Process Guidelines

Doc.
N: WIP-SIPS-PCS-001
WORK IMPROVEMENT PLAN
Rev.: A
PROCESS DESIGN GUIDELINES
Date: 08/02/08
Page 1 of 87
WIP-SIPS-PCS-001
08/02/08
First Issue
RM
PCS
GP
PCS
GP
ENG
Date
Revision
Description of Revision
Prepared by
Checked by
Approved by
Doc. N: WIP-SIPS-PCS-001

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 2 of 87
REVISION RECORDING
Date
Revision
Description of Revision
Prepared by
Checked by
Approved by
08/02/08
First Issue
RM
PCS
GP
PCS
GP
ENG

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 3 of 87
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................4
2.
RESPONSIBILITY ....................................................................................................................4
3.
SCOPE......................................................................................................................................4
4.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ........................................................................................................5
5.
FORMULA ................................................................................................................................6
6.
INSULATION SPECIFICATION FOR PIPING..........................................................................9
7.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION .......................................................................................10
8.
SELECTION OF THERMODYNAMIC MODEL IN HYSYS.....................................................11
9.
PIG LAUNCHER AND RECEIVER.........................................................................................14
10.
PUMP SELECTION AND SYSTEM DESIGN .........................................................................16
11.
VESSEL SELECTION AND SIZING.......................................................................................25
12.
HEAT EXCHANGERS ............................................................................................................28
13.
COLUMNS & TOWERS..........................................................................................................34
14.
COMPRESSORS AND VACUUM EQUIPMENT ....................................................................36
15.
SAFETY SYSTEM & PSV DESIGN........................................................................................38
16.
PIPE SIZING ...........................................................................................................................43
17.
SELECTION OF VALVES ......................................................................................................48
18.
FLARE SYSTEM ....................................................................................................................57
19.
HEAT TRANSFER FLUID (HTF) SYSTEM DESIGN .............................................................71
20.
COOLING WATER SYSTEM DESIGN...................................................................................72
21.
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS ................................................................................................74
22.
CHILLED WATER SYSTEM...................................................................................................75
23.
CHILLED BRINE SYSTEM.....................................................................................................76
24.
DM WATER SYSTEM.............................................................................................................77
25.
STEAM SYSTEM ....................................................................................................................78
26.
PLANT & INSTRUMENT AIR SYSTEM .................................................................................80
27.
NITROGEN GENERATION SYSTEM ....................................................................................82
28.
INCINERATOR SYSTEM .......................................................................................................83
29.
EFFLUENT TREATMENT SYSTEM.......................................................................................84
30.
PROCESS CONTROLS .........................................................................................................86
31.
REFERENCE ..........................................................................................................................87

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 4 of 87
1.
INTRODUCTION
This guideline generally outlines the methods for designing the process systems.
2.
RESPONSIBILITY
The design engineer shall be responsible for carrying out the Process system design. The
respective lead engineer shall counter check the correctness of calculations and design.
3.
SCOPE
This guideline covers the following subjects in detail:
1)
Formulas
2)
Material of construction
3)
Storage tank selection and sizing
4)
Vessel selection and sizing
5)
Pump selection and sizing
6)
Line sizing and selection
7)
Control valve selection and sizing
8)
Compressor selection
9)
Safety valve relief load calculation and selection
10) Raw water / service water / potable water system design
11) Cooling water system design
12) Chilled water / chilled brine system design
13) DM water system design
14) Steam & condensate system design
15) Service and Instrument air system design
16) Nitrogen generation / storage system design
17) Oxygen storage and system design
18) Diesel / Fuel oil / LSHS storage and handling system design
19) Flare system design and selection
20) Chemicals storage and handling system design
21) Process control
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 5 of 87
4.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Property
Heat
Capacity
Units
Water
Organic
Liquids
Steam
Air
Organic
Vapors
KJ/kg C
4.2
1.0 - 2.5
2.0
1.0
2.0 - 4.0
Btu/lb F
1.0
0.239 - 0.598
0.479
0.239
0.479 - 0.958
kg/m
1000
700 - 1500
1.29@STP
lb/ft
62.29
43.6 - 94.4
0.08@STP
KJ/kg
1200 - 2100
200 - 1000
Btu/lb
516 - 903
86 - 430
W/m C
0.55 - 0.70
0.10 - 0.20
0.025 - 0.070
0.025 - 0.05
0.02 - 0.06
Btu/h ft F
0.32 - 0.40
0.057 - 0.116
0.0144 - 0.040
0.014 - 0.029
0.116 - 0.35
cP
1.8 @ 0C
**See Below
0.01 - 0.03
0.02 - 0.05
0.01 - 0.03
10-1000
1.0
0.7
0.7 - 0.8
Density
Latent Heat
Thermal
Cond.
Viscosity
0.57 @ 50C
0.28 @ 100C
0.14 @ 200C
Prandtl
Number
1 - 15
** Viscosities of organic liquids vary widely with temperature

Liquid density varies with temperature by:
L (TC T ) 0.3
Gas density can be calculated by:
G =
MW P
Z R T
Boiling Point of Water as a Function of Pressure:
Tbp = P 10 9
0.25
Tbp in C ; P in MPa
Density of Metals
Metal
Density
(kg/m)
Aluminum
3500
Carbon Steel
7800
Galvanized Iron
6000
Stainless Steel
8000
Titanium
4000
FRP
2000

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 6 of 87
5.
FORMULA
5.1
VOLUME AND SURFACE AREA

Volume and surface area for different shapes and sections are:
Section
Volume
Surface area
Sphere
D/ 6
Hemi-head
D / 12
D/ 2
S.E.head
D / 24
1.084D
Ellipsoidal head
D l / 6
2R + (l / e) ln ((1+ e)/(1 e))
100 60% F& D head
0.08467D
0.9286D
F & D head
