Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute

A RATIONAL APPROACH TO VEDNTA

Author(s): Krishna S. Arjunwadkar
Source: Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 77, No. 1/4 (1996), pp. 223234
Published by: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute
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A RATIONAL APPROACH TO VEDNTA

By
Krishna S. Arjunwadkar
0. 1 This articleis addressedto such readersas are generallyconversant
withthecorpusof workson Vednta as shaped by thegreatamkara,known
as worksof theKevaldvaitaschool,consistingof thePrasthan
traditionally
trayl( the principalUpanisads, the Gt and the Brahmastrasof Bdarthereonby amkara,his minorworks,
yana ) and the extensivecommentaries
and the later treatisesby numerous authors based on the edificeraisedby
him. In presenting
myviewson varioussmall and great issues arisingfrom
thiscorpus, myattemptwould be not so muchto departfromthe traditional
standOn major issues as to separatethe superfluousfromtheessential,the
mythicalfromthescientific,so as to ensuregreaterlogical consistencyin the
essentialpartof theVednticthought. In so doing, I do not claim to have
discoveredan entirelynew method. What I shall attemptis a rigourous
applicationof themethodthegreatmasterhas alreadyenunciatedthroughout
his commentatorial
works.
0. 2 What necessitatessuch an inquiry? From a purelylogical point of
view, everyone of the threemainstaysof Vednta named above presentsla
numberof problemsfora criticalreader. Take the Upanisads,to startwith.
Theircontentswidelydifferfromeach other in outlook, details, consistency,
logical sequence,and also theclass of readersforwhomtheyare meant. This
literatureis so mixedin characterthatany attemptto cull a uniform,sustained theoryout of it would seem littleshortof jugglery. When one views
this literatureindependentlyof such attempts,one feels that the ancient
editorsof Vedic literaturemusthave classed as Upaniads all thattheycould
not includein the clearlydemarcatedritualisticliterature.1This hypothesis
explains the otherwisepuzzling term Upanisad,which,unlike the ancient
( mostly Westrn) relyingmore
( e. g. Samkara3) and modern interpreters
I understandas material sittingor staying ( ni-sad)
on an afterthought,
1 Anindirect
remark
is found
intheopening
indication
of thishypothesis
by aihkara
mantrh
karmasvaviniinhisbhsyaon theIsUvsya Upa. - svsyam
itydayo
yukth.
8 ya imiiibrahmavidym
... avidydisam... tesmanarthapgarh
nistayati
upayanty
sadr
srakranam
avasdayativinsayatlty
upanisat.upa-ni-prvasya
atyantam
introduction.
evamarthasmarant
/Mundaka-bhsya,

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224

Annals BORI , LXXVII ( 1996 )

( separately) near or nextto ( upa ) ( cp. upanysa) the alreadyclassed ritualisticmaterial. This editorialpolicyled to all typesof acrobaticson the part
of commentatorsto find connectionsbetweenportionspresumablyfromunrelatedsourcesbut traditionally
handeddown as sequential.
The mostglaringexampleof thishypothesisis the Isvsya Upanisad.
From a theologicalethics,throughstatementsbearingon realizationof the
truenatureof theSelfand liberationresultingfromit, to a ritualisticfuneral
prayerto thefire-godto lead thedead to the worldof bliss, - these are the
contentsof the Upanisad underreview. I am amused to find commentators,
ancient and modern, representingdifferentschools and outlooks, from
amkara to Vinoba, exertingtheir brainsto make out a connected teaching
fromthiswork. The Brhad-ranyakabeginswitha sustainedmetaphoron
sacrificialhorse: it is out of sorts with the main streamof thisUpanisad.
Large portionsof the bigger Upanisads are devoted to upsan, a generic
termformeditationaldevicesmeant,as the commentators
view, for preparing the mind for higherspiritualgoals. Seriousphilosophicaltheorization
(e. g., the dialogue betweenBhrguand Varuna in the Taittirya,well-known
for the conceptof five shieldsof the Self ) is followed by a referenceto
mundanebenefitsfor the knowerof high-levelphilosophy,viz., acquisition
and enjoymentof abundantfood, reputation,cattle and progeny!
0. 3 And Bdaryana is all out to prove thatthis is all consistent! The
whole of thefirstbook of the Brahmastrsis devotedto this objectand is
named samanvaya-adhyya.Such an effortcan be justifiedonly on the
groundthatthiswas theneed and the limitationof the time and the society
in whichsuch workswereproduced. The historyof human thoughttestifies
thatthereare two waysof introducing
changein traditionalthought ( i ) by
proposinga counter thoughtin open opposition to the tradition,-as, for
instance,did Crvka in ancient times,and the Mahnubhvas, Brhmo
Samj, Prrthan Samj etc. in medieval and recenttimes; ( ii ) by keeping
the outerframeintactand introducingchangesin a disguisedway, by way of
of the old, acceptedconcepts. The firstmode runsthe riskof
interpretation
being discarded by the society at large, the second, achievingits goal in a
disguisedway, gains social approval. Both themodes have their own justificationsbut Indian tradition,on the whole, seemsto have been prone to the
second. It was presumablyin realizationof thesocial trendthatthinkersof
India chose mostlythe second mode. Even amkaradoes not openlycontradict Bdaryana even where he does not agree with him; rather,he finds
the former'sstrasso as to make themyield
ingeniousways of interpreting
the view he thinks correct. The most conspicuous examples are : ( i )
offeredby
Brahmastra1.1. 12-19, where,disagreeingwiththe interpretation

