature needed for drying
of most of the agricultural products, efficiently and economically without
compromising in quality of final product. Even in the cases where higher temperature
than those possible with simple solar air heaters is needed, preheating can be done and
this results in substantial saving of conventional fuels and assured good results. In
India, the average solar radiation available is 5 kW/m2/day for 250-300 days in year
with approximately 8-10 full sunshine hours.
There are many types and designs of solar dryers available for drying of
agricultural commodity. They mainly include natural convection cabinet dryer and
forced circulation solar dryer based on array of flat plate air heaters. In these types of
dryer, drying is not continuous and during night time moisture is absorbed by the
product. Due to this total fungal count and total microbes count increases. And also
solar energy is intermittent in nature and time dependent energy source. To overcome
this problem, electric heater can be used to make drying continuous and during night
times or off sunshine hours electric heater can be used for the drying purpose.
Dehumidifier absorbs the moisture present in the air and recirculates the exhaust air.
Thus the exhaust air can be utilized and minimizes the energy input.
Thus keeping in view of off seasonal utilization of onion, investigation was
carried out for drying of onion through hybrid drying system with the following
specific objectives:
1. To design and develop hybrid dryer based on solar and electrical energy.
2. To evaluate the performance of developed system for drying of agricultural
products.
3. To study the techno economic feasibility of the developed system.
10
Chapter 2
Review of Literature
Many scientists have worked on various aspects of solar drying technology
throughout the world. This chapter deals with the review of literature used for the
present study and the supporting references for methods used in research. This chapter
has been classified into three sections.
1. Solar drying technology
2. Onion drying
3. Techno economic evaluation
2.1 Solar Drying Technology
This section of reviews is subdivided into following heads:
1. Natural convection drying
2. Forced convection drying
3. Hybrid drying
4. Solar air collector with heat exchanger
5. Drying with and without recirculation of exhaust air
6. Desicant drying
2.1.1 Natural convection drying
Forson et al. (2007) designed a mixed-mode natural convection solar crop
dryer (MNCSCD) and used for drying cassava and other crops in an enclosed
structure. A prototype of the dryer was constructed to specification and used in
experimental drying tests. A batch of cassava 160 kg by mass, having an initial
moisture content of 67% was loaded in the dryer to reduce its moisture content to
17% wet basis. A drying time of 3036 h was assumed with an expected average solar
irradiance of 400 W/m2 and ambient conditions of 25 C and 77.8% relative humidity.
A minimum of 42.4 m2 of solar collection area was required for an expected drying
efficiency of 12.5%. Under average ambient conditions of 28.2 C and 72.1% relative
humidity with solar irradiance of 340.4 W/m2, a drying time of 35.5 h was realized.
The drying efficiency was evaluated as 12.3% when tested under full designed load
signifying that the design procedure proposed was sufficiently reliable.
11
Azad (2008) constructed solar drying system which consists of two parts viz.,
one solar collector having area of 1.2 m2 and other solar drying cabinet where grapes
were dried in cabinet. The moisture content of grapes was reduced from 81.7% to
36.7% within 5 days of drying.
Panwar et al. (2012) studied the art of solar drying technologies for various
types of driers available to suit the needs of end users. A comprehensive review of the
various designs, construction and operational principles of the wide variety of
practically-realized designs of solar dryer were reported. Some very recent
developments in solar drying technology were highlighted.
2.1.2 Forced convection drying
Yaldiz et al. (2001) conducted experiments on thin layer convective solar
drying of Sultana grapes and examined the effect of drying air temperature and
velocity on a thin layer drying of Sultana grapes. They found that these parameters
were dominating the drying rate.
Lahsasni et al. (2004) carried out experiments on thin layer convective solar
drying of pear peel with an indirect convective dryer. They found that the prickly pear
peel was sufficiently dried in the range of 32 to 36 C of ambient air temperature, 50
to 60 C of drying air temperature, 23 to 34 percent of RH, 0.0277 to 0.0833 m3/s of
drying air flow rate and 200 to 950 W/m2 of daily solar radiation. The main factor in
controlling the drying rate was found to be the drying air temperature.
Mohamed et al. (2005) conducted the experiments on convective solar drying
of citrus aurantium leaves in thin layer. An indirect forced convection solar dryer
consisting of a solar air collector, an auxiliary heater, a circulation fan and a drying
cabinet was used for the experiments.
Sarsavadia (2007) developed a solar-assisted forced convection dryer to study
the effect of airflow rate (2.43, 5.25, 8.09 kg/min), air temperature (55, 65, 75 C),
and fraction of air recycled (up to 90%) on the total energy requirement of drying of
onion slices. For drying of onion slices from initial moisture content of about 86%
(wet basis) to final moisture content of about 7% (wet basis), the energy required per
unit mass of water removed without using recirculation of air was found between
23.548 and 62.117 MJ/kg water. The savings in total energy due to fraction of air
12
recycled were determined at 65 and 75C air temperature for three different air flow
rates. The maximum saving in total energy up to 70.7% was achieved by recycling of
the exhaust air. The energy required per unit mass of water removed was found
between 12.040 and 38.777 MJ/kg water.
2.1.3 Hybrid drying
Amer (2010) designed and constructed a hybrid solar dryer using direct solar
energy and a heat exchanger. The drying chamber was located directly under the solar
collector. The dryer was operated during normal sunny days as a solar dryer and
during cloudy day as a hybrid solar dryer. Drying was also used at night with stored
heat energy in water which was collected during the time of sun-shine and with
electric heaters located at water tank. The efficiency of the solar dryer was raised by
recycling about 65% of the drying air in the solar dryer and exhausting a small
amount of it outside the dryer. Under Mid-European summer conditions it can raise
up the air temperature between 30 to 40C above the ambient temperature. The solar
dryer was tested for drying of ripe banana slices. The capacity of the dryer was to dry
about 30 kg of banana slices in 8 hours in sunny day from an initial moisture content
of 82% to the final moisture content of 18% (wb). In the same time it reduced to only
62% (wb) moisture content in open sun drying method. The colour, aroma and texture
of the solar dried products were better than the open sun drying products.
2.1.4 Solar air collector with heat exchanger
Metwally et al. (1997) investigated and analyzed the performance of
corrugated duct solar collector. The collector was constructed of corrugated surfaces
similar to those used for compact heat exchangers, with the air flowing normal to
corrugations. The collector was compared with other conventional designs
constructed and tested during the course of this work. The comparison revealed that,
the efficiency of the corrugated duct collector increased by a ratio of 15-43 percent
over that of the next best conventional design.
Bansal et al. (2007) investigated thermal performance of solar air heaters
consists of a porous textile absorber between two PVC foils. The efficiency of the
heaters depended strongly on the characteristics of the textile forming the absorber
and on the back insulation. For an incident solar radiation of 687 W/m2, a temperature
rise of 16-60C in the air flow through the solar collector at a rate of 800 m3/h was
achieved and thus yields an efficiency of nearly 71 per cent.
13
Franz Roman et al. (2007) had conducted investigation of solar roof collector
for preheating of air in Northern Thailand. Results showed that under average weather
conditions, solar air heaters can provide a temperature rise between 14C and 33C
during midday with entire roof serving as collector and air channel of 10 cm. Solar
collector can replace 19.6 percent of thermal energy demand during drying season.
Bigger collector and smaller air channel resulted in more useful heat.
Yadav and Bajpai (2011) experimentally investigated a solar powered air
heating system using one ended forty evacuated tubes for heating purpose. The
collector surface area is about 4.44 m2. The length and outer diameters of the glass
tube and absorber tube was 1500, 47 and 37 mm, respectively. In this experimental
setup, header (heat exchanger) is of square shape (190 mm x 190 mm). The length of
header was 1500 mm. The header consists of a hollow pipe in the center whose
diameter is 60 mm through which the air is made to flow. The experimental setup
contains approximately 108 liters of water. The study had been done for both up-flow
and down-flow of air in header in similar weather conditions, at different flow rates.
The obtained results show that the system is highly effective for the heating in this
region. Moreover, it has been observed that system is highly efficient for the
particular flow rate of air. It was also observed that downflow configuration is more
effective than up-flow condition at all flow rates due to lesser losses in down-flow.
The results show that temperature differences of upper head and lower head, both of
water and surface of pipes on the respective ends is lower in down-flow.
Tian and Zhao (2012) focuses on the latest developments and advances in
solar thermal applications, providing a review of solar collectors and thermal energy
storage systems. Various types of solar collectors are reviewed and discussed,
including both non-concentrating collectors (low temperature applications) and
concentrating collectors (high temperature applications). These are studied in terms of
optical optimization, heat loss reduction, heat recuperation enhancement and different
sun-tracking mechanisms. Various types of thermal energy storage systems are also
reviewed and discussed, including sensible heat storage, latent heat storage, chemical
storage and cascaded storage. They are studied in terms of design criteria, material
selection and different heat transfer enhancement technologies.
14
2.1.5 Drying with and without recirculation of exhaust air

