Band 30 (1994), S.

161-185

ZEITSCHRIFT FR

GLETSCHERKUNDE
UND GLAZIALGEOLOGIE
1995 by Universittsverlag Wagner, Innsbruck

MEASUREMENT AND SIMULATION OF HIGH ALPINE WATER

BALANCE COMPONENTS IN THE LINTH-LIMMERN HEAD
WATERSHED (NORTH-EASTERN SWITZERLAND)
By L. N. BRAUN, M. AELLEN, M. FUNK, R. HOCK, M. B. ROHRER and U. STEINEGGER (
Zrich), G. KAPPENBERGER (Locarno Monti) and H. MLLER-LEMANS (Sargans)
ABSTRACT

This paper summarizes the major findings on variations of the individual components of the water
balance in the head watershed of the Linth River, situated in the high alpine region of Glarus, north-eastern Switzerland, where direct measurements have been available since the beginning of this century. In the
current discussion of possible climate changes, the natural variability of the water balance components may
help to put today's research results in perspective. In a first step, the individual components of basin
precipitation, snow accumulation, glacier mass balance and discharge are assessed. Special emphasis is
placed on a comprehensive interpretation of the results. In a second step, a conceptual precipitation-runoff
model running on a daily time step is applied. The required data input are daily values of precipitation and
air temperature as measured at standard meteorological stations, which facilitates the transfer of this modelling approach to other mountainous regions where data are scarce. The results obtained using the various
methods compare favourably with one another. It can be concluded that the high alpine Linth-Limmern region is well suited for the assessment of the water balance components thanks to the long-term series of
available data. It is recommended to continue the various measurement programmes being conducted by
federal agencies, hydro-power companies and private individuals, and to engage in further detailed investigations concerning runoff processes and pathways.

INTRODUCTION
The highly complex relationships between the alpine water balance components and climate have been studied at various time and space scales. Traditionally, the individual components: precipitation, glacier mass changes and runoff have been examined by direct
measurements, and values on evaporation are derived as a residual. A comprehensive, classical analysis including the year-to-year variation was given by Ltschg-Loetscher (1944,
1945, 1949) for the Swiss Alps. The variation of the water balance components over more that
50 years was investigated for the Massa basin (Aletsch Glaciers) by Aellen and Funk (1990).
An assessment of the mean annual water balance components for the whole of Switzerland is
given by Schdler (1985), and for the entire Alps by Baumgartner et al. (1983). In the nonglacierized basin of Wgital situated in north-eastern Switzerland some 20 km north of the
Linth-Limmern basin which is further described below, the summer and winter balance
components were derived by Lepori (1993) for the years 1943-1988.
The link between glacier mass balance and climate has received wide attention in the
literature, on the global scale by Ohmura et al. (1992) for example, and with respect to climate change by Kuhn (1988), Reynaud (1988), and Oerlemans (1989), among others. A
thorough investigation of the variations in climate and glacier water resources of the Alps

162

L. N. Braun et al.

since the middle of last century is provided by Chen (1991). A recent overview of existing
methods in the assessment of snow and glaciers as a water balance and river flow component is given by Gurnell (1990). Modelling aspects of the hydrological cycle in connection
with climate change were treated by Rind et al. (1992) for non-alpine and by Beniston (1994)
for alpine regions.
If one is interested in the short-term variation of the water balance components of alpine regions, detailed field investigations are usually needed. An example of such a study is
given by Bernath (1991) for the Rhone Glacier basin at Gletsch, where 4 hydrological years
were monitored and analyzed. In particular, direct measurements of evaporation were done
over snow and bare ground based on the determination of the energy balance. For the same
time period, Funk (1985) provided data on the spatial and temporal variation of the mass
balance on Rhone Glacier based on direct measurements and the calculation of the energy
balance over the whole glacier using a digital terrain model. The monitoring of the diurnal
fluctuation of discharge from glacierized basins allows one to infer the dominant runoff
processes, which is a prerequisite for the simulation of discharge at high temporal
resolution. An example of a physically-based approach is given by Oerter et al. (1981) and
Moser et al. (1986), where the meltwater input was determined based on a distributed
energy balance method based on Escher-Vetter (1980). Runoff processes governed by the
snow cover and glaciers are studied in depth by Colbeck (1977) and Rthlisberger and Lang
(1987). If one is interested in daily discharge values, conceptual precipitation-runoff models
have been used successfully in a variety of basins and climatic conditions. Further details
concerning this approach are discussed below. An example of a parametric approach taking
into account the feedback mechanism between snow cover and glacier melt is given by
Ferguson (1985). An overview of the various approaches used in the forecasting of discharge from alpine basins was presented by Lang (1986).

METHODOLOGY ADOPTED HERE

In a first step, the individual components of the water balance (basin precipitation, snow
storage, glacier mass balance and discharge) are assessed. Winter precipitation is estimated
primarily by measurements of the snow-water equivalent as observed in the vicinity of the
storage precipitation gauges, and the summer values as measured by the storage gauges.
Great care is taken to eliminate any inhomogeneity in the data series. Correction procedures
analogous to those for the Hellmann gauge (Sevruk 1985) are used for storage gauge summer
precipitation. Systematic precipitation patterns are derived, and precipitation maps are drawn
manually based on these precipitation patterns and topographic information. Glacier mass
balance measurements as performed in the basin are analyzed and compared to the long-term
series of Aletsch and Rhone Glaciers, and a "reference" glacier mass balance series
applicable for the Swiss Alps is derived (see Miller-Lemans et al., this issue). Longterm
measurements of discharge and the glacier mass balance series of Limmern/Plattalva are then
used to check basin precipitation as derived using the methodology described above.
Emphasis is placed on a comprehensive interpretation of all available data.
In a second step, the attempt is made to assess the dynamic behaviour of the water balance components with the aid of the conceptual precipitation runoff model HBV/ETH
running on a daily time step. Calibration of model parameters is achieved primarily via
discharge. Verification is not only done for discharge simulations, but for all important
intermediate results such as basin precipitation, modelled snow storage and glacier mass

Measurement and simulation of high alpine water balance components

163

changes, which is possible because of detailed "classical" analyses of the individual water
balance components were done as described above. The runoff model is driven by daily
values of air temperature and precipitation as measured operationally by the standard meteorological network, which forms a favourable basis for the transfer of the modelling approach in any alpine area, where direct measurements in the basins in question are usually
scarce or totally absent. The model employed here is based on the HBV model as described
by Bergstrom and Forsman (1973) and which has been applied worldwide in almost 30
countries (Bergstrom 1992). The snow- and glacier melt routine was further developed by
Braun and Lang (1986) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH). It simulates all
components of the water balance including soil moisture storage and evaporation.
Distribution of air temperature with elevation is obtained using an air temperature gradient
derived daily from two temperature stations situated at strongly differing elevations.
Snowmelt is calculated by a simple temperature index method using a seasonally

164

L. N. Braun et al.

variable degree-day factor. Aspect-dependency is accounted for by a multiplicative factor

varying with exposition. Another multiplicative factor is used to account for enhanced melt of
glacier ice as compared to snow. Further detailed descriptions and applications of the model
used here are given in Braun and Aellen (1990), Braun and Renner (1992), and Hottelet et al.
(1993). The basic model structure is shown in Figure 1.