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Arjunwadkar : A Ratioual Approachto Vednta

225

his predecessors,he interprets

wordsin the
themdifferently
by supplementing
where
he inverts
sutrawithhis own words; and ( ii ) Brahmastra4. 3. 7-14,
the usual order and places the purvapaksa view afterthe siddhntaview.
More such cases can be foundoria closerscrutiny. It is onlyon the considerationsstatedabove that we can justifythe stand takenby Bdaryajcia
and amkara. Since I have no reason to entertainsuch constraints,I can
affordto inquireinto the traditionalcontentsand standsof the Vednta.
1. 0 Beforewe take up the discussionof the specificissues fallingunder
our review,let us considera topicwe encounterat the portalsof thesystema geperal,common sense topic which workson Vednta sharewiththoseon
of thestudyof a system,
othersystems. The topic concernsthe pre-requisites
fourfoldinitialquery
or
the
as
the
known
anubandha-catustaya
conventionally
a systemhas to answer: ( 1) Who is qualified for the studyof the system
( adhikrin), ( 2 ) whatis its area of enquiry( visaya), ( 3 ) whatis its relation
withit ( sambandha), and ( 4 ) what is its object ( prayojana) ?3 The traditionalanswersto thesequeriesare i ( 1 ) one who is possessedof, briefly,the
discriminatingability ( viveka), an apathy towards, worldly enjoyments
( vairgya), such spiritual qualities as control of nind, of organs, etc.
( amadi-satka), (2) the basic unityof theindividualsoul withthe universal
principle,( 3 ) thesystemor the treatiseexposes the subject, and ( 4 ) liberaof this topic leaves an impressionon the
tion. The traditionaltreatment
it
is
neither
that
reader
logical nor complete.
enquiring
1. 1. 1 Let us examinethesepoints. I have been studyingVednta forthe
last fortyyearsor so ; but I confessI do not possess any of the qualifications
prescribedforthe studentof Vednta. And this is not, an isolated case t
mostof the teachersand thetaughtof this subject I have observedand am
informedof are foundas much involved in worldlyaffairsas any othersnot
interestedin this subject. Even Yjfiavalkya of the Bjrhad-ranyakafame,
acclaimed to be the greatestphilosopherand teacherof his times,was a
householderwithtwo wivesand a large propertyto apportionbetweenthem.
Are we, then,perpetuatinga tradition carried on mostly by unqualified
persons a scandalous situation?
In my view, this is clearly a case of confusingintellectualactivity
withspiritualpractice,-in otherwords, of mixing up theorywith applica3 tatrnubandho
nma-adhikri-visaya-sambandha-prayojanni
/ Vedntasra(NiroccursinSarhkara's
ecln.1894),Sec. 3. Theconceptfrequently
bhsya
nayasagara
... /
also. Vide,e. g., ato yathoktdhikri-visaya-prayojana-sambandhy
vidyyh
Katha Upa, introduction.
29 [ AnnalsBORI J

