CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO SUBSRFACE MAPPING

It focuses on subsurface geological mapping techniques and their application
to the petroleum industry. These techniques are important and applicable to other
fields of study, and geologists, geophysicists, engineers, and student in related fields
such as mining, groundwater, or waste disposal should benefit from this text as well.
The objectives of subsurface petroleum geology are to find and develop oil
and gas reserves. These objectives are best achieved by the use and integration of
all the available data and the correct application of these data. This textbook covers
the construction of subsurface maps and cross sections based upon data obtained
from seismic sections and well logs. It is concerned with correct mapping techniques
and how to use these techniques to generate the most reasonable subsurface
interpretation that is consistent with all the data.
Subsurface geological maps are perhaps the most important vehicle used to
explore for undiscovered hydrocarbons and to develop proved hydrocarbon
reserves. However, the subject of subsurface mapping is probably the least
discussed yet most important aspect of petroleum exploration and exploitation. As a
field is developed from its initial discovery, a large volume of well log, seismic, and
production data are obtained. With these data, the accuracy of the subsurface
interpretation is improved through time. The most accurate interpretation for any
specific oil or gas field can only be prepared after the field has been extensively
drilled and most of the hydrocarbons have been depleted. However, accurate and
reliable subsurface interpretations are required throughout the life of the field.
During the life of a producing field, many management decisions are based on
the interpretation geologists present on subsurface maps. These decisions involve
investment capital to purchase leases, permit and drill wells, and workover or
recomplete wells, just to name a few. An exploration or exploitation prospect
generator must employ the best and most accurate methods available to find and
develop hydrocarbon reserves at the lowest cost per net equivalent barrel.
Therefore, when preparing subsurface maps, it is essential to use all the available
data, evaluate all possible interpretations, and use the most accurate mapping
techniques to arrive at a finished that is consistent with correct geologic models.
All energy companies expect positive economic results through their
ecploration and exploitation efforts. Some companies are more successful than

others. Many factors lead to success, including advanced technology, aggressive

management, experience and serendipity. A significant underlying cause of success
that is often overlooked or taken for granted, however, is the quality of the
subsurface

geological mapping. The application of the numerous mapping

techniques presented

in this book should improve the quality of subsurface

interpretations. This improved quality should positively impact any companys

economic picture. This is accomplished by ;
1. Developing the most reasonable subsurface interpretations for the area
being studied, even in areas where the data are sparse or absent.
2. Generating more accurate and reliable exploration and exploitation prospect
(thereby reducing the associated risk).
3. Correctly integrating geological, geophysical, and engineering data to
establish the best development plan for a field discovery.
4. Optimizing hydrocarbon recoveries through accurate volumetric reserve
estimates.
5. Planning a more successful development drilling, recompletion, and
workover depletion plan.
6. Accurately evaluating and developing any required secondary recovery
pragrams.
THE PHILOSOPHICAL DOCTRINE OF SUBSURFACE MAPPING
Our philosophical doctrine of subsurface mapping is designed to provide
geologist, geophysicists, and petroleum / mining engineers with the tools necessary
to prepare the most reasonable subsurface interpretations. In our quest for
hydrocarbons, we are always searching for excellence. The material contained in
this book can serve as a teaching medium, as well as a source of reference for
conducting subsurface investigations beginning with the initial stages of exploration,
continuing through field development, and ending at enhanced recovery. Our basic
subsurface mapping philosophy, which is discussed in detail throughout the book, is
summarized as follows.
1. One essential requirement is a good understanding of the basic principles
of structural geology, petroleum geology, stratigraphy, and other related
disciplines.
2. Correct mapping techniques and methods are essential to prepare accurate
and geologically reasonable maps and cross sections.