Fig. 2: Map of the Linth-Limmern basin with measurement locations of the following variables:
precipitation using storage gauges mostly operated by the hydroelectric power company "Kraftwerke LinthLimmern AG" (KLL), T25 (Geissbtzi) and T29 by the Swiss Meteorological Institute (SMA); precipitation
using the Hellmann gauge, operated by the SMA at Auen/Linthal until 1971, after that at Tierfehd; snow
storage assessed on May 1 by KLL and Swiss Federal Institute of Technology VAW-ETH Zurich;
measurements of snow accumulation and ablation on Claridenfirn at lower and upper poles (Pu and Po), 2700
and 2900 m a.s.1., respectively, by various institutions and individuals; mass balance measurements
on Limmern and Plattalva Glaciers, performed by VAW-ETH Zurich;
discharge Linth/Tierfehd station (803 m a.s.l.) operated by the Swiss Hydrological and Geological
Survey (LHG); Oberstafelbach (1924 m a.s.l.), operated by KLL;
Geological insert map: based on Jckli (1985)

Measurement and simulation of high alpine water balance components

165

BASIN DESCRIPTION

The head watershed of the Linth River at Tierfehd is situated in the Glarnese Alps,
north-eastern Switzerland. It covers an area of 75.7 km2, 21 % of which is glacierized. The
elevation ranges from 803 m to 3614 m a.s.l. with a mean of 2330 m. The geology of the
area is primarily made up by Mesozoic sediments of the Helvetic nappes and of Tertiary
Flysch. In some parts of the Mesozoic sediments karstification is observed, which complicates the hydrogeology to some extent. Tracer experiments dating back to 1916 and 1921
reveal complex discharge pathways. Mller-Lemans et al. (1996) made an assessment of
karst-related discharge losses in various sub-basins of the Linth-Limmern area based on direct measurements performed in the 1910s and 1920s, and the main results are incorporated here when assessing the water balances of the various sub-basins. An extensive investigation of the geology was done by Staub and Leupold (1947), and the hydrogeology of the
region was discussed by Jckli (1985).
DATA BASE AND PREVIOUS WORK

There has been a strong interest in the hydrological conditions of this region since the
onset of this century relating to its hydroelectric potential among other factors. As a result,
detailed data exist in various sub-basins, and this allows an assessment of the individual water
balance components and the validation of precipitation-runoff models. Figure 2 gives an
overview of measurement locations, and Figure 3 shows the different variables used in this
study and their availability in time.
Precipitation measurements at high elevations by means of storage gauges were started in
1915. In 1963, the network of storage gauges in the greater Linth-Limmern basin as

Fig. 3: Periods of data used in this study. Locations: see Figure 2. SMA stands for Swiss Meterological Institute (data published in Annalen, various years); LHG stands for Swiss Hydrological and Geological
Survey (data published in Hydrologisches Jahrbuch, various years)

166

L. N. Braun et al.

shown in Figure 2 was established and is still being operated today. Standard
meteorological observations were taken since the end of last century at the Auen/Linthal
station (815 m a.s.l.), and then replaced by the Tierfehd station at 810 m some 2.5 km
further up-valley after 1971. No obvious break in homogeneity was detected between the
two data series.
Uninterrupted measurements of annual glacier mass balance have been performed at
two locations (2900 and 2700 m a.s.l.) on Claridenfirn since 1914, and a detailed analysis
of this data series is given by Mller and Kappenberger (1991). Mass balance measurements on Limmern and Plattalva Glaciers were taken between 1947 and 1985, and were
mostly published by Kasser et al. (1983). Snow accumulation at the end of April/beginning
of May has been measured since 1964 at various locations in the Linth-Limmern basin,
mostly in the vicinity of storage precipitation gauges (see Figure 2), which have been used
for seasonal inflow predictions for the Limmern reservoir. An initial thorough analysis of
snow data of all years available including a comparison with precipitation data was presented by Steinegger (1990).
The Swiss Hydrological and Geological Survey began discharge measurements of the
Linth River at Tierfehd in 1916, and then discontinued them in 1961. Completion of the
Limmern reservoir (max. filling at 1857 m a.s.l.) by the hydroelectric power company "
Kraftwerke Linth-Limmern AG" (KLL) occurred in the year 1963. Daily inflow to the reservoir is monitored for the natural basin (21 km2, glacierization 16 %) and the contributing
basins (31 km2, glacierization 46 %), where the waters are collected and led to the
reservoir via subterrainean water conduits (see Figure 2). One of the contributing basins
discussed further below is the Oberstafelbach drainage basin (elevation range 1924 to
3614 m, 16.9 km2, glacierization 43 %), which contributes about half of the total inflow
into the Limmern reservoir with a mean annual value of 1690 mm/y (24 years), and where
discharge data have been available since 1966.
PRECIPITATION
LONG-TERM VARIATION IN PRECIPITATION AT A VALLEY LOCATION

Figure 4 shows the variation of winter and summer precipitation since Oct. 1901 for the
valley station of Elm at 980 m a.s.l. Over the 7 winter months (Oct. to April) a mean (noncorrected) precipitation of about 800 mm is observed, the same as during the 5 summer
months (May to Sept.). The year-to-year variation of winter precipitation is larger than the one
for summer. No obvious trend can be seen in the summer or winter periods.
CORRECTION OF WINTER PRECIPITATION MEASURED AT HIGH ELEVATIONS BY MEANS OF SNOW
ACCUMULATION MEASUREMENTS

For the assessment of the precipitation conditions in alpine regions storage-type precipitation gauges have been used widely and over long time periods. A recent study by MllerLemans et al. (1993) has treated in detail some methodological aspects of this kind of
measurement. Storage gauge values of winter precipitation seem to be strongly influenced by
the local set-up and the immediate topographic surroundings of the storage gauge, and various
authors (e. g., Hoinkes and Lang 1962a) have suggested long ago to interpret storage gauge
precipitation values in the light of snow accumulation measurements performed

Fig. 4: Long-term precipitation record of Elm (valley station) for a) winter (Oct. to April, 1993
coresponds to 1992/93) and b) summer (May to Sept.) based on measurements of the Swiss
Meteorological
Institute

in the vicinity of the gauges. Ries et al. (1989) and Steinegger (1990) have carried out such
investigations in the Linth-Limmern region (see Figure 2), and the main results are summarized in Table 1.