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226

Annals BORI ,LXXVII ( 1996 )

tion.4 Confrontedwiththisawkwardsituation,presumably,Syana, in the

introductionto his Bhsya on the Rgveda-samhil and the Taittiryasamhit,5proclaimed such a person to be qualifiedto studythe meaningof
the Vedas as has a desireto know it,-and not him who desires to perform
sacrificesand go to heaven. This naturallycompelledhim to changehis view
about the object, too, whichhe statedto be the acquisitionof theknowledge
of themeaning,-and not the acquisitionof heaven. I was delightedto find
someone, may be in a noii-Vednticcontext,who tried to rationalize the
conceptof the controversialanubandhaswithan eye on intellectualpursuits.
1. h 2 The question,however,remainsas to whatled the authorsof the
Vedntictreatisesto definethequalificationfor and the object of the study
of this subject witha bias towards the applied, ratherthan the theoretical,
aspect. The roots are of coursefound in Upanisads themselves. Sacrifices
can lead one only to heavenwhereone is permittedto stay only till one's
meritis exhausted. For eternalbliss, amrtatva,thereis only one means i
knowledgeof the Self. Withthisgoal in view, thesearchfor the real nature
of the self is taken up by the Upanisads. Following in these footsteps,
amkara interpretsthe word atha,6 meaning ' after' in Bdaryanajs first
'
sGtra,athtobrahmajijns, as afterthe acquisitionof the fourqualifying
*
means and thisis accompaniedby detailswhichformthebasis of the definition of thefirstanubandhafoundin later treatises. This is naturalin schools
based on scripturalauthority; yet it should not come in the way of our
attemptto siftthetheorycontentof the Vednta fromthe applied one.
1. 2 As to theremaininganubandhas,thereis hardlyany roomforcontroversyabout visaya, thesubject. What is really problematicis sambandha.
to expend timeand
If it means whatis traditionally
explained/ it is fruitless
to understand
of
a
brain
not
much
require
energyin expoundingit. It does
therelationa treatisehas withits subject. It is the same as that the lighthas
withthe object it illuminates; and an intelligentinquirerrequiresno help in
knowingwhatis obvious. As Vacaspati-misraremarks,that alone can be
* Theoldestclearmention
is foundin theconcombination
andtheir
ofthetwoaspects
ca krtsnam.
eth yogavidhir
oftheKatha Upanisadl. 3. II- vidym
pnrt
cluding
5 tadarthajnnam
cadmkari
/Kgveda-bhasya-bhumtka.
prayojanam/jnanarthi
.
cdhikri
evaprayojnam
tadbodha
/Taittiriya-bhsya-bhUmik
/tadbodhrth
6 tatrthasabda
namuiranna/ nityanityavastuviveKaii.
parigrnyate.
nantaryrthah
ca / ... tasmdathamumuksutvam
samadamdi-sdhanasarpat,
phalabhogavirgah,
Brahmastra-sahkaraupadis'yate/
sabdenayathoktasdliana-sampatty-nantaryam
bhsya.1. 1. 1.
7 sambandbas
ca bodbyatu tadaikya-prameyasya
pramnasya
tat-pratipdakopanisat
Sec.
4.
1894
edo.
Vedntasra
(
),
Nirnayasagara
/
bpdhakabhvah

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Arj UNWadkar : A Rational'Approachto Vednta

227

the subjectof a scientificenquirywhichinvolvessome elementof doubt and

has a purpose.8 How, one wonders,did such a topic finditsway intoVedantic works. A ray of light comes fromKumrila's introductionto lokavrttikawherehe mentionssambandhaand prayojanaas pointsthe authorof
a scientific
treatisehas to definedealing with the actual subject.9 What he
means by sambandhais not as clear as it should be ; but his commentator,
Parthasrathi,takesit to mean the occasion fortakingup the subjectfor, or
its relevanceto, discussionor exposition. For example, the studentsask a
questionwhich providesthe teacher with an occasion to expose a subject.10
All Pur3nasand worksin Purnic stylebeginlike that; and it is all rightto
incorporatesuch matterin workswrittenin a dialogue form.It is partof their
it is unnecessary
in thestyleof an essayor dissertation,
style. In workswritten
from
to incorporatesuch stuffin the corpus proper. Apart
this, it is a fact
thatthe termsambandhaas an.anubandha,is used by laterwritersin its comfromthatin whichit is
monerconnotation,viz. relation,altogetherdifferent
and
has lost even theslenas
used by Kumara interpreted
by Parthasrathi,
it had in its earliersense.
der justification
2. 0 While dicussingthe traditionalview regardingthe qualificationfor
and goal of the studyof Vednta, I have pointedout thetraditionalbias for
the applied aspect of theVednta. It has its own justification. All human
activityis guided by two goals : the pursuitof truthand the pursuitof
happiness. The firsturge has engaged human society in the search of
the outerand the inner world; and the second, in the developmentof all
thatis coveredbroadlyunderthe roof of culture. The firsturge has given
us knowledgein its purestsense,thesecond, all humansystemsand creations
fromlanguageto entertainment,
throughreligion,mythology,ethicsand art.
reveals
thatman has been huntingforknowledge
scientific
of
thought
History
his
in
of
its
utility meeting need of day-to-daylife; because the
irrespective
urgeto know is in itselfa powerfulinbornmotivein thehumanmind. Ma
is curiousby natureas may be observedin the movementsof a child; lack of
curiosityis theresultof unfavourableconditions-a giftof thehumansociety1
clear thatit does not standto reason to limit
This would make it sufficiently
the firsturge by the second. The approach of the classical writerson
Vednta has, however,lentmore weightto the applied outlook.
8 athayadasamdigdharo
ca natatpreksavat-pratipits-gocarah
aprayojanaih
/Bhamatt
1. 1. 1.
a stra-shkarbhsya,
onBrahtn
jntrtham
sroturh
srotapravartate
/
jsiasambandham
satftbandhah
tenavaktavyah
introduction.
sstrdau
//Sloka-varttka,
saprayojanah
10 Sambandhah
... sisyaprasnnantaryasstrSvatara-hetubbutah
/ yathasstrantaresu
onversecitedabove.
'bhidhyate
/Nyya-ratnkara,
rpa-sarhbandho