3. Accurate correlations (well log and seismic) are paramount for reliable
geologic interpretations.
4. Fault and structure map integration is a must for accurate constructions of
completed structure maps in faulted areas.
5. Balanced cross sections are required to prepare a reasonably correct
restoration of complexly deformed structures.
6. Multiple horizon mapping is essential to support the integrity of any
structural interpretation.
7. Interpretive contouring is the most acceptable method of contouring
subsurface structure maps.
8. All of the subsurface data must be used to develop a reasonable and
accurate subsurface interpretation.
9. The documentation of all work is an integral part of the work.
10. Sufficient time must be allotted to conduct a detailed subsurface mapping
study.
TYPES OF SUBSURFACE MAPS AND CROSS SECTIONS
When conducting any detailed subsurface geologic study, a variety of maps
and cross sections may be required. The numerous techniques available to use in
the preparation of these maps and sections are discussed in subsequent chapters.
As mentioned earlier, the primary focus of this book is on the maps and cross
sections used to find and develop hydrocarbons. However, the techniques are
applicable to many other related geologic fields. The following is a list of the types of
maps and sections discussed in this book.
Subsurface maps. Structure , structural shape, porosity top and base, fault
surface, unconformity, salt, net sand, net hydrocarbon, net oil, net gas, interval
isopach, isochore, facies, and palinspastic maps.
Cross sections. Structure, stratigraphic, problem solving, final ilustration,
balanced, and correlation section. Conventional and isometric fence diagrams and
three dimensional models are also presented.

CHAPTER 2
CONTOURING AND CONTOURING TECHNIQUES
Three dimensional perspective.
In this section, we show three dimensional surface are represented by
contours in map view. A good understanding of three dimensional geometry is
essential to any at tempt at reconstructing a picture of the subsurface. Some
geologist have an innate ability to visualize in three dimensions, while others do not.
One of the best ways to develop this ability is to practice perceiving objects in three
dimensions.
In its simplest form, we can view a plane dipping in the subsurface with
respect to the horizontal. ( the reference datum for all the examples shown is sea
level). Figure 2 i shows an isometric view of a plane dipping at an angle of 45 deg
with respect to the horizontal and a projection of that dipping plane upward onto a
horizontal surface to form a contour map. This dipping plane intersects an infinite
number of horizontal planes ; but, for any contour map, only a finite set of evenly
spaced horizontal plane intersections can be used to construct the map. (example ;
for a subsurface structure contour map, the intersections used may be 50 ft,100 ft, or
even 500 ft apart). By choosing evenly spaced finite values, we have established the
contour interval for the map.
Next, it is important to choose values for the contour lines that are easy to
use. For example, if a 100 ft contour interval is chosen, then the contour line values
selected to construct the map should be in even increments of 100 ft, such as 700 ft,
7100 ft, 7200 ft, etc. Any increment of 100 ft could be chosen, such as 7040 ft, 7140
ft, and 7240 ft. This approach, however, makes the map more difficult to construct
and harder to read and understand. In fig. 2-1, a 100 ft contour interval was chosen
for the map (the minus sign in front of the depth value indicates the value is below
sea level). The intersection of each horizontal plane with the dipping plane results in
a line of intersection projected into map view on the contour map above the isometric
view. This contour map is a twodimensional representation of the three dimensional
dipping plane.
Now we shall complicate the picture by introducing a dipping surface that is
not a plane but is curved (Fig. 2-2). The curved surface intersects

an infinite

number of horizontal planes, as did the plane in the first example. Each intersection
results in a line of intersection which everywhere has the same value. By projecting

these lines into plan view onto a contour map, a three dimensional surface is
represented in two dimensions. If we consider the curved surface as a surface with a
changing slope, then the spacing of the contours on the map is representative of the
change in slope of the curved surface. In other words, steep slopes are represented
by closely spaced contours, and gentle slopes are represented by widely spaced
contours (Fig. 2-3). This relationship of contour spacing to change in slope angle
assumes that the contour interval for the map is constant.
Finally, look at a three dimensional subsurface formation that is similar in
shape to a topographic elongated anticline and a contour map of that surface (Fig. 24). The contour