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3) The hanging wall and foot wall must be stable. Broken ore at
best diminishes dilution.
4) The ore body must have relatively regular boundaries.
5) The ore must not be affected by storage in the stope.
Developments
Shrinkage requires these developments:
1) A haulage or transport drift, driven along the bottom of the
planned stope.
2) Crosscuts are made from transport drift to the bottom of the
stope.
3) Finger raises or cones are developed upwards from the
crosscuts into the stope.
4) Undercut of some 5-10m in height should be made across the
whole area of the stope bottom.
5) A raise is provided from the transport drift, through the
undercut and to the main level above. This provides access
and ventilation air to the stope.
The bottom of the stope can be simplified by eliminating the finger
raises and using draw points and crosscuts for loading.
Production
Drilling and blasting are the means of production, performed as
overhead or overhand operation.
The rough surface in the stope prevents the use of mechanized
equipment. The standard method of drilling is therefore the use of
hand-held drills (pusher legs). Occasionally some long horizontal
holes can be drilled.
Mineral Transport
Conventional system is to load the broken ore directly into the rail
mounted mine cars (through the chutes at the bottom of the stope).
Today, loaders are more effective when used in a draw point
loading design.
Conclusions
When there were few loading machines available, shrinkage was
one of the most attractive methods, mainly because ore could be
dropped directly into the mine cars, as opposed to hand loading.
Today, this is of little importance and hence shrinkage has been
largely replaced by other methods.
Disadvantages include:
- It is a labor-intensive method. It also requires skilled labor.
- Working conditions are often difficult and dangerous.
- Production capacity is limited. Drilling long holes is
impossible, stope dimensions are limited and mechanizability
is negligible.
- Most of the broken ore remains in the stope for a long time.
Therefore: Under similar conditions, sublevel stoping, sublevel
caving and even cut-and-fill are used and they result in
considerable economic advantage.
However, shrinkage stoping has not been completely eliminated
and it is applied in the cases of small-scale operations with low
investment in machinery and developments.
Introduction
Shrinkage is referred to any method in which the broken ore is
temporarily left in the stope to:
- Provide a working platform
- Support the walls
Since ore swells when broken, it is necessary to shrink it by
drawing some of the broken ore from the bottom of the stope hence the name.
When final draw has taken place, the stope can be filled, or it can
be left empty. If it is to be filled, it can be done after the final draw
is completed or simultaneously with the final draw.
Conventionally the method uses overhand or overhand stoping
methods. There are many variations in details, most of them
decided in the stope.
Stope dimensions
Shrinkability is assessed in terms of:
- Dip
- Width
- Regularity along the dip
Dip is ideally 70-90 degrees. As the dip falls bellow 70, the
shrinkage draw starts to favor the hanging wall side therefore
an even poorer working surface is provided. This problem is
more acute in wide stopes.
Also, when the dip decreases, the support offered to the
hanging wall becomes less, being zero at the angle of repose.
Generally, dips below 45-50 are not shrinkable at all. Shrinkage is
probably the most sensitive method to dip and in situations where
dip is less than 60 or even 70, many problems begin to occur. The
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main reason is the requirement for a steady flow of the broken ore
to the bottom of the stope.
Width- The minimum width is fixed by the space required for
working, usually at least 1m. Shrinkage is used in veins of down
to 0.5m, but on one or both sides, wall rock is also mined and
separated later.
Narrow veins are susceptible for blockage in the stope and the
bridging action. Problems of irregular draw or incomplete draw
may be caused in these situations.
Maximum width is about 30m, but the best width is perhaps
between 3-20m.
The ideal width depends on:
- Competence of the ore
- Ability of the hanging wall to stand unsupported
Stability of the stope back (roof) is perhaps the most important
safety factor in shrinkage method. This is the reason why the
method requires competent ore more than any other underground
mining method.
Off dip hanging wall and foot wall pieces can generally be mined
selectively without affecting the flow of ore. There is therefore
some degree of selective mining possibility inherent to the method.
If small rolls are encountered, these can usually be smoothed over
but if they are large, then a sublevel should be established with
draw points etc.
Ground Conditions
The only support given to the walls is broken ore, which is
dynamic too. It is therefore not a reliable support to the walls.
Hence the walls must be strong enough to stand somewhat
unsupported.
Dilution by means of local sloughing (sheding) is prevented by this
dynamic support but stope closure is not. To prevent stope
closures, leaving pillars is the most effective remedy.
Another remedy is to use rock bolts for the walls.
The ore itself must be strong enough to stand totally unsupported.
Some artificial temporary supports can be used but of course it is
expensive and troublesome.
Physical or mineralogical characteristics of the ore may sometimes
restrict the application of shrinkage stoping. Examples include:
i) Some cohesive ores, when broken, may pack or cement
together. This probability increases in the stope where these
conditions are present:
- Ground water
- Wall pressure
- Chemical reactions
Production
The method advances upwards maintaining a relatively flat ceiling.
In some cases other forms may be made: wavy, stepped back or
inclined. The main factors affecting this could be:
- Drawpoint location
- Vein width
- Stope access
- Ventilation scheme
- Machinery
In practice, this is decided after the face is opened and actually
during mining of the stope, by the production team.
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In any case, it must be noted that, during the final draw, steep
cones may develop again, with the angle much more than the angle
of repose. This is more acute in narrow stopes and when water is
not used.
After final draw, the stope can be:
a) Left empty
b) Filled with development waste or mill tailing.
Coarse waste material poured into the stope
simultaneously with the final draw, has in practice
proved an effective ground control measure, but
of course, at the cost of some dilution and
decreased recovery.
Productivity and Costs
Productivity and costs in shrinkage method are more variable than
in any other underground method.
Least favorable conditions would be hard ore and narrow and
irregular veins. In these cases productivity could be as low as 10
tons per production man shift. Costs could be $30-40 per ton.
In most favorable conditions, productivity could be as high as 200
tons per production man shift and cost of some $3-4 per ton.
In unfavorable conditions, where mechanizability is limited,
productivity and costs are directly related to the skill of miners. In
such cases, piece work contracting is the most effective system.
Generally, productivity and costs are very sensitive to stope
dimensions and ore hardness.
In more favorable conditions, where larger and more regular stopes
can be adopted and some mechanization can be applied, then
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