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228

Annals BORI , LXXVIl ( 1996 )

2. 1 In fact, aihkara himselfcategoricallybringsout the role of knowledge vis-a-visaction : thefirstis based on independentevidence,the second,
on humanwill. When a perceiverviewsa tree, no amountof his will would
make it non-treeor other-than-a-tree.When it is a matterof an action, it is.
entirelyleftto his will to do or not to do it, as also, do it thisway r that
way.11 However, to view a man as a lion for his braverydepends entirely
on theviewer'swill. Hence it is a-mentalaction. In a mentalactionlike this,
betweenthetwoobjectshe is identithe vieweris fullyaware of the difference
is
an
identification
such
different
Since
fromthe perfundamentally
fying.12
as
is
thecognitionbased
ceptionof an object theobject,it necessaryto identify
'. Thus
on humanwill as a separatecategory.I name it the willedcognition
thereare in all threecategoriesof cognition: true,false and willed.13 It is
possibleto class the firsttwo categoriesof thisclassificationas objectiveand
pose it in contrastto the thirdone. The corollaryis : trueknowledgestands
independentof its applied aspect, whilethe latteris a matterof will. Knowledge comes as a forcewhichwe are not freeto deny.
contentin Vednta
3. 0 We are now in a position to sift the scientific
is
What
established
on
the
one.
of evidence- perthe
from mythical
,
strength
is
scientific
Vednta
inference
all
rest
is
and
the
;
myth.We can thus
ception
set aside as mythall thatthe Upanisads containwhichis not and cannot be
supportedby secular, independentevidence,and is hencea matter of will
which,among otherthings,includesfaiths,beliefs,conventionsand imaginations. Our searchin thisdirectionstartsfromtheframingstoriesof Upanisadic expositions. It is customaryin laterVednticworksto take thesestories
as historyand cite themin support of a point in discussion. A couple of
instancesmay help us to understandthis point. To the objection that a
knowledgeof the Self of the naturetheVedntinmaintainsis not possible,
the rise of such knowamkara repliesby sayingthatthescripturesdo affirm
ledge as, forinstance,in theconclusionof the dialogue betweenAruni and
of theGita, like Tilak, who viewthe work
vetaketu.14 Modern interpreters
11 kartum
akartum
v kartum
laukikam
ca karma/yath
vaidikam
anyath
sakyam
'svena
tuvastv
evamastinstti
anyath
v,nav gacchatti/...na
v vikapadbhyra,
gacchati,
tupurusabudbyapeksh,
navastu-ythtmya-jnnam
/vikalpans
Ipyate
purusabudhyevatat/BrahmasUtra-shkarabhsya
/kimtarhi?vastutantram
apeksam
, 1. 1.2.
18 prasiddha-vastubhedasya
gaunatva-mukhyatva-prasiddheh
vastu/ yasyahiprasiddho
krtiviseso
bhedah.-yathkesardimn
'navaya-vyatirekbhym
simhasabda-pratyayatatascnyahpurusah
bhnmukhyo
'nyahprasiddhah
pryikaih
krauryasaurydibhih
siddhah,-asya
sampannah
purusesimha-sabdapratyayau
simhagunaih
gaunaubra/BrahmasMra-shkarabhsya
vatali,oprasiddha-vastubhedasya
, 1. 1. 4.
discussion
of thissubject,
videmyarticle TheAnatomy
Fora detailed
ofReligion
'
NewQuest, Pune,Vol 108,Nov.-Dec.1^94.
*taddbsya
i* ma ceyamavagatir
itisakyate
notpadata
vaktum,
vijajau' itydisruti1.
14.
2.
Brahmasutra-Bhsya
/
bbyal?