70 YEARS' REFERENCE ANNUAL PRECIPITATION SERIES FOR THE CLARIDENFIRN

REGION

For the years 1914/15 to 1983/84 a reference annual precipitation series for the high alpine location "Claridenfirn" was derived based on winter precipitation as determined by
snow accumulation measurements (Mller and Kappenberger 1991) and summer precipitation as measured by the "Geissbtzi" storage precipitation gauge T25, corrected by 10 %
to take into account the systematic measurement error for summer precipitation (Kirchhofer and Sevruk 1992). Table 2 lists the values obtained. This reference series of 70 years
in length is the first one of its kind for this high alpine region in Switzerland, where winter
precipitation is not based on the rather questionable storage gauge values, but on snow

168

L. N. Braun et al.

Table 1: Comparisons between snow accumulation measurements and storage gauge winter
precipitation values (Oct. to April). Snow measurements performed in the vicinity of the storage
gauges, generally taken end of April/beginning of May, Linth-Limmern region, eastern Switzerland (
locations see Figure 2). Total of 23 years (1963/64 to 1985/86)

Storage
precipation
gauge

Ratio between
snow accumulation and
storage gauge winter precipitation

Snow
accumulation
measurement
location

Gauge
height
(m a.s.l.)

correlation
coefficient
r

T19
T20
P1
P2
P7
P8
P7
P11
T24

2350
2630
2460
2460
2570
2570
2610
2810
2420

0.87
0.64
0.86
0.84
0.89
0.70
0.85
0.90
0.77

1.23
1.72
1.55
0.97
1.59
1.23
1.03
1.49
1.07

0.14
0.43
0.23
0.19
0.22
0.20
0.15
0.30
0.24

mean:

1.32

0.27

T19
T20
T3
T3
T13
T13
T8
T10
T24

standard
deviation

mean

accumulation measurements in the vicinity of the gauge. This reference series can be used for
comparisons of the precipitation conditions in different periods by the quotient method for example.
Exceptionally dry years were 1920/21 and 1933/34.
Table 2: Reference annual precipitation series for the Claridenfirn region for the period 1914/15 to
1983/84 (taken from Mller-Lemans et al. 1996)
Year
10/11
11//12
12/13
13/14
14/15
15/16
16/17
17/18
18/19
19/20
20/21
21/22
22/23
23/24
24/25
25/25
26/27
27/28
28/29
29/30

P
[m]

3.354
3.139
2.586
2.863
2.751
3.105
1.796
3.389
2.992
3.615
2.854
2.859
3.791
2.664
2.856
2.940

Year

P
[m]

Year

P
[m]

30/31
31/32
32/33
33/34
34/35
35/36
36/37
37/38
38/39
39/40
40/41
41/42
42/43
43/44
44/45
45/46
46/47
47/48
48/49
49/50

3.898
3.124
3.049
1.917
3.236
3.523
3.161
2.917
3.309
3.572
2.709
2.859
2.706
2.318
3.602
3.008
2.426
3.303
2.403
2.813

50/51
51/52
52/53
53/54
54/55
55/56
56/57
57/58
58/59
59/60
60/61
61/62
62/63
63/64
64/65
65/66
66/67
67/68
68/69
69/70

3.378
3.084
3.399
2.638
3.380
3.179
3.078
2.784
2.564
2.997
2.939
3.066
2.301
2.312
3.708
3.473
3.720
3.417
2.630
3.683

Year

P
[m]

70/71
71/72
72/73
73/74
74/75
75/76
76/77
77/78
78/79
79/80
80/81
81/82
82/83
83/84

2.678
1.989
2.684
3.175
4.027
2.016
3.283
3.657
2.537
3.460
3.409
3.404
3.128
2.611

Measurement and simulation of high alpine water balance components

169

MAPS OF WINTER AND ANNUAL PRECIPITATION

Based on the data analysis described above, the attempt was made to produce precipitation maps for winter and summer precipitation, and as the sum of the two, an annual one
for the years 1964/65-1983/84 (20 years). These maps are meant to supplement small-scale
precipitation maps covering all of Switzerland, taking into account the influence of the mesoscale topography and of meteorological effects. Isolines were drawn manually, which adds
subjectivity to some degree, but allows the various findings as described above to be
considered. A method suggested by Ltschg-Loetscher (1945) was applied inorder to obtain
an assessment of the possible errors. Besides the most likely positioning of the isolines ("
intermediate version"), two further maps were drawn based on the given point values: one
to yield a low basin value, and another one to yield a large one. Figure 5 shows the results
of the intermediate version of winter (a) and annual (b) precipitation. When assessing basin
precipitation for the Linth-Limmem watershed at Tierfehd, the annual values for the low,
intermediate and high versions were found to be 2.21, 2.35 and 2.47 m, respectively. As will
be shown below, the value derived from the water balance is slightly larger than the value of
the intermediate version of the maps.
BASIN PRECIPITATION WHEN APPLYING THE HBV/ETH RUNOFF MODEL IN THE OBERSTAFELBACH CATCHMENT

When applying the HBV/ETH runoff model to the Oberstafelbach catchment, daily
values of measured precipitation of the Tierfehd station are used. Basin precipitation then is
calculated by applying multiplicative parameters for rain and snowfall (RCF and SCF, respectively). Here, RCF was set to 1.20, and SCF to 1.30, based on previous experience by
Lorenzi (1992). Basin precipitation used as model input then is compared with the values as
derived from the map as given in Figure 5, and results are presented in Table 3 for the
various periods considered by the measurements and simulations.
One can see that the total as derived from the annual map is in good comparison with the
total derived from the winter and summer maps. If we look at the mean annual value of basin
precipitation as derived from the HBV/ETH model, we find a difference of about 300 mm or
Table 3: Basin precipitation in the Oberstafelbach catchment: comparison between result obtained
from map (Figure 5) and application of the HBV/ETH runoff model

Hydrological years
Annual precipitation [mm/y]
Winter [mm/7 mo]
Summer [mm/5 mo]
Snow
Rain
Ratio between
winter/summer prec.
snow/rain

Measurement
from map

HBV/ETH runoff
model application

64/65-83/84

66/67-83/84

66/67-88/89

84/85-88/89

2616*
1522**
1091**

2310
1261
1029
1611
699

2290
1290
1021
1571
719

2259
1156
1059
1424
791

1.40

1.23
2.30

1.26
2.18

1.06
1.80

* value determined from annual map;

* * winter and summer values determined from the maps of winter and summer precipitation, respectively.

Measurement and simulation of high alpine water balance components

171

10 % in respect to the annual map value. Furthermore, the partitioning between winter and
summer model precipitation is quite different from the respective map values. While the ratio
is about 1.4 on the maps, we find a corresponding ratio of about 1.2 using the modelled values.
One reason for these discrepancies is due to the use of the multiplicative correction factors
RCF and SCF, where valley-precipitation values are more or less evenly distributed with elevation. However, as shown by Mller-Lemans et al. (1996), an average precipitation gradient of
about 4 %/100 m is observed for winter precipitation, and 1 %/100 m for summer precipitation. The HBV/ETH runoff model may also accept a precipitation gradient parameter, however, all trial runs up to now employing this parameter have not improved discharge simulations, and further investigations are needed.
SNOW AND ICE STORAGE CHANGES
LONG-TERM VARIATION IN SNOW ACCUMULATION (WINTER BALANCE)

In Figure 6 the year-to-year variation of the snow accumulation as of 1 May is shown for
Claridenfirn (lower pole, 2700 m a.s.l.) and Weissfluhjoch (2540 m a.s.l., locations see Figure
2). Whereas very high accumulation rates of almost 2000 mm snow-water equiva-