Walker and Wilhelm (1995) tested feasibility of saving energy by recirculating
drying air in batch dehydrators. Peaches and apples received treatments of four
constant recirculation rates (0, 25, 50, and 75 per cent). The total energy use for
drying was reduced by 53 per cent when drying peaches and 46 per cent when drying
apples with 75 per cent recirculated air. Total drying times were almost the same for
all recirculation rates. The results also suggested that even higher fixed recirculation
rates could further optimize the drying system for greater energy savings.
Karathanos and Belessiotis (1997) performed drying experiments for various
products, such as Sultana grapes, currants, figs, plums and apricots and the drying
rates were found for various drying operations. Based on the findings of preliminary
runs, the drying cycle of this fully automated industrial dryer was designed to give
maximum quality of dried products with reasonable energy costs. A high air velocity
and medium temperature were utilized in the beginning of the process; while during
the second falling rate period, a medium air velocity, high air temperature and partial
recirculation of the air stream were used. The industrial drying operation resulted in a
product of superior quality.
Pelegrina et al. (1999) developed model which was applied to simulate the
effect of the air recirculation rate on the unit performance, in particular the time taken
and the heat requirements to attain given final water content. The simulation assumed
that part of the exhaust air was made to recycle and mix with the fresh air supply in
controlled proportions, such that the conditions of the gas mixture blown to the drier
could be set and the influence of the amount of air recycled on the drier performance
was calculated. It was shown that there was, for given working conditions, an optimal
mixing proportion which makes the energy delivered a minimum was due to the
influence of the recycle if the drying time was the independent variable.
Schoenau et al. (1999) in their experimental evaluation presented the energy
conservation potential by recirculating exhaust air in commercial heated-air batch hay
dryer. The design of the exhaust recirculation unit was such that only about 30 per
cent of the total exhaust air was recirculated through the heater inlet. Experimental
tests were conducted on the dryer with and without exhaust air recirculation.
Maximum energy savings of 27 per cent and 17 per cent were achieved with exhaust
air recirculation during fall and summer dryer operation, respectively.
15
Iguaz et al. (2001) developed model for simulating the effect of air recycling
on the performance and energy consumption of a concurrent rotary dryer for
vegetable wholesale by-products. Simulating results indicated that air recycling
provided energy savings of 2138.5 per cent and increased thermal efficiency in a
range of 28-63 per cent for the airflow rates studied. It was found that, for high
recirculation ratios, higher retention times were required to obtain the same final
product moisture content, resulting in a decreased dryer work capacity. Optimum
recirculation ratios were determined for different performance conditions.
Shawik et al. (2001) designed and developed a recirculatory tray dryer of 5
kg/batch using central air distribution system. The dryer was tested for blanched
potato chips at constant air flow rate of 1.5 m3/min and 65 0C temperature. For
removing moisture from 85.69 per cent (dry basis) to 9.89 per cent (dry basis) the
observed drying time was 3 hours. The heat utilization factor and thermal heat
efficiency was found to be 18.94 per cent and 22.16 per cent respectively.
Bains et al. (2003) studied behavior of apple puree drying in a forced-air
circulation cabinet drier with a cross-flow arrangement using a 3 2 factorial design
of experiments involving air temperature (70C and 94C), flow rate (20 and 41
m/s) and relative humidity (5 and 15 per cent) as main factors. The results showed
that all three factors influenced rate of drying with the higher temperature-higher air
velocity-lower relative humidity condition yielding the fastest drying rate, but also
adversely affecting the product quality. A two-stage drying operation involving a high
temperature, low humidity and high flow rate combination in the first stage followed
by a lower temperature finish drying was found to give a better product.
Jain et al. (2003) studied dehydration characteristics of spinach in air
recirculatory tray dryer with different degrees of air recirculation. It was found that
spinach did not have any constant rate of drying period and two clear cut falling rates
were observed. It was also observed that with decrease in 5oC drying air temperature,
electrical energy requirement reduced by 25 per cent without significantly affecting
total drying time. Whereas, for every 10 per cent increase in recirculation of air, the
electrical energy requirement decreased by 10 -15 per cent. The dehydrated spinach
could be stored safely for six months in the polythene bags.
16
2.1.6 Desiccant drying