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Arjunwaka : A Rational Approachto Vedanta

229

as a gospel of activismtake Arjuna's wordsat theend of thiswork15in their

literalsense and pointto his subsequent role in the ensuingwar as an evidence. This may be in tune with the orthodox view that scripturesare a
valid means of knowledgeof realitywhichis beyondthescope of theordinary
meansof knowledge; but withthisview, it is impossible to make any headway towardsseparatingthe scientificcontentin Vednta literaturefromthe
mythicalone. To make thistask possible, I am settingaside the traditional
viewthatSabda or scriptureis an unquestionablemeans of knowledge. And
I do not repenthavingtaken thisstand.
Even amkaradoes not, in general,seemto takethesestoriesas history.
Whileinterpreting
the storyof Prajpatiand his threeclasses of sons- gods,
men and demons, occurringin the Bfhad-ranyaka,he observesthat they
of human beingsonly.16 ariikarahas thus opened up
representthreetraits,
the purportof mythicalelementin Upaa new directionin understanding
of
nisads. What is surprisingis thateven thosewho accept his interpretation
the above episode declineto apply the same principleelsewhere. Apartfrom
this, it is obvious that by no flightof imaginationcan storieslike thatof
Naciketasand Yama be consideredhistorical. What applies to such stories
can as well apply to storieslike those of Yajavalkya and Janaka, vetaketu
and Aruni, Jnasrutiand Raikva, Nrada and Sanatkumra. I concede that
some of these names may be historical,but the situationswoven around
them can be imaginary,particularly,when some stories are shown to be
so definitely.As amkaraoftenremarks,storiesin the Upanisads are means
in praiseof the knowledgeimparted.17This is a perfectlyrationalview. In
of theGita who base
thelightof thisdiscussion,attemptsof the interpreters
theirargumentson exampleslike thatof Janaka would appear to have been
outlook or of a pre-conceived.external
bornout of the ignoranceof scientific
motive. Mythscannot be entertainedas evidencein scientific
thinking.
4. 0 Why? To answerthisquestion, it is necessaryto definethe frameit is necessarythat
evidence. For a theoryto be scientific
workof scientific
it can be verifiedby normalmeans of knowledge,viz., perceptionand inference. In other words, it must be secular. Anythingbased on faithor the
experienceof a particularpersondoes not fitin this framework. This does
15 nastomohahsmrtir
labdhatvatprasa,dan
mayacyuta
/
Gita 18.73.
sthito
'smigatasaidehah
vacanarii
karisye
tava//
16 athavna devaasurv 'nyekecanavidyante
evdnt
manusyebhyah
/manusynm
devlobhapradhn
tathbimsparh
uttamagunaih
sarhpannste
manusys
ye'nyair
asurasta evamanusy
bhakrr
adntatvdidosatrayam
apeksyadevdisabdabhjo
ca gunnsattvarajastamrhsyapeksya
vanttarms
5.2.
/Brhad-raHyakabhsya,
11 akhyyika
/ Taittiriya-bhsya
vidyastutaye,
priyaya
putrya
pitrokteti
, 3. 1.

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23

Annals BORI , LXXVIt (1996 )