Fig. 6: Year-to-year ariation 1945/46 to 1990/91 of the snow-water equivalent as of 1 May at a) the lower
pole of Claridenfirn (2700 m a.s.l., data based on Mller and Kappenberger 1991, but corrected for exact
date) and b) Weissfluhjoch, 2540 m (data based on Winterberichte, recalculated for index location). A
strong decrease in winter precipitation can be observed when moving from the main crest of the
northern Alps to the inner-alpine regions. Figure taken from Rohrer (1992)

172

L. N. Braun et al.

lent (SWE) can be observed on Claridenfirn, the corresponding mean value observed on the
station Weissfluhjoch is about one half (less than 900 mm) of the Clariden value. These data
reflect the strong decrease in winter precipitation as one moves from the main mountain crest
of the northern Alps to the inner-alpine regions. However, the year-to-year oscillations
around the mean value generally point in the same direction.
VARIATION OF SNOW DEPTH ALONG A LONGITUDINAL PROFILE ON LIMMERN GLACIER

Between 1966 and 1984 snow depth measurements were taken along a 3.1 km snowcourse on Limmern Glacier over an elevation range between 2130 and 2900 m (location see
Figure 2). A thorough analysis of these data is given by Hock et al. (1993). The variation of
snow depth along the profile is strongly variable from year to year, but depicts quite a
consistent pattern over all years considered as given in Figure 7, where the mean snow depth
values over the 19 years are shown. Rather low values of snow accumulation are observed at
the upper part of the profile, and a strong increase is observed when moving down to about
2600 m, situated below a break in the otherwise gentle slope of the glacier. The depth
distribution is expected to be the result of wind-induced redistribution of snow, with
preferential accumulation on the leeward side of the break in terrain. In all years observed, a
surprisingly stable domain can be detected in the elevation range of 2440 to 2490 m. It is
suggested that measurements be continued in this representative region.
SNOW ACCUMULATION AS SIMULATED BY THE HBV/ETH MODEL AND COMPARISON
WITH MEASURED VALUES

The HBV/ETH runoff model calculates a "model snowpack" for each 200 m elevation
band and aspect classes N, S and East/West/Horizontal in the specific basin discretization
considered by Lorenzi (1992). The results pertaining to the total contributing basin to the

Fig. 7: Mean variation of snow depth in May along a 3.1 km measurement profile (2900 to 2130 m a.s.l.) on
Limmern Glacier for the years 1966 to 1984. A surprisingly stable domain of snow depth can be observed
at an elevation between 2440 and 2490 m a.s.l., where Buoy I is located at 2450 m, which will be referred
to below. Figure taken from Hock et al. (1993)

Fig. 8: Difference between simulated and measured snow-water equivalent (generally as of 1 May) at various
elevations in the Linth-Limmern region. Snow accumulation at the Claridenfirn locations is systematically
underestimated by the HBV/ETH model, which points to the high accumulation conditions on Claridenfirn.
Figure taken from Lorenzi (1992)

Limmern storage reservoir (total area of 31 km2) are further discussed here. In Figure 8 the
difference between simulated and measured water equivalent is given for the respective time
of measurement (generally around 1 May) for the various locations as given in Figure 2 and
additional ones (e. g., for Braunwald and Garichte, 1340 m and 1565 m a.s.l., respectively).
For both the calibration and the verification periods, the differences are between 700 mm
and 700 mm in practically all cases apart from the Claridenfirn locations, where snow
accumulation is systematically underestimated by 500 to 2000 mm. This comparison shows
that snow accumulation as measured on Claridenfirn at 2700 and 2900 m a.s.l. is far above the
basin value which can be expected by the model for the corresponding elevation.

174

L. N. Braun et al.
ACCUMULATED CENTERED MASS BALANCES OF SOME SELECTED GLACIERS

When looking at the long-term variation of annual glacier mass balances expressed as
cumulated deviations from the long-term mean (so-called accumulated centered mass balances according to Lliboutry 1974, and Reynaud 1993), a similar behaviour of the glaciers in
the Linth-Limmern region and the Alps as a whole can be detected (see Figure 9):
until 1920: generally characterized by consistently positive centered glacier mass balance
values;
1920 until 1940: rather balanced situation, stationary conditions;
1940 until 1950: marked decrease in accumulated centered mass balance;
1950 until 1964: again rather balanced situation;
1964 until 1985: marked increase in accumulated centered mass balance;
since 1985: marked decrease in accumulated centered glacier mass balance.
These statements need to be considered in the light of the overall behaviour of the glacier
mass balances over the measurement periods, which is generally characterized by a decrease
of about 0.25 m/y between 1931/32 to 1983/84 (see below).

Fig. 9: Comparison of long series of accumulated centered mass balances sum t in the Alps. Data of Limmern and Plattalva glaciers based on Kasser et al. (1983); mean values for Aletsch/Rhone/LimmernPlattalva ("reference mass balance") based on Mller-Lemans et al. (this issue)

Measurement and simulation of high alpine water balance components

175

SIMULATION OF GLACIER MASS BALANCE BY THE HBV/ETH MODEL

For the Oberstafelbach catchment, the HBV/ETH runoff model (described above and with
the basic structure as shown in Figure 1) was applied yielding simulations of the glacier mass
balance pertaining to the whole basin. Figure 10 shows the measured annual

Fig. 10: Measured values of glacier mass balance for Limmern Glacier (Buoy I at about 2450 m a.s.l.) and
Clariden stake readings at 2700 and 2900 m for the period 1966/67 to 1988/89, and comparison with modelled
values using the HBV/ETH runoff model in the Oberstafelbach catchment. Deviations from the respective mean
values are shown. The year 66" denotes the hydrological year 1965/66

mass balance deviations from the respective means of the Claridenfirn stakes and one stake on
Limmern Glacier (buoy I at 2450 m, situated along the longitudinal profile) and their
comparison with the simulated values. Simulated values reveal the relative course of mass
balance fluctuations satisfactorily.
DISCHARGE
LONG-TERM VARIATION OF DISCHARGE AT TIERFEHD

The discharge record of the Linth River as measured at the Tierfehd station 1917/18 to
1960/61 shows a mean specific discharge of 2014 mm/y and a standard deviation of 220
mm/y when considering also the Muttsee sub-basin (total area of 79.2 km2).When the
Muttsee sub-basin is excluded, a mean value of 2107 mm/y is obtained (total area of 75.7
km2). Before the construction of the Linth-Limmem reservoir, discharge of the Muttsee
region was lost via sub-terrainean pathways. No obvious trend in discharge can be
observed during this period.
MEASURED DISCHARGE OF OBERSTAFELBACH