Shanmugam and Natarajan (2005) designed and fabricated an indirect forced
convection and desiccant integrated solar dryer to investigate its performance under
the hot and humid climatic conditions of Chennai, India. The system consists of a flat
plate solar air collector, drying chamber and a desiccant unit. The desiccant unit is
designed to hold 75 kg of CaCl2-based solid desiccant consisting of 60% bentonite,
10% calcium chloride, 20% vermiculite and 10% cement. Drying experiments have
been performed for green peas at different air flow rate. The equilibrium moisture
content (Me) is reached in 14 h at an air flow rate of 0.03 kg/m2 s.
Yahya et al. (2004) studied the performance of a solar assisted
dehumidification system which was incorporated with two columns of desiccant beds
into a solar drying system. The main components of the a solar assisted
dehumidification system consist of a solar collector, an energy storage tank, an
auxiliary heater, two blowers, two columns of desiccant beds (adsorber columns), two
water-air heat exchanger, two water circulating pumps, a drying chamber and other
ancillary equipment. Silica gel was selected as the desiccant material due to low
temperature regeneration. The performance of this system has been investigated under
the meteorological condition of Malaysia. A computer program was developed in
MATLAB software to calculate the performance of the drying system. The
performance indices considered to calculate the performance of the drying system
were: Pick up efficiency (P), Solar Fraction (SF) and Coefficient of Performance
(COP). The results indicated that the maximum values of the pick up efficiency (P),
solar fraction (SF) and coefficient of performance (COP) was found 70%, 97% and
0.3, respectively with initial and final wet basis moisture content of Centella Asiatica
L 88% and 15%, respectively at an air velocity is 3.25 m/s.
Weintraub (2002) studied the importance of silica gels that how it varies in
performance in order to select the most cost-effective gel for a particular application. MH,
the hysteresis corrected buffering capacity of silica gel is the critical variable for assessing
silica gel efficiency. Calculating the correct quantity of silica gel allows for the costefficient selection of an appropriate amount of buffering material. If certain variables in
the calculation are unknown, such as leakage rate or external RH conditions, general
recommendations based on average display conditions had been provided, both for
temporary exhibitions and for permanent displays.
17
Misha et al. (2012) studied the low cost and low regeneration temperature of
desiccant material, and the optimization of desiccant application to produce more in
competitive energy. The use of heat to regenerate desiccant material in a drying
system had limitations in energy saving. However the use of low energy or free
available energy such as solar energy and waste heat from industrial processes for
regeneration of desiccant material will make the system more cost-effective. Several
works on the regenerative method of the desiccant system and its application in the
drying system for both solid and liquid desiccant materials had been studied.
Badgujar (2012) designed and tested forced convection with desiccant
integrated solar dryer. The main parts were: two flat plate solar air collectors, a drying
chamber, desiccant bed and a centrifugal blower. In the off sunshine hours, the dryer
was operated by circulating the air inside the drying chamber through the desiccant
bed by a reversible fan. The dryer is used to dry 20 kg of green peas and pineapple
slices. Drying experiments were conducted with and without the integration of
desiccant unit. The drying efficiency of the system varies between 48% and 59% and
the pick-up efficiency varies between 25% and 60%, respectively. Approximately in
all the drying experiments 68% of moisture is removed by air heated using solar
energy and the remainder by the desiccant. The inclusion of reflective mirror on the
desiccant bed makes faster regeneration of the desiccant material.
2.2 Onion drying
Rapusas et al. (1995) reported the bulk density and void fraction of onion
slices varied non-linearly with moisture content and linearly with slice thickness. For
dried onion flakes, the bulk density and void fraction varied non-linearly with slice
thickness and moisture content. The experimental results on bulk density and void
fraction of onion slices and of dried onion flakes were best explained by second order
polynomial models.
Elustondo et al. (1996) presented a simple model for dehydration of onion
pieces which accounted the change of interfacial surface area undergone by the
samples as drying proceeds, as well as the different water removal rates through
surfaces of different characteristics. It was assumed that the drying rate is linearly
proportional to the instantaneous water content. Numerical integration of the
instantaneous rates allowed the calculation of water removed during a given time and
18
conversely, the drying time required to reduce the water content to a given extent as a
function of the sample size. This information was relevant in order to design the
cutting technique, which would produce particles of adequate size for practical
drying.
Baroni and Hubinger (1998) investigated the drying of osmosed and fresh
onions. Onion slices (0.8 x 0.8 x 0.15 cm) soaked in sodium chloride solutions (10 per
cent and 15 per cent w/w) for 6 minutes at 22C were dried. The results showed that
those samples were socked in the NaCl solution had faster drying rates and higher
moisture diffusion coefficients. The drying time of onions could be reduced to less
than half by introducing an hour of osmotic dehydration in a salt solution.
Sarsavadia et al. (1998) developed a batch type dryer with an online weighing
mechanism for determining the thin layer behavior of onion. Thin layer drying rates
of brined onion were experimentally determined at four levels of drying air
temperature (50 -80C), four levels of airflow velocity (0.25-1.00 m/s) and three
levels of air relative humidity (range, 10-20 per cent). The Arrhenius-type model was
found more suitable for predicting drying rate constants.
Akbari and Patel (2002) developed a laboratory scale thin layer dryer for
conducting the experiments on dehydration. The effects of independent variables,
namely the drying air temperature, velocity of air and thickness of onion slice on the
drying time, sensory quality, rehydration characteristics and bacterial counts were
studied. It was recommended that the dehydration of onion should be carried out at 76
C drying temperature and 27 m/min velocity of air, keeping 3 mm thickness of slice
to get good quality of dehydrated flakes.
Sharma et al. (2005) developed a laboratory scale infrared-convective dryer.
The effects of process variables such as infrared power, drying air temperature and air
velocity on drying time, moisture diffusivity and re-hydration characteristics of onion
slices were studied. It was observed that the drying time reduced by as much as 2.25
times in infrared power range of 300 to 500 W, air temperatures 35 to 45 0C at
velocity 1.0 to 1.5 m/s.
Kothari et al. (2009) evaluate the performance of mixed mode type solar dryer
for drying onion flakes. During the experiments, no load and full load test were
19
conducted to find out the effectiveness to the system with or without recirculation of
exhaust air. The drying and thermal efficiencies and heat utilization factors were
recorded as 21%, 74% and 31% respectively, more compared to recirculation of
exhaust air test. The quality of dried onion flakes without recirculation of exhaust air
test was superior. The recirculation of exhaust air was founded feasible only with use
of desiccant material.
2.3 Techno Economic Evaluation
Vijayaraghavan et al. (1990) developed a solar papaya dryer of 4.3 m2 area
having 10 trays for accommodating products. They observed that solar drying yielded
a better quality papain as compared to conventional sun dried papaya. Solar drying
also resulted in 78.0-87.5 per cent savings in drying time.
Budin and Mihelic-Bogdanic (1994) conducted a study on three basic types of
fossil fueled drying process in comparison with solar energy drying system. The fossil
fuel saving for drying was observed ranging in between 14.6 to100 per cent
depending on the period of the year.
Jain et al. (2004) evaluated the techno-economics of forced convective solar
dryer for drying of groundnut, ginger and garlic in comparison to electrically operated
mechanical dryer. The benefit cost ratio for the solar dryer and mechanical dryer were
found to be 1.56 and 1.118 respectively.
Sevada and Rathore (2004) evaluated techno economics of solar tunnel dryer
installed in an industry for commercial application. The net present worth for
commercial solar tunnel dryer was Rs.78,74,500/- whereas for diesel fired electrical
dryer it was Rs. 36,52,500 /-. The benefit cost ratio for solar tunnel dryer and diesel
fired electrical dryer was observed as 7.08 and 2.56 respectively. The payback period
of solar tunnel dryer and diesel fired electrical dryer was 10 months and 2.9 years,
respectively.
20
Chapter-3
Materials and Methods
This chapter deals with material and methodology adopted for design,
development and performance evaluation of hybrid dryer based on solar and electrical
energy. The dryer was fabricated at workshop and tested at Department of Renewable
Energy Engineering, College of Technology and Engineering, Udaipur. The study
area falls between 2742 N latitude, 7533 E longitude and at an altitude of 582.5
m above mean sea level.
3.1 Design of Hybrid Dryer
Figure 3.1: Layout of hybrid dryer
21
3.2 Features of Hybrid Dryer