not mean that whateveris proposed withinthisframeworkis final. Any

scientific
propositionis subjectto correctionin thelightof new evidence.And
thereis a methodof correcting
a scientific
theory.In ordinarymatters,it may
be foundenoughfordiscardinga propositionto say thatI am not convinced.
But in mattersscientific,such an attitudeis of no consequence. To disprove
a theoryscientifically,
one has to provethatit is based on wrongor insufficient evidence.
4. 1 Does Vedntictheoryanswerthese requirements
? I, for one, think
it does. What physical science does in the fieldof outer world, Vednta
does in thatof the inner world,- the Self; and the fundamentalevidenceit
offersto substantiateits claims in thisarea are a matterof everybody'sexpebetweenthenaturesof evidenceofferedin physirience. The basic difference
cal sciencesand in Vednta is thatwhilethe formeris relatedto senseperception, immediatelyor distantly,th3 latter is related to mental perception
of sense organs. Can one denyone's own mental
withoutthe intervention
If
one
whatmeans is there to attest one's happinessor
?
can,
perception
sorrow? The awarenessof I-ness,the role the ' I ' playsas thesubstratumof
all cognition,awarenessof the identityof the cognizer throughall states of
consciousness,the thinkingprocess,judgmentsand evaluations,pleasureand
pain, - what witnessforall theseis thereexceptoneself? All theoriesconcerningart and literatureare foundedon the experienceof connoissurs,which
lacks objectiveevidence. To denytheseis to contradictoneself,and contradictionsdo not have an honorableplace in scientific
thinking.
who insist that, to provethe existenceof the
4. 2 It is onlythe ignorant,
a laboratoryproof or a proofthat would fit
to
it
is
produce
necessary
Self,
in the establishedframework. The holymen who persecutedGalileo forhis
contentionthat the earth is sphericaldo not differfromthis class. They
demandedof him a proof thatfellwithinthe orbitof theirframeof evidence
- the Bible. What is relevantin scientific
thinkingis theinsistenceon evidence
a
and
not
on
to
particulartypeof evidence. Would it be
open verification,
reasonableon the part of the blind to insistthathe.would accept only such
proofof the colour of a flowerthatcould be testedby touch or smell? Did
the holy men challengingGalileo behave in any otherway?
4. 3 This is true as far as theoriesultimatelyrelated to perceptionare
concerned. When thisis not possible, scientificthinkingproposes hypotheses to build up theories. No scientificfieldcan help proposing hypotheses
and thereis nothingwrongin doing so. Hypotheseshave their own logic ;
theyexplainwhat finallyrelates to our experience. Only in such cases can
hypothesesbe regarded logical and acceptable. Random imaginationsnot

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Arjunwadkr : A Rational Approachto Vednta

231

relevantto experienceare not hypotheses. The strengthof thelinkbetween

hypothesesand experiencedecides themeasureof the logical acceptabilityof
thehypotheses
fromimpossibility,
throughpossibility. Theoriesof creationof
theworldfigurein all old traditions.Those of themwhichassignthisworkto
a personalGod - a hypothesisin itself- have littlelogical acceptability. The
an impersonalhypothesisleaning towards evolution,but
.Upanisadsoffering
not ia a Darwiniansense, ranka littlehigheron logical grounds. However,
Bdaryaiia,who is said to have systematized
Upanisadic philosophy,appears
to lean towardsthe conceptof a personalGod, as is evidentfromhis discussion of such chargesas God is partialand cruel, and his defencethat God
rewardsor punishesthejivas on considerationof the meritor demeritof their
own- again, a hypothesis.13George Thibautseemsto be rightin raisingthe
to Bdaryana.19In myopinion,when
questionwhetheramkarawas faithful
it came to givingpriorityto one over the other,amkara placed Upanisads
higherthan Bdaryana. At the same time he was vigilant to guard the
autonomyof scientificthinkingas is clear fromhis remark thatit cannotbe
acceptedas valid even if a hundredrutipassages were to declarethatfireis
cold and lightless.20Along withthis can be read his remarkthat, in matters
relatingto experience, -and Vedntic theory is positively so- actual
experiencehas as muchrelevanceas rutiwhereverit is applicable.
5.0 As we go further
in our inquiryof Vednticcontentsas handeddown
by tradition,we come to the search of the Self based on an analysisof our
statesof consciousnessand theconclusionsand generalizationsdrawnfromit
witha constantreferenceto everybody'sactual experienceare in perfecttune
withthe scientific
method of search. What physicalsciencesdo in the area
of the materialworld, Vednta does in thatof the spiritualworld. Vednta,
thus, is spiritualscience. Any scienceworthits name definesits subjectand
drawsconclusionsbased on evidenceof a universalcharacter. No dogma,
howsoevertime-honoured
and acceptedby popular mind, is allowed to interfere with its conclusion. Vednta lives up to this discipline of scientific
thinkingeven at theriskof beinglabelled as atheistic,and is as secularas any
otherscience. That partof theVednta whichdoes notfollowthisdiscipline
is Vednticmythology
preservedside by side with its scientificfindingsonly
as a legacy.
18 VideBrahmasutra
, 2. 1. 34-36.
19 4... whether
or notSamkara's
theintended
of
render
explanations
faithfully
meaning
s withthecommentary
theauthor
ofthestras.'Vedanta-sUtra
bySamkarcrya
,
SacredBooksoftheEast,Vol.XXXIV,Introduction,
1890.
p,xv,Oxford,
20 nahisrutisatam
iGtt-shkaraapi sito 'gnirapraksovetibruvat
upaiti
prmyam
ekatrasadbhva^
tamahpraks'ayor
, 18.66; also,see: a hi vidhisatenpi
bhsya
kartum...
, introduction.
/Mundaka-bhsya
sakyate

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232

Annas BORI , LXXVII ( 1996)

6. 0 As part of such legacy may be mentionedthe traditionalmacro,

to micro, categoriesof the statesof consciousnessof the soul.21
corresponding
The threestatesof consciousnessof the soul - the waking,the dreamingand
the deep sleep- are a matterof verybody'sexperienceand undeniable.22To
make room for a personalGod in their system,Vednticwriters( Vidyranya, for instance) indulge in proposing correspondingcategoriesof a
macro beingwithdetailsof theirnamesand functions( e. g. Is vara or Antarymin,Hiranyagarbhaor Stratman,Virj etc.), goingbeyondwhatis propounded in the Mandkya Upanisad on the microlevel. I am amused to
findeven Gaudapda, who does not take ruti passages detailingcreationintheir literal sense but as a pedalogical device, indulgesin specifying
the
seats of the Self at the micro level,viz., in thrighteye, mind and heart,
during the states of waking,dreamingand thedeep sleep respectively.24I
Vednta is benefitedby thistypeof discourse. Can
do not thinkthe scientific
we say that this is another instance of Indian style of introducingnew
thoughtas suggestedearlier?
7. 0 Followingin thefootstepsof the macro outlook came the conceptof
or progressiveliberation. We are informedthatthoseaspirants
karma-mukti
liberation
of
who are not perfectedduring theirlife timeand henceshort
of realizationare promoted to the level of the creator-godBrahman, with
whomtheystayuntilhis termof creatorshipis completed, and are liberated
togetherwithhim when he completes his term.25 Bdaryana devotesthe
second and the thirdquartersof the fourthchapterof his strasto a detailed
discussionof thissubject. Taking clue from the concept of karma-mukti,
the devotionalsects floated the idea of four( or five? ) graduallyascending
6 All thismilitatesagainstthe basic conceptof liberation
typesof liberation/
mixedup withphiloas discussedin detail by amkara.27 This is mythology
to
another
belief
is
in
order
There
that,
get liberated,a man of
sophy.
a
summer
to
follow
realizationhas
specificschedule,
solstice,brightfortnight
and daytime. Bhsma of Mahbhrata fame, lyingon an arrow-bedas a
91 VidePancadas!, 6. 4
Vedntasar
a,.Sec.7, 13,17.
22 videMandkyaUpanisadwhich
is devoted
tothisanalysis
only.
fl3 mrllohavisphuliiigdyaih
srstir ycodita'nyatha
/
3. 15.
...//
upyahso 'vatrya
Mndukya-krik
24 Mandukya
karika 1.2.
26 Thisis summed
from
stanzaquotedbySarhkara
anuntraced
source
upinthefollowing
:
meare/
sahatesarvesamprpte
brahman
pratisa
pravisanti
parampadam //Brahmasiitra-shkarabhaparasyntekrttmnah
sya,4. 3. 11.
VideBhagavata-Purna,3. 29. 13.
a7 VideBrahmasutra~&ahkarabhasya
, 1. 1. 4.

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Arjunwadkr s A Rational Approachto Vtdnta

233

dyingman, is supposed to have postponed his death to fitit in thisschedule.

Bdarayana explodes this schedule myth,'28but accepts the concept of
liberation. In line with thisis the theorythat, unlike ordinary
progressive
people who, at the timeof death leave the body throughone or the otherof
of yoga leaves the body through
a hundredand one arteries,a practitioner
in
theone ( named susumn) reachingthe top of his head. This difference
of the person
themannerof dyingaccountsfor the returnand non-return
concernedto the worldof mortals.9 This is pseudo-philosophyimposedon
laterwritersby theirvoluntarycommitmentto all that is containedin the
Upanisads. This justifiesour effortto separate'philosophyfrommythology
in Vednta.
8. 0 The mostillustriouscase of the effectof the mixednatureof reputed
philosophicalworkswould be foundin the enormousmass of literaturethat
has grown around the Bhagavad-gt through centuries. The very first
of
obstacleencounteredin understandingthis textis to take the frame-story
ends
reluctance
to
and
It
with
as
thiswork history.
fight
Arjuna's
begins
withhis willingness. What passes in betweenmustbe gearedto the goal of
inducementto action. This is simplisticlogic. Those who take thisviewdo
not realizethatstoriesin philosophical works are partsof styleand servea
decorativepurpose. That theycontain names which smack of historicityis
no reasonwhytheyshould affectthe natureof the philosophicalcontentof
theseworks. To thinkthattheydo is to disturbthe whole logical structure
whenone realizesthat
of th theory. This point is all the more significant
some of these stories are purely imaginaryand are no morethanliterary
the Gta story,an informedreader
embellishments.Consideringparticularly
of
the
reminded
is unmistakably
metaphorof the chariot occurringin the
Katha Upanisad30from which the Gta has borrowed considerably,with
littlechangein some instances. What theauthorof the Gta has done is to
givespecificnames to the charioteerand the warriorfroma well-knownstory
to make it more picturesque. To take it literallyis to minimisethe fieldof
applicationof the original metaphorand reducingthe philosophical-significanceof thecelebratedworkdesignedto guide a sincereman on the path of
spiritualprogress. Gta is a commonman's manual of sdhan. It presumes
28 VideBrahmasutra-shkarabhasya
4. 2. 20-21.
ay satamcaikca nrdayasya
aDnmihsrtaiKa

naqyastasammurdnanam
eti... H Katha Upa. 2. 3. 16.
yannamrtatvam
tayordhvam
80 tmnam
ratham
vatu/
rathinarh
viddhi
sarram
evaca //
manahpragraham
tusrathim
viddhi
buddhim
tesugocarn
/
haynahurvisayms
indriyni
hurmansiaah
//Kafha Upanisad,1. 3. 3.-4.
bhoktety
tmendriyamanoyuktam
30 [AnnalsBORI[

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234

Annals BORI

LXXVIl (1996 )

Upanisadic conceptsof knowledgeand liberationand shows how a spiritually

inclinedman can make spiritualprogresseven white leading a worldlylife.
Sdhan is applied philosophy. This takes us back to the point wherewe
started,-thatin Vednticworkswe have a mixtureof theoryand application.
The Gita is perhapsthe onlyVednticwork whichlimitsitselfto application
and is, therefore,theleast mixed up of old treatises.
9. 0 Vedata, when separated fromits mythologicalcontent, is thus a
as physicsand chemistry.Like everybranch
thoughtas secularand scientific
of science, it has developed its own tools of search, and justifiedits hypothesesin mostcases by tallyingtheiroutcomewithuniversalexperience. The
mythologicalcontentmixedin it is the legacyof umpteencenturiesand sepacontentis sure to be takenas sacrilege. My effort
ratingit fromits scientific
obserto a few; for, as JtKrishnamurti
is, therefore,bound.to be restricted
ves, our thinkingfacultyis influencedand restrictedby our cultural tradition. This is best illustratedby the remarks of Col. Jacob, a reputed
Western editor of many Sanskrit works including the Vedntasra of
Sadnanda. In the concluding part of his introductionto this work, he
says that, despitehis greatappreciationforthe intellectualabilityand achievementof Indian thinkersand his sustained effortsto understandVednta,
he cannothelp thinkingthat ' the Bible is just the revelationwe need ' ; for,
the Vednta ' abolishes God, as an unreality,and substitutesan impersonal
It withno consciousness,whilstits highestnotionof bliss is the annihilation
'
of personality.' He further
pleads, with Indian friendsin mind : like the
sacred books of all the other great religionsof the world, it ( the Bible)
came to us fromAsia.*31
9. 1 To leave no room forsuch a misunderstanding
of my efforts,let me
make it clear thatI am not againstthe path of devotion. I fullyunderstand,
admireand even enjoyit as muchas I do literatureand art. In my paper
entitled"The Anatomy of Religion" ( Vide Note 13 ), I have discussed
how cricket,poetryand religionare foundedon a single phenomenonI have
named ' willedcognition'. It is a common experiencethat, in his private
capacity,a scientistis as muchhumanas are his fellowbeings; but this fact
does not and should not come in his way of pronouncingscientificconclusions. s I have alreadyobserved,man's activitiesare guidedby two goals :
the searchof truthand the searchof happiness; and theyhave endowedtwo
preciousgiftson humansociety- scienceand culture. To thinkthattheyare
opposed to each otherrevealsa grossignoranceof thehistoryof man's intellectual and creativeachievementsthroughcenturies.
31 Vedntasra( Nirnayasagara
edn.1894).Jntro.
p. xi.

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