Figure 11 shows the mean, maximum and minimum daily discharge of Oberstafelbach,
the stream draining the main part of the Claridenfirn among other glaciers, evaluated for

the period 1966/67 to 1989/90 (24 years). It shows the typical glacial discharge regime,
where discharge is strongly determined by icemelt and concentrated in the months of June,
July and August. Mean yearly runoff is 1689 mm, its minimum of 1120 mm was observed
in 1971/72, and its maximum of 2008 mm in 1980/81. The plateau-like shape of maximum
daily discharge in July and August is partly due to frequent overflow of the gauging station
(water capture) during peak discharge, which reveals a typical problem of gauging discharge in high mountains, where high sediment load and underdimensioning of gauging
stations may yield systematic underestimation of discharge.
SIMULATED DISCHARGE OF OBERSTAFELBACH

Two different versions of the HBV/ETH runoff model were applied in the Oberstafelbach basin for the years 1966/67 to 1988/89. As an example, the discharge results of the
year 1974/75 are given in Figure 12. In a first run possible karst-related losses were disregarded. The comparison between measured and simulated annual discharge sums considering only days with reliable discharge measurements reveals a systematic overestimation of
discharge by the model. These differences are assumed to represent primarily karst losses
which are expected due to the specific geological conditions in the basin. Thus, in a second
run, the model was expanded by a karst routine as presented by Hottelet et al. (1993). Two
additional free parameters were introduced in the response function (see Figure 1), and
those were optimized in such a way that the mean difference between measured and simulated discharge reached a minimum value. Besides discharge, this model modification did
not affect any other simulation results. The mean karstic water loss amounted to about 250
mm/y. It can be concluded that the inclusion of karst-related losses does improve the overall
result, however, there is still a tendency of the model to overestimate discharge at low flows
and underestimate discharge at high flows.
Generally speaking, this modelling approach provides the opportunity to give a rough
estimate of the magnitude of karstic water losses, as no direct measurements of their quantities are available to date. The model also helps to close record gaps resulting from overflows at the water captures during high flows.

Measurement and simulation of high alpine water balance components

177

Fig. 12: Example of a discontinuous discharge record of Oberstafelbach (1974/75) with simulated values
to close the gaps using two different HBV/ETH runoff model versions: a) without
consideration of karst-related losses, b) with karst losses

EVAPORATION
When addressing the complex issue of evaporation in alpine regions, Lang (1981)
pointed out that this component is of secondary importance with respect to the long-term
water balance because of its low magnitude as compared to precipitation and runoff, but
that evaporation may play a significant role in controlling short-term variations of meltwater runoff. At an elevation of 2000 m, yearly evaporation is estimated to be about 300
mm, and the reduction of evaporation with altitude varies between 70 and 360 mm/ 1000
m depending on different authors cited by Lang (1981). For the basin of Hintereis-ferner
with a mean elevation of about 3000 m and a glacierization of 58 %, an evaporation value
of 180 mm/y is given by Hoinkes and Lang (1962b) based on a two-year water balance
study. These figures show that annual evaporation is in the order of 10 % of annual
precipitation, and when considering the errors of precipitation measurement, one needs to
conclude that no better values can be achieved from water balance studies relating to the
assessment of basin evaporation.
Direct measurements of evaporation over snow and ice have been recently reported by
Kaser (1983, 1986) and Bernath (1991). Figure 13 shows the seasonal variation of evaporation (minimal, maximal values) at an elevation of 2300-2500 m a.s.l. for snow and ice surfaces, for rock/debris surfaces, and of vegetated areas based on results of Bernath (1991).
Generally speaking, the following net evaporation can be assumed
over snow and ice: 0.25 to 0.5 mm/d during October to May, net condensation of 0.5 to 1.8
mm/d between July and September;
over rock/debris surfaces: 0.5 to 1 mm/d between June and November, same values as over
snow in the remaining winter months;

Fig. 13: Seasonal variation of minimum and maximum evaporation over snow and ice, rock/debris surfaces
and vegetated surfaces, based on figures of Bernath (1991) for elevations between 2300
and 2500 m a.s.l., Rhone basin at Gletsch

over vegetated surfaces (grassland, shrubs): beween 2 and 3 mm/d between July and September, the remaining months the same as over rock/debris surfaces.
Based on these values, basin evaporation was estimated for the Rhone basin (38.9 km2,
elevation range 1756 to 3630 m a.s.l., mean elevation 2720 m, glacierization 52.4 %) for the 3
years 1979/80 to 1982/83, taking into account the varying portion of the different surface
types. Under the assumption of the minimal rates, a basin evaporation of 114 mm/y is
achieved, when using the maximal rates, a corresponding value of 221 mm/y is obtained.
EVAPORATION CALCULATIONS IN THE MODEL APPLICATION OBERSTAFELBACH BASIN

In the HBV/ETH runoff model the evaporation component is accounted for by the soil
moisture routine (see Figure 1). Parameter values were determined in the study of Lorenzi (
1992), which turned out to be appropriate for the Oberstafelbach basin. Evaporation is set at
zero in the months of November to February. Maximum evaporation is assumed at the end of
June at a rate of 2 mm/d. A mean annual value for actual evaporation was calculated as 236
mm/y (Table 5).
WATER BALANCE
"CLASSICAL" ANALYSIS OF THE INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS FOR THE LINTH-LIMMERN
BASIN / TIERFEHD

Here, the sum of all major components (all given in [mm/y]) of the water balance are
considered as follows:
PEQQout = Delta S
where P = precipitation;
E = evaporation, assumed to be 200 mm/y;
Q = discharge at the gauging station Tierfehd;
Qout = water losses from the basin;
AS = changes in storage, e. g., snow and ice, water reservoirs, etc.

Measurement and simulation of high alpine water balance components

179

An assessment of all these components was done for 3 basins: the Ftschbach at Urnerboden, the Muttsee basin, and the Linth-Limmern basin at Tierfehd (Mller-Lemans et al.
1996). Here, the results for the Linth-Limmern basin at Tierfehd are discussed in more detail (Table 4). The original period of discharge measurements 1916/17 to 1960/61 (total of
Table 4: Summary of the major components (m/y) of the water balance for the Linth-Limmern basin/
Tierfehd. Basin precipitation as derived from the map is the value of the intermediate version, the conesponding lower and high versions are 2.21 and 2.47 m, respectively (further explanations see main text)
1917/18-1960/61
without 1920/21
and 1933/34
Reference precipitation
Evaporation
Discharge
Losses (Qout)
Changes in storage (OS)
Basin precipitation
from water balance
from precipitation map

1964/65-1983/84
3.134

3.048
0.200
2.003
0.177
0.055
2.325

2.39
2.35

45 years) was reduced by 3 years (first year deleted due to lack of limnigraph records;
years 1920/21 and 1933/34 deleted due to very dry conditions, where the quotient
method might lead to erroneous values of basin precipitation). Basin precipitation as
determined from the map (intermediate version) is 0.04 m (2 %) smaller than the value
derived from the water balance. The results of the two (smaller) basins Ftschbach and
Muttsee confirm this rather good agreement between basin precipitation as derived by
the map and the water balance.
Tabel 5: Mean water balance components of the Oberstafelbach basin as assessed by the HB
HBV/ETH runoff model for the period 1966/67-1988/89 (total of 23 years)
Component
Precipitation
snow
rain
Evaporation
Discharge
Karst-related losses
Snow balance
Glacier mass balance
Soil storage