Some important features are:
An evacuated tube collector (ETC) is used for water heating.
Hot water is stored in storage tank from which air is heated through heat
exchanger unit.
Heated air is then supplied to drying chamber through pipes.
There is no provision for entrance of ambient air directly during day time.
A valve is provided to cut the supply when ambient air temperature is slightly
more than the temperature of air coming from heat exchanger.
The temperature at inlet of drying chamber is adjustable so that it can be

maintained at required amount of temperature.
At the bottom of drying chamber electric heater is provided to heat the

incoming air as per the required amount of temperature.
If temperature of incoming hot air is 50C and the required temperature is

70C, then it will add up and drying chamber will get 70C temperature, so
that constant drying can take place.
Blower is provided to flow the air into the chamber.
Above the electric heater, three trays are placed. Approx. 20 kg. of onion is
used for drying in the dryer.
The exit air from the drying chamber will not go into the atmosphere. It is
passed through the bed of silica gel for dehumidification, so that moisture will
be absorbed.
Then the air is recirculated into the drying chamber so that the energy input is
minimized.
22
3.3 Fabrication and Dimensional Features of Hybrid Dryer
Plate 3.1 Drying chamber view
Plate 3.2 Heat exchanger cum storage tank view
23
Table 3.1 Dimensions of hybrid dryer

S.
Length
Width
Height
(m)
(m)
(m)
0.70
0.50
1.00
Particulars
No.
Drying chamber
1.
Insulation 0.04 m thick
2.
Heat exchanger cum storage tank
0.50
0.50
0.50
3.
Copper coil
1.52
0.019 diameter
4.
Temperature controller unit
0.20
0.38
0.34
5.
Tray
0.60
0.45
0.05
6.
Stand for heat exchanger unit
0.55
0.55
1.23
3.4 Main Components of Developed System

1. Solar collector ( ETC)
2. Heat exchanger cum storage tank
3. Blower
4. Electric heater
5. Drying chamber
6. Dehumidifier
7. Automatic temperature controller
3.4.1 Description
3.4.1.1 Solar collector (ETC):
Evacuated tube collector is an equipment to the heat water by using solar
energy. In this type collector through natural process solar energy is absorbed by the
black coating on the outside of the inner tube & the same is transferred to the water
inside the tube. Water on the upper side of the vaccum tube becomes hot & lighter in
weight, so it starts rising up into the tank as per the thermosyphon principle. At the
same time, heavier cold water from the tank comes downward from lower side of the
24
tube. This cycle repeats till all the water is heated so long as solar radiation is
available. Hot water is collected into the tank and through a pipe is fed to the heat
exchanger cum storage tank. Again cold water is return back into the collector.
Plate 3.3 Evacuated tube collector

3.4.1.2 Heat exchanger cum storage tank
A storage tank is made up of GI sheet having insulation 4 cm thick thermocol
insulation. A copper tube is inserted into the tank in which hot air is circulated. Inlet
of copper tube is connected with a pipe which is connected to a blower and outlet is
connected to the drying chamber which provides hot air. A gate is provided to open
the tank. In this tank hot water is collected through ETC. Due to density difference
cold water is set at bottom and outlet is provided at bottom which is connected
through ETC and thus water is circulated. Due to hot water coil placed in the tank gets
heated and inside the coil heated air circulated. This hot air is passed into the drying
chamber. At the top, sensor is placed to measure the temperature of hot water.
25
Plate 3.4 Heat exchanger cum storage tank

3.4.1.3 Electric heater
A fin type electric heater of 1 KW capacity is placed at the bottom of the
drying chamber which is used when required amount of temperature is not achieved
from solar energy then alternate source of electrical energy is provided. A temperature
controller is provided with the heater as when the temperature of heater rises above a
set limit then it automatically cut off the supply of heat, so that constant temperature
can be maintained into the drying chamber.
Plate 3.5 Electric heater

3.4.1.4 Blower
A blower of is placed before the heat exchanger unit. Drying chamber outlet is
connected with exhaust air pipe which is connected through blower to the heat
exchanger unit. The mass flow rate may be adjusted in the blower.
26
Plate 3.6 Blower

3.4.1.5 Drying chamber
Drying chamber is the main component of the system. It is made up of GI
sheet. In this chamber trays are provided on which product, which is to be dried is
placed. Temperature controller is provided to adjust the heat input. Temperature
sensor is provided above the each tray to measure the temperature of each tray.
Plate 3.7 Drying chamber
27
3.4.1.6 Automatic temperature controller and display unit

This unit consists of temperature controller and temperature display unit. It
shows the temperature of hot water stored in tank and temperature of hot air coming
through heat exchanger.
Plate 3.8 Automatic temperature controller and display unit

3.4.1.7 Energy meter
It shows the total electrical energy consumed by the system in kWh from the
electric heater, blower and the temperature controller.
Plate 3.9 Energy Meter
28
29
Plate 3.10 Hybrid dryer

29
Table 3.2 Design considerations of hybrid dryer

S.No
Parameters
Specifications
1.
Capacity (kg)
20 kg fresh onion flakes
Initial moisture content(mi)
87 % (w.b.)
Final moisture content (mf)
7 % (w.b.)
Loading rate (LR)
5 kg / m2
Solar insolation (It)
Ambient temperature (Ta)
30 C
Drying temperature (Td)
60 C
Ambient relative humidity (RH)
50 %
Drying time (td)
8h
540 W/m2 hr (May month )
3.5 Design Procedure

3.5.1 Design of drying chamber
The following design parameters were considered for the design of hybrid
drying system for drying of fresh onion.
1. Mass of water to be removed during drying, Mw (kg)
Mw
mi m f
100 m f
Where,
mi = Initial moisture content, (% w.b.)
m f = Final moisture content, (% w.b.)
W = Weight of product, (kg)
2. Total energy required, Q (kJ)
Qreq 1.1 (W C p (Td Ta ) (M w )
Where,
W = Weight of product, kg
Cp = Specific heat of water, kJ /kg C
30
Td = Drying temperature, C
Ta = Ambient temperature, C
Mw = Mass of water to be removed during drying, kg
= Latent heat of vaporization, kJ/kg
3. Mass of air required for drying, Ma (kg/h)
Ma
Mw
(H e H d ) t
Where
Mw = Mass of water to be removed, kg
Hd = Humidity ratio of drying air, kg of water per kg of dry air
He = Humidity ratio of exist air, kg of water per kg of dry air
t = Drying time, h
4. Volumetric air flow rate, Va (m3/h)
Va M a Vh
Where
Ma= Mass flow rate of drying air, kg/hr.
Vh = Humid Volume (m3/kg) taken from psychometric chart, m3/kg
5. Volume of product to be dried, V (m3)
Where
W= weight of product to be dried, kg
= bulk density of product, kg/m3

6. Dimensions of drying chamber and tray
Drying area AD =
Vp
T dl
Where
AD = Drying area
Tdl = thickness of drying layer, m
31
7. No. of trays, (no.)
8. Exhaust fan power, Fp (W)
P ( a e ) g H
Where
Fp= Exhaust fan power (W)
Va = Volumetric air flow rate (m3/h)
P = Pressure difference between inlet and exist of dryer, (Pa)
a and e= Density of air at inlet and exit of dryer, (kg/ m3)
g = Acceleration due to gravity, (m/s2)
b = Efficiency of blower (%)
H = Elevation difference between inlet and exit of dryer, (m)
9. Thickness of insulation of dryer cabinet

The amount of heat loss by the dryer surfaces was reduced by providing an
appropriate insulation of high density thermocol. The thickness of insulation was
found out by heat balance as follow
The surface thermal resistance, R DS
1
hDS
Thermal resistance of insulation, Rin
t insulation
( C m2 W-1)
kinsulation
tinsulation Rinsulation k insulation

Where,
tinsulation = Thickness of insulation, m
kinsulation = Thermal conductivity of insulating material, W/ m C
The heat flow from dryer surface and the ambient can be expressed as
Heat flow, Watts =
(Td Ta)
(Ts Ta)
(Rin RDS)
RDS
Where, Td = Drying temperature, C

32
Ta = Ambient air temperature, C

RDS = Thermal resistance of dryer surface, C m2 W-1
Ts = Temperature of drying chamber after insulation, C
Thickness of insulation of dryer surface can be expressed as
3.5.2 Design of heat exchanger
1. Heat content of hot water, (kJ)
Qwater
Qreq
HE
Where, Qreq = Total energy required for drying of onion, kJ

HE= Thermal efficiency of heat exchanger, %
2. Log mean temperature difference (LMTD) of heat exchanger
LMTDconunter
(Thi Tco ) (Tho Tci )

(T T )
ln hi co
(Tho Tci )
Where, Thi = Temperature of hot water at heat exchanger inlet, C

Tho = Temperature of hot water at heat exchanger outlet, C
Tci = Temperature of air inlet, C
Tco = Temperature of air out, C
But this value only valid for counter flow heat exchanger whereas in this case it was
proposed to use cross flow heat exchanger. The LMTD for cross flow heat exchanger
was calculated as
LMTDcross = F LMTDcounter
Where,
F = correction factor for cross flow heat exchanger which is computed by the chart of
correction factor for one fluid mixed and other fluid unmixed condition.
Effectiveness (P) of heat exchanger was as calculated as

P=
(Tco Tci )
(Thi Tci )
33
And capacity ratio was calculated as
(Thi Tho )
(Tco Tci )
3. Heat transfer area required

The aluminum fins are used for heat transfer and heat transfer area of heat
exchanger was calculated as
Q = U A LMTDcross
Where,
Q = Heat transfer per hour, kJ/h.
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient of aluminum, kJ/m2 C
4. Water flow rate required
The water flow rate required for providing sufficient heat across heat
exchanger was computed as
Q m c p (Thi Tho )
Where,
m = Mass of water to be flow through heat exchanger, kg
Cp = Specific heat of hot water, kJ/ kg C
Thi = Temperature of hot water at inlet of heat exchanger, C
Tho = Temperature of hot water at outlet of heat exchanger, C
3.5.3 Raw material
In the present study onions which were available in market was used in this
study.
The onions were stored in a gunny bag and were aerated from time to time.
A) Sample preparation
For each batch of 20 kg fresh onion flakes approx. were used. The onion bulbs
were peeled and washed under tap water before each experiment, to remove dirt, dust
and surface adherings. The onions bulbs were sliced with slicer and then crushed with
hand to make flakes.
34
B) Moisture content
The initial moisture content of raw onion flakes were determined by oven
drying method.
An amount equal to 100 g fresh onion slices were placed in
thoroughly washed, dried and pre-weighed moisture boxes. The initial weight of each
sample was recorded. The moisture boxes were put in the oven having temperature of
pre-set at 105 C. Samples were dried for 24 hours. The samples were then taken out
of oven and cooled in the desiccator and weighed using an electronic balance having
capacity 600 g and least count of 0.001 g. Initial and bone dried weights were used to
calculate the initial moisture content. The moisture content 87 per cent is taken for
calculations.
3.6 Performance Evaluation of Solar Collector
The performance of solar collector was evaluated in terms of collector
efficiency. The hourly collector efficiency was calculated by following formula for
each day. Then, the collector efficiency during without exhaust air recirculation tests
and with exhaust air recirculation tests was averaged separately and plotted with
respect to time.
mat C a (Tco Ta )
100
I 0.86 A
Where,
= Hourly collector efficiency, %

c
mat = mass flow rate, kg/h
Ca = Specific heat of air, kcal / kg C
Tco = Collector outlet temperature, C
It = Solar radiation, kW/m2/day
Ac = Area of collector, m2
35
3.7 Performance Evaluation of Drying Unit

The performance of drying unit was evaluated in terms of moisture content
variation, drying rate, drying efficiency, heat utilization factor etc. For this purpose,
the hourly reductions in weight of representative sample were recorded. As, it was not
possible to take weight of whole sample; the 200 g sample was taken as representative
sample and the performance was calculated.
A) Moisture content
Moisture content of onion flakes during experiment at hourly time intervals
were determined by calculating mass of dry matter of flakes. Moisture contents (g
water/ g dry matter) at various times were calculated by the formula:
MC( d.b.)
W DM
DM
Where,
W = Weight of the sample at time , g
DM = dry matter content of the sample, g
Wd % 100 - M i (w.b.)
Wd Initial mass of sample
Wd %
100
B) Drying rate
The moisture content data in each of experiments were analyzed to determine
the moisture lost by sample of onion flakes in a known time interval. The drying rate
was expressed as g water/g dry matter- h. The drying rate can be calculated as DR
WML
Time int erval DM
Where,
WML = Initial weight of sample weight after time, g.
DM = Dry matter
C) Hourly drying efficiency
The drying efficiency was calculated by the following formula
36
di
mw
100
I 0.86 A
Where,
mw = mass of water evaporated per hour, kg
= Latent heat of vaporization, kcal / kg
It = Solar insolation, kWh/m2/day
A = Total collector area, m2
D) Heat utilization factor
The performance evaluation of the recirculatory dryer was assessed using the
heat utilization factor (H.U.F) (Das et al., 2001). HUF is the ratio of heat utilized to
heat supplied. The data acquired from experiment was used for determining the heat
utilization factor (H.U.F.). It can be calculated by following formula
HUF
Tdi Tdo
Td i Ta
Where,
Tdi = Dryer inlet temperature, C
Tdo = Dryer outlet temperature, C
3.8 Overall Performance of Hybrid Dryer
The overall performance of the system was evaluated in terms of overall
thermal efficiency and daily drying efficiency.
A)
i.
Overall thermal efficiency

For without recirculation
th
m a t C a (Tdo Ta )
I 0.86 A
Where,
th= Thermal collector efficiency, %
mat = mass flow rate, Kg/h
Ca = Specific heat of air, kcal/kg C
A = Total area of collector, m2
37
ii.
For with recirculation
th
m a t C a (Tdo Tm )
I 0.86 A
Where,
th = Thermal collector efficiency, %
mat = mass flow rate, Kg/hr
Ca = Specific heat of air, kcal/kg C
Tm = Mean temperature at collector inlet after mixing recirculated air
with ambient air, C
A = Total area of collector, m2
B) Exhaust air recirculation ratio
The exhaust air recirculation ratio can be determined by the following
equation
Vr
Vi Vr
Where,
Vr = volume of air recirculated, m3
Vi = volume of air feed, m3
C) Daily drying efficiency
t 7
mev (t )
dd
t 1
t 7
100
A 0.86 I (t )
t 1
Where,
mev (t)
= Total mass of water evaporated per day, kg
= Latent heat of vaporization, kcal / kg

A
= Total collector area, m2
38
D) Dehydration ratio and dry matter recovery

Dry matter recovery is represented in percent. It may define as the ratio of
final weight of dried onion flakes to the initial weight of fresh onion flakes and can be
calculated as follows.
Dry matter recovery (%) =
weight of dried sample

100
weight of fresh sample
3.9 Instruments Used

Instruments required for evaluating performance of hybrid dryer are as follows
1. Moisture analyser
2. Temperature data logger
3. Digital solarimeter
4. Digital hygrometer
5. Solar data logger
6. Digital anemometer
7. Colorimeter
8. Electronic weighing balance
9. Infra red thermometer
3.9.1 Digital solarimeter
The digital solarimeter manufactured by M/s. Surya Solar Systems,
Ahmedabad was used to measure the solar insolation falling on horizontal surface.
The instrument was operated on 9 V DC battery and gives reading in W/m2.
3.9.2 Digital anemometer
The digital anemometer manufactured by M/s. Lutron Instruments, Taiwn was
used to measure the air velocity. The instrument can measure air velocity from 0.1 to
40 m/s.
3.9.3 Digital thermometer
The digital thermometer manufactured by M/s. Mextech Instruments was used
to measure the temperature at various points in dryer. The range of instrument was
from -50 to + 300 0C.
39
3.9.4 Digital hygrometer

The digital hygrometer manufactured by M/s. Mextech Instruments was used
to measure the relative humidity of air.
3.9.5 Electronic weighing balance
Weight measurement was done by using electronic balance (Make- Adair Dutt
and Co. Pvt. Ltd.) the capacity of balance was 600 g.
3.9.6 Moisture analyzer
Moisture analyzer was used to detect or measure the moisture content of the
product. The main feature of this machine is that it consumes lesser time compared to
oven dry method.
3.10 Techno Economics of Hybrid Dryer
Different economic indicators were used for economic analysis of solar drying
system under this study. The following parameters were considered to carry out cost
economics of drying system.
1. The life of hybrid dryer is assumed as 10 years (n).
2. The discount rate is assumed to be 8 %, (i)
3. The Annual repair and maintenance cost is 3 % of cost.
4. The cost of fresh onion is Rs. 6 / kg during season.
5. The cost of dried onion flakes is Rs. 250 / kg.
6. One labour is required per day and labour charge is Rs. 100 per day.
7. The dryer can be operated 300 days in a year.
8. The cost of system is Rs.1, 00,000.
9. The total material cost for drying of onion flakes is Rs.77, 850 per year. It
includes the cost from purchase of raw material to the packaging of dried
onion flakes.
3.10.1 Net present worth
The net preset worth can be computed by subtracting the total discounted
present worth of the cost stream from that of the benefit stream.
t=n
NPW =
t =1
Bt - Ct
(1 + i) t
40
Where, Ct = Cost in each year

Bt = Benefit in each year
t = 1, 2, 3................n
i = Discount rate (%)
3.10.2 Benefit cost ratio
This is the ratio obtained when the present worth of the benefit stream is
divided by the present worth of the cost stream. The mathematical benefit-cost ratio
can be expressed as:

t = 1, 2, 3................n
i = Discount rate, %
3.10.3 Payback period
The pay back period is the length of time from the beginning of the project
until the net value of the incremental production stream reaches the total amount of
the capital investment. It shows the length of time between cumulative net cash
outflow recovered in the form of yearly net cash inflow.
3.10.4. Internal rate of return (IRR)
Another way of using the internal cash flow for measuring the worth of a
project is to find the discount rate that makes the net present worth to the incremental
cash flow equal to zero. This discount rate is called the internal rate of return.
t= n
IRR =
t=1
(1 + i )

t = 1, 2, 3................n
i = Discount rate, (%)
41
Plate 3.11 : Instruments used
Moisture Analyser
Hot Wire Anemometer
Digital Moisture Meter
Digital Solarimeter
Digital Temperature controller
Temperature monitor
42
Chapter 4
Result and Discussion
Hybrid dryer based on solar and electricity was developed at Department of
Renewable Energy Engineering, College of Technology and Engineering, Udaipur.
The experimental data during no load and full load testing along with input
environmental parameters such as solar radiation, ambient temperature and ambient
relative humidity were recorded. The recorded data were analyzed to evaluate the
technical and economics performance.
The techno-economical analysis of the system was evaluated in terms of net
present worth, benefit cost ratio, payback period and internal rate of return. This
chapter deals with the result of the technical and economical feasibility of hybrid
drying system for drying of onion flakes.
4.1 Performance Curves for Hybrid Dryer
The no load performance of hybrid dryer was evaluated in two conditions as
without electric heater and with electric heater.
4.1.1 No load performance
A) Without electric heater
The no load test was carried out to know the trend of various operating
parameters with respect to time. The temperature profile at various positions in dryer
is presented in fig 4.1. It was observed that the insolation was increased up to 13.00 h
and then decreases. Similarly the ambient temperature increased with the day time
and slightly decreases in late hours.
The temperature of air along the collector length was increased. The
temperature at collector outlet and dryer outlet was increased up to 13.00 hours and
then decreased. In initial hours of operation there was temperature drop across hot
water storage, but later on there was increase in air temperature at hot water outlet.
During the no load there was no product in drying unit. This resulted in increase in
hot water outlet temperature. The relative humidity of dryer outlet air was less than
that of inlet air.
43
The maximum temperature attained at end of evacuated tube collector was in

between 55 to 60C at 14.00 h, when the radiation was also high i.e. 1000 W/m2.
From Fig. 4.1 it can be inferred that the temperature rise is the function of solar
radiation, ambient temperature and time dependent.
Fig 4.1 Performance curve for no load without electric heater

B) With electric heater
The variation of operating parameters during no load with electric heater was
represented in Fig. 4.2. The trend of various parameters over time during no load with
electric heater was same as that of without heater. The temperature of hot air was set
at 60C. The electricity consumption was approximately 8 units in 10 h.
4.1.2 Full load performance
The full load testing is presented in Fig. 4.3. The temperature of drying
chamber was set at 60C. Electric heater was provided to supply heat when
temperature falls below 60C.It was observed that during the full load the maximum
temperature at ambient was 40.2C. The maximum solar radiation was 1020 W/m2 at
13.00 hrs. The maximum hot water inlet temperature was 62 C. The temperature of
drying chamber inlet and all of the three trays varies between 60 to 65 C during the
day.
44
Fig4.2 Performance curve for no load with electric heater

4.1.3 Variation in moisture content
Average moisture content (w.b.) during full load test is presented in Fig. 4.4.
Within 10 hours, the onion flakes were dried from moisture content of 87 % to 10 %
(w.b). At initially, moisture evaporates rapidly and then it is removed slowly.
4.1.4 Variation in drying rate with respect to time
The drying rate for the onion flakes was estimated from the difference
in its moisture content in a given time interval and expressed as gram water
evaporated per hour. It has been observed that drying rate of onion flakes was
decreased as moisture content is decreases. Drying rate of onion flakes varies between
0.65 to 2.14 as shown in fig. 4.5.
45
Fig 4.3 Performance curve for full load testing
Fig 4.4 Variation in moisture content with respect to time
46
Fig 4.5 Variation in drying rate with respect to time

4.1.5 Variation in electricity consumption
Electricity consumption during full load testing was 8 kWh. Electricity
consumption is higher in starting as compared to during 13:00 h. at initial hours water
temperature in heat exchanger cum storage unit is low, due to this heat requirements
are met through electric heater. It is clearly shown in the graph that as sunshine
increases, energy supply through electric heater decreases.
Fig 4.6 Variation in hourly electricity consumption with respect to time
47
Plate 4.1 Onion flakes before drying
Plate 4.2 Onion flakes after drying
48
4.2 Techno Economics of Hybrid Dryer

The techno economics were carried out on the basis of assumptions made in
section 3.10. The various economic indicators are presented in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Economic indicator for Hybrid dryer
Sr. No.
Economic indicator
Value
Net present worth
Rs. 3,48,270.71
B/C ratio
1.6
Payback period
1 year 8 months
IRR %
71.83
The cost benefit ratio was found to be 1.6 with a payback period of 1 year 8
months. It can be inferred that the developed dryer is technically as well as
economically feasible. The higher percentage of the internal rate i.e.71.83 per
cent of return indicated the good economical return of the invest ment.
49
Chapter 5
Summary and Conclusions
Most of the agricultural products are dried at temperature range of 45-75 C.
Solar energy can be used to generate hot air up to this range of temperature needed for
drying of most of the agricultural products, efficiently and economically without
compromising in quality of final product. Even in the cases where continuous drying
is required without compromising in the quality of product, hybrid dryer can be used.
In this we can use alternate source of energy (electricity). Heat storage capacity of
water is very high, so hot water is stored in the heat exchanger cum storage tank to
generate hot air continuously. This results in substantial saving of conventional fuels
and assured good results.
There are many types and designs of solar dryers available for drying of
agricultural commodity. They mainly include natural convection cabinet dryer and
forced circulation solar dryer based on array of flat plate air heaters. In these types of
dryer, drying is not continuous and during night time moisture is absorbed by the
product. Due to this total fungal count and total microbes count increases. These
drawbacks of existing dryers stimulated to design and develop the hybrid solar drying
system.
5.1 Summary
Hybrid dryer based on solar and electricity was developed at Department of
Renewable Energy Engineering, College of Technology and Engineering, Udaipur.
The study area falls between 24 38 N latitude, 73 43 E longitude and at an
altitude of 582.5 m above mean sea level.
The dryer is having capacity to dry 20 kg. of onion in 10 hrs. Evacuated tube
solar collector having area of 1.088 m2 is used. The dimensions of heat exchanger
cum heat storage unit are (0.50 0.50 0.50) m. The drying chamber consists of three
trays for drying and two for holding dehumidifier. Dimensions of drying chamber are
(0.70 x0.5x1.0) m and drying tray dimensions are (0.60 0.45 0.05) m. For
circulation of air 0.14 hp blower is used and 2 kW electric heaters is used to supply
electricity as required. It was set through a controller to manage the temperature
50
inside the drying chamber at 60 C as it temperature limit reached electric heater

automatically shuts down. An electric meter was provided to measure the electricity
consumptions mounted on drying chamber.
The tests were conducted to know the performance of developed dryer from
12th to 31st of May, 2013 at Experiential Learning Lab, Department of Renewable
Energy Engineering, CTAE, Udaipur. The tests were conducted from 8.00 to 18.00
hours and the hourly data was recorded. The no load test was carried out to know the
trend of various operating parameters with respect to time The full load testing of
dryer was conducted for evaluating the performance in actual loaded condition. The
performance of hybrid dryer was evaluated in two conditions as without electric
heater and with electric heater for no load. For full load testing partial recirculation of
dry air with electric heater was done.
Within 10 hours Onion flakes were dried from moisture content of 87.61%
to8.31%. A relative study for power consumption was done for fully electric mode
and hybrid mode .The power saved with hybrid mode was 39.44 %. The total cost of
solar hybrid dryer including operating cost was worked out to be Rs.3, 48,270/- with
payback period of 1.8 months, which is very less than other types of forced
convection dryers.
5.2 Conclusions
For drying of 20 kg onion flakes, a hybrid drying system based on solar and
electrical energy was designed.
Onion flakes were dried within 10 h. from the moisture content of 87% (w.b.)
to 10.00% (w.b.).
Use of electric heater and temperature controller to control the drying chamber
temperature, facilitates effective drying
During the no load testing, the maximum temperature of hot was in heat
exchanger unit was 62C
The drying rate of onion flakes varies 2.14 to 0.65 g water evaporated /g of
dry matter / h
51
The net present worth of the design was calculated as Rs. 3,48,270.71
Pay back period and B/C ratio was found to be 1 year 8 months and 1.6.
The higher percentage of the internal rate i.e.71 per cent of return
indicated the good economical return of the invest ment.
Onion has large cost variation so dried onion flakes are not affected by
production rate & available throughout the year.
52
Suggestions for Future Work

1. Instead of using evacuated tube type solar collector (ETC), evacuated tube
heat pipe (ETHP) can be used for better results.
2. Other than silica gel different type of desiccants can be used to minimize input
cost.
3. If provision of injection of heating coil into the storage tank of ETC is made,
then temperature gradient for heat exchanger can be increased.
4. The long term testing of hybrid dryer should be done in order to know the
seasonal performance.
5. The dryer can be tried for drying of other products also.
53

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DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF HYBRID DRYER

BASED ON SOLAR AND ELECTRICAL ENERGY

lkSj ,oa fo|qr tkZ ij vk/kkfjr ladj 'kq"dd dh

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF HYBRID DRYER

lkSj ,oa fo|qr tkZ ij vk/kkfjr ladj 'kq"dd dh

Abbreviations and Symbols

Review and Literature

Materials and Methods

Result and Discussion

Summary and Conclusions

Suggestion for Future Work

Dimensions of hybrid dryer

Design considerations of hybrid dryer

Economic indicator for hybrid dryer

Leading onion producing states in India

Layout of hybrid dryer

Performance curve for no load without electric heater

Performance curve for no load with electric heater

Performance curve for full load testing

Variation in moisture content with respect to time

Variation in drying rate with respect to time

Variation in hourly electricity consumption with respect to time

Drying chamber view

Heat exchanger cum Storage tank view

Evacuated tube collector

Heat exchanger cum storage tank

Automatic temperature controller and display unit

Hybrid drying system

Onion flakes before drying

Onion flakes after drying

ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

- Benefit cost ratio

- Calorie per square centimeter per day

- College of Technology and Engineering

- Cubic meter per day

- Drying rate, g of water evaporated. / g of dry matter hr

- Heat utilization factor

- Internal rate of returns

- Solar insolation, kcal /h m2

- Kilo calorie per square meter per hour

- Kilogram per square meter

- Kilogram per square centimeter

- Kilo watt per square meter

- Kilo watt hour per square meter per year

- Meter per second

- Net present worth

- Pay back period

- Rupees per cubic meter

- Sardar Patel Renewable Energy Research Institute

- Weight of product, kg.

- Watts per square meter

- Latent heat of vaporization

Collector area required (m2)

Drying area (m2)

Specific heat of water (kcal / kg C)

Specific heat of air (kcal / kg C)

Humidity ratio of ambient air (kg of water vapour per kg of dry

Humidity ratio of exhaust air (kg of water vapour per kg of dry

Final moisture content (%)

Initial moisture content (%)

Total energy required (kcal)

Energy required per hour (kcal/h)

Solar insolation (W/m2)

Temperature of hot water outlet (C)