Model output (mm/y)

2290
1571
719
236
1670
247
135
2
1

One can conclude from above favorable comparison that in the case of the head
watershed of the Linth-Limmern basin the validation of the water balance terms is possible despite the rather complex geological conditions. Secondly, one can conclude that
the rather high snow accumulation conditions at high elevations (such as the Claridenfirn
area) are in fact representative of these elevations, and that the method of determining
winter precipitation via snow accumulation measurements and summer precipitation via

180

L. N. Braun et al.

storage gauges (corrected for systematic measurement error) is a method that can be recommended.
RESULTS FROM THE APPLICATION OF THE HBV/ETH RUNOFF MODEL IN THE OBERSTAFELBACH BASIN

Table 5 shows the individual components of the water balance as assessed by the HBVETH runoff model as applied in the Oberstafelbach catchment. As mentioned above,
modelled basin precipitation of about 2300 mm/y is by 10% smaller than the value as
given in the map. Modelled basin evaporation of about 240 mm/y can be considered reasonable in the light of the studies mentioned in this text. The figure for simulated discharge (1670 mm/y) compares well with the measured value of 1689 mm/y. Simulated
karst-related losses of about 250 mm/y cannot be verified unless additional studies are
undertaken. Total simulated discharge (including subterranean losses) of about 1920
mm/y seems to be somewhat low in comparison to the measured discharge of the Linth
River at Tierfehd, which is 2014 mm/y for the period 1917/18 to 1960/61 (excluding
subterranean losses).
It is quite difficult to interpret the positive snow balance of about 130 mm/y pertaining to
the non-glacierized parts of the basin (given as the mean over the total basin). The temperature-index method as employed in the HBV/ETH snow model tends to underestimate melt
rates (Braun et al., 1994), with the effect that quite a substantial snow storage tern is left at the
end of the hydrological year, in particular at high elevations.
This systematically positive value is set as zero when moving to the next hydrological year. If melt rates are calculated using a physically-based approach (Brun et al.
1989), no such systematic overestimation of snow cover storage is observed. However,
it was found that simulated snow storage needs to be distributed in each basin sub-unit.
If one applies physically-based melt rates over a lumped snow cover in each sub-unit,
discharge is systematically overestimated during the main melting season (Braun et al.
1994). In a future step, the implementation of a distributed snow cover is going to be
tested, and this should remove this obvious inconsistency in the temperature-index
model version used here.
The glacier mass balance term is calculated to be 2 mm/y for the period of 1966/671988/89 (total of 23 years). The measured balance of the Limmern/Plattalva Glaciers (
with extension using the Claridenfirn data until 1988/89) amounts to 384 mm over 23
years corresponding to 16 mm/y for the glacierized part, or about 7 mm/y with
respect to the total basin, which can be considered in good agreement with the modelled
value of 2 mm/y.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The approach for assessing the high alpine water balance components as presented here is
two-fold:
by means of the "classical" determination of each component separately by measurements
in the field, taken consistently over long time periods;
by the application of a precipitation-runoff model running on a daily time step and requiring a rather modest data input (daily precipitation and air temperature at valley-based
stations and air temperature at high-mountain stations).

Measurement and simulation of high alpine water balance components

181

The major findings concerning the individual components can be summarized as follows:
PRECIPITATION

When assessing high alpine precipitation, the use of snow accumulation measurements
can be recommended to measure winter precipitation. Summer precipitation may well be
measured by the standard storage precipitation gauge, where elevation-dependent corrections between 4 % and 10 % were found adequate. Within the head watershed of the Linth
River total annual precipitation varies from about 1.9 m/y in the valleys to over 3.0 m/y in
the highest elevations, with a mean value of about 2.4 m for the period 1917 to 1961. There
is no obvious long-term trend in high alpine precipitation amounts in this century.
SNOW ACCUMULATION

There is no clear trend towards lower values of the snow-water equivalent at stations
situated in north-eastern Switzerland above 1600 m altitude (Rohrer et al. 1994), although
there is a rather clear trend towards higher winter air temperatures after the late 1980s at high
elevations (such as at the Sntis station at 2500 m a.s.l.). The deviation towards higher
temperatures has been especially pronounced in the last few years, the winter 1990/91
value being the highest one ever measured. Precipitation amounts did not change systematically, and the higher winter temperatures did not strongly affect the build-up of the snow
cover at high elevations.
GLACIER MASS BALANCE

A reference glacier mass balance series was derived for the years 1931/32 to 1983/84
based on the long-term measurements of snow accumulation and ablation of the two Claridenfirn locations, and of the mass balance measurements of the Rhone, Aletsch, Limmern
and Plattalva Glaciers (Muller-Lemans et al., this issue). This series can serve as a first assessment of ice storage changes for a given high alpine basin in Switzerland. The mean
loss of glacier mass between the 1930s to the mid 1980s is in the order of 0.25 m/y.
DISCHARGE

Despite the rather complex hydrogeological conditions found in the head watershed of
the Linth River, the hydrological conditions of the total basin could be assessed satisfactorily, and a mean discharge value for the Linth-Limmern basin at Tierfehd is found to
be about 2.10 m/y. There is no obvious trend in discharge over the years 1917 to 1960.
Open problems remain in certain sub-basins, where the karst-hydrological conditions still
need to be investigated. It is suggested that a comprehensive investigation including tracer
techniques be conducted to gain further insight into the karstic pathways and associated
water losses.
WATER BALANCE

The individual assessement of each water balance component (apart from evaporation
which was assumed constant at 0.2 m/y) showed that basin precipitation as determined on

182

L. N. Braun et al.

the basis of the precipitation map corresponds well with the one derived from the water balance. This confirms that the high snow accumulation conditions found at high elevations are
in fact representative for that elevation.
THE MAJOR FINDINGS CONCERNING THE MODEL APPLICATION ARE AS FOLLOWS

Conceptual precipitation-runoff models can provide a valuable assessment of the hydrological conditions in high alpine regions, using standard meteorological data of valley
stations. Long-term records of the individual water balance components are of great assistance when calibrating such models. They allow to gain confidence in the intermediate model
results of basin precipitation, snow storage and glacier mass balance. The daily time step
allows a more dynamic evaluation of the water balance components. Open problems remain
with respect to the redistribution of snow due to wind and avalanches. Furthermore, the time
step of discharge calculations should be increased to also study the diurnal fluctuations, as
they reflect the dominant runoff processes more directly than daily mean values. Using this
higher temporal resolution will also aid to better assess the flood potential, which might be
altered under changed climatic conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to acknowledge the contributions of various individuals and institutions who have
shown great effort in collecting the necessary data for this analysis. The Swiss Meteorological Institute (
SMA) has provided the standard meteorological data and supported the collection of precipitation data at
high elevations (H. Wolfensberger).The Hydrological and Geological Survey of Switzerland (LHG) provided discharge data at various stations and over various periods. The Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrology and Glaciology (VAW) of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich initiated snow, precipitation and glacier mass balance measurements in the Limmern region in the early 1940s (Prof. P. Kasser,
H. Siegenthaler), and carried them out until the early 1980s. The hydroelectric power company Kraftwerke Linth-Limmern AG (KLL) provided snow, precipitation and discharge measurements since the
early 1960s (H. Zweifel and co-workers). The Claridenfirn measurements have been carried out since
1914 by various institutions and individuals, and their efforts are also gratefully acknowledged. This project was partly financed by the Swiss National Science Foundation, project number 21-29911.90, and by
a research grant from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology ETH, Zurich. Valuable comments on
this project were provided by Prof. H. Lang, ETH Zurich.
REFERENCES
Aellen, M. and Funk, M., 1990: Bilan hydrologique du bassin versant de la Massa et bilan de masse des
glaciers d'Aletsch (Alpes bernoises, Suisse). IAHS Publ. no. 193, pp. 89-98.
Annalen, various years: Annalen der Schweizerischen Meteorologischen Anstalt (SMA), Zrich.
Baumgartner, A., Reichel, E. und Weber, G., 1983: Der Wasserhaushalt der Alpen. Niederschlag, Verdunstung, Abfluss und Gletscherspende im Gesamtgebiet der Alpen im Jahresdurchschnitt fr die Normalperiode 1931-1960. Oldenbourg Verlag Mnchen, Wien, 343 p. (8 maps).
Beniston, M. (ed.), 1994: Mountain Environments in Changing Climates. Routledge Publ. Co., London,
461 p.
Bergstrom, S. and Forsman, A., 1973: Development of a conceptual deterministic rainfall-runoff model.
Nordic Hydrology, 4, 147-170.
Bergstrom, S., 1992: The HBV Model its structure and applications. SMHI Reports Hydrology No. 4,
Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute, S-601 76 Norrkoping, Sweden, 32 p.
Bernath, A., 1991: Zum Wasserhaushalt im Einzugsgebiet der Rhone bis Gletsch. Zrcher
Geographische Schriften, Heft 43, ETH Zrich, 383 p.

Measurement and simulation of high alpine water balance components

183

Braun, L. N. and Lang, H., 1986: Simulation of snowmelt runoff in lowland and lower Alpine regions
of Switzerland. IAHS Publ. no. 155, pp. 125-140.
Braun, L. N. and Aellen, M., 1990: Modelling discharge of glacierized basins assisted by direct measurements of glacier mass balance. IAHS Publ. no. 193, pp. 99-106.
Braun, L. N. and Renner, C. B., 1992: Application of a conceptual runoff model in different physiographic regions of Switzerland. Hydrol. Sci. J., 37(3), pp. 217-231.
Braun, L. N., Brun, E., Durand, Y., Martin, E. and Tourasse, P., 1994: Simulation of discharge using
different methods of meteorological data distribution, basin discretization and snow modelling.
Nordic Hydrology, Vol. 25(1/2), pp. 129-144.
Brun, E., David, P., Sudul, M. and Brunot, G., 1992: A numerical model to simulate snow-cover
stratigraphy for operational avalanche forecasting. Journal of Glaciology, Vol. 38 (128), pp. 13-22.
Chen, Jiyang, 1991: Changes of Alpine Climate and Glacier Water Resources. Zrcher Geographische
Schriften, Heft 46, Verlag der Fachvereine, Zrich, 196 p.
Colbeck, S., 1977: Short-term forecasting of water runoff from snow and ice. Journal of Glaciology,
Vol. 19 (81), pp. 571-588.
Escher-Vetter, H., 1980: Der Strahlungshaushalt des Vernagtferners als Basis der Energiehaushaltsberechnung zur Bestimmung der Schmelzwasserproduktion eines Alpengletschers. Wissenschaftliche Mitteilung Nr. 39, Meteorologisches Institut, Universitt Mnchen, 115 p.
Ferguson, R., 1985: Runoff from glacierized mountains: A model for annual variation and its
forecasting. Water Resources Research, Vol 21 (5), pp. 702-708.
Funk, M., 1985: Rumliche Verteilung der Massenbilanz auf dem Rhonegletscher und ihre Beziehung
zu Klimaelementen. Zrcher Geographische Schriften, Heft 24, ETH Zrich, 183 p.
Gurnell, A. M., 1990: Improved methods of assessment of snow and glaciers as water balance and river
flow components. IAHS Publ. no. 193, pp. 157-172.
Hock, R., Funk, M. und Mller-Lemans, H., 1993: Analyse langjhriger Schneemessungen auf dem Limmerngletscher, Glarner Alpen. Zrcher Geographische Schriften, Heft 53, Verlag Geographisches
Institut ETH Zrich.
Hoinkes, H. and Lang, H., 1962a: Winterschneedecke und Gebietsniederschlag 1957/58 und 1958/59
im Bereich des Hintereis- und Kesselwandferners (Oetztaler Alpen). Archiv fr Meteorologie,
Geophysik und Bioklimatologie, Serie B, 11 (4), pp. 424-446.
Hoinkes, H. and Lang, H., 1962b: Der Massenhaushalt von Hintereis- und Kesselwandferner 1957/58 und
1958/59. Archiv fr Meteorologie, Geophysik und Bioklimatologie, Serie B, 12 (1), pp. 284-320.
Hottelet, Ch., Braun, L. N., Leibundgut, Ch. and Rieg, A., 1993: Simulation of snowpack and discharge in
an alpine karst basin. IAHS Publ. no. 218, pp. 249-260.
Hydrologisches Jahrbuch, various years: Landeshydrologie und -geologie. Eidg. Dept. des Innern,
BUWAL, Bern.
Jckli, H., 1985: Erluterungen zur Hydrogeologischen Karte der Schweiz 1:100'000, Blatt Panixerpass.
Schweizerische Geotechnische Kommission, Zrich, 132 p., Tafel I.
Kaser, G., 1983: Ueber die Verdunstung auf dem Hintereisferner. Zeitschrift fr Gletscherkunde und
zialgeologie, Vol. 19 (2), pp. 149-162.
Kaser, G., 1986: The role of evaporation from snow and ice in the mass balance of a glacier. Data of
Glaciological Studies, No. 57, Academy of Sciences of the UdSSR, pp. 59-63 (185-188).
Kasser, P., Aellen, M. und Siegenthaler, H., 1983: Die Gletscher der Schweizer Alpen 1975/76 und
1976/ 77. 97. und 98. Bericht, Glaziologisches Jahrbuch der GK/SNG, VAW ETH Zurich, 208 p.,
mit Kartenbeilage 1:10'000 des Limmern- und Plattalvagletschers.
Kirchhofer, W. and Sevruk, B., 1992: Mittlere jhrliche korrigierte Niederschlagshhen 1951-1980. In:
Hydrologischer Atlas der Schweiz, Tafel 2.2. EMDZ, Bern.
Kuhn, M., 1988: Folgen einer langfristigen Erwrmung fr Schnee und Eis. Mitteilungen der
stalt fr Wasserbau, Hydrologie und Glaziologie an der ETH Zrich, Nr. 94, pp. 87-98.
Lang, H., 1981: Is evaporation an important component in high alpine hydrology? Nordic Hydrology,
Vol. 12, pp. 217-224.
Lang, H., 1986: Forecasting meltwater runoff from snow-covered areas and from glacier basins. In:
River Flow Modelling and Forecasting (D. A. Kraijenhoff and J. R. Moll, Eds.), Reidel Publishing
Company, pp. 99-127.

184

L. N. Braun et al.

Lepori, M., 1993: Langjhrige Halbjahres-Wasserbilanzen im Einzugsgebiet des Wgitales. Berichte und
Skripten Nr. 50, Geographisches Institut der ETH Zrich, 97p.
Lliboutry, L., 1974: Multivariate statistical analysis of glacier annual balances. Journal of Glaciology,
Vol. 13 (69), pp. 371-392.
Lorenzi, D., 1992: Zur Modellierung des tglichen Zuflusses in ein Alpines Staubecken. Berichte und
Skripten Nr. 47, Geographisches Institut ETH Zrich, 127 p.
Ltschg, 0., 1944,1945,1949: Zum Wasserhaushalt des Schweizer Hochgebirges, Bd. I, 1. Teil, Allgemeines. Beitrge zur Geologie der Schweiz Geotechnische Serie Hydrologie, 4. Lieferung,
Verlag Kmmerly und Frey, Bern. 1. Abt.: 60 p. with Appendix (1945), 2. Abt.: 101 p. (1944), 3.
Abt.: 171 p., (1949).
Moser, H., Escher-Vetter, H., Oerter, H., Reinwarth, O. und Zunke, D. (Hrsg.), 1986: Abfluss in und
von Gletschern. GSF-Bericht 41/86, Teil I. Institut fr Radiohydrometrie in Zusammenarbeit mit
der Kommission fr Glaziologie der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Gesellschaft fr
Strahlen- und Umweltforschung mbH, Mnchen, 408 p.
Mller, H. und Kappenberger, G., 1991: Claridenfirn-Messungen 1914-1984, Daten und Ergebnisse
eines gemeinschaftlichen Forschungsprojektes. Zrcher Geographische Schriften, Heft 40, Verlag
der Fachvereine, Zrich, 79 p.
Mller-Lemans, H., Kappenberger, G. und Steinegger, U., 1993: Methodische Aspekte der Niederschlagsbestimmung im Alpenraum. Zrcher Geographische Schriften, Heft 53, Verlag Geographisches Institut ETH Zrich, pp. 96-107.
Mller-Lemans, H., Aellen, M., Braun, L. N., Kappenberger, G. and Steinegger, U., 1996: Niederschlagsverteilung im Tdigebiet. Messungen und berprfung mit der Wasserhaushaltsgleichung. Beitrge zur
Hydrologie der Schweiz, Verlag Kmmerly und Frey, Bern. In preparation
Mller-Lemans, H., Funk, M., Aellen, M. and Kappenberger, G., 1994: Langjhrige Massenbilanzreihen
von Gletschern in der Schweiz. Zeitschrift fr Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie, this issue.
Oerlemans, J. (Ed.), 1989: Glacier Fluctuations and Climatic Change. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 417 p.
Oerter, H., Baker, D., Moser, H. and Reinwarth, 0., 1981: Glacial-hydrological investigations at the
Vernagtferner as a basis for a discharge model. Nordic Hydrology, Vol. 12, pp. 335-348.
Ohmura, A., Kasser, P. and Funk, M., 1992: Climate at the equilibrium line of glaciers. Journal of
Glaciology, Vol. 38, No. 130, pp. 397-411.
Reynaud, L., 1988: Alpine glacier fluctuations and climatic changes over the last century. Mitteilungen
der Versuchsanstalt fr Wasserbau, Hydrologie und Glaziologie an der ETH Zrich, Nr. 94, Festschrift Hans Rthlisberger, pp. 127-146.
Reynaud, L., 1993: Glaciers of the French Alps. In: Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World,
Europe, (Williams, R. S. and Ferrigno, J. G., Eds.), U.S. Geol. Survey Professional Paper 1386-E,
U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Washington, D.C., pp. E23-E36.
Ries, J., Braun, L. N. and Siegenthaler, H., 1989: Winter precipitation in an alpine region: comparisons
between storage gauges and water equivalent of snowcover. WMO / IAHS / ETH International
Workshop on Precipitation Measurement, St. Moritz, (B. Sevruk, Ed.), pp. 105-107.
Rind, D., Rosenzweig, C. and Goldberg, R., 1992: Modelling the hydrological cycle in assessments of
climate change. Nature, Vol. 358, pp. 119-122.
Rthlisberger, H. and Lang, H., 1987: Glacial Hydrology. In: Gurnell, A. M. and Clark, M. J. (eds.),
Glacio-fluvial sediment transfer: an alpine perspective. Wiley, Chichester. pp. 207-284.
Rohrer, M. B., 1992: Die Schneedecke im Schweizer Alpenraum und ihre Modellierung. Zrcher Geographische Schriften, Heft 49, Verlag der Fachvereine, Zrich, 178p.
Rohrer, M. B., Braun, L. N. and Lang, H., 1994: Long-term records of the snow cover water equivalent
in the Swiss Alps 1. Analysis. Nordic Hydrology, Vol. 25(1/2), pp. 53-64.
Schdler, B., 1985: Der Wasserhaushalt der Schweiz. Mitteilung der Landeshydrologie, Nr. 6, Bern, 83
p. Sevruk, B., 1985: Systematischer Niederschlagsmessfehler in der Schweiz. In: Der Niederschlag in
der Schweiz. Beitrge zur Geologie der Schweiz Hydrologie, Nr. 31, pp. 65-75.
Staub, R. und Leupold, W., 1947: Geologisches Gutachten ber die Eignung des Limmernbodens als
Speicherbecken. Bericht im Auftrag der Nordostschweizerischen Kraftwerke AG (NOK), unpublished.

Measurement and simulation of high alpine water balance components

185

Steinegger, U., 1990: Niederschlagsmessung im Hochgebirge: Informationsgehalt von Totalisatoren- und

Schneedaten im Limmemgebiet. Diplomarbeit am Geographischen Institut der ETH Zrich (unpublished), 133 p.
Winterberichte, various years: Eidg. Institut fr Schnee- und Lawinenforschung, Weissfluhjoch-Davos.
Manuscript received 29 July 1994, revised 4 October 1995

Authors' addresses: Regine Hock, Dr. Mario B. Rohrer and Urs Steinegger
Department of Geography ETH, Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology Winterthurer Strasse 190
CH-8057 Zurich
Markus Aellen
Glaciological Commission of the Swiss Academy of Sciences
c/o VAW, ETH Zentrum
CH-8092 Zurich
Dr. Martin Funk
VAW, ETH Zentrum
CH-8092 Zurich
Giovanni Kappenberger
Osservatorio
CH-6605 Locarno Monti
Dr. Hans Mller-Lemans
Tergeso AG
Stadterwingert 4
CH-7320 Sargans
Dr. Ludwig N. Braun
Commission for Glaciology, Bavarian Academy of
Sciences Marstallplatz 8
D-80539 Munich (after Sept. 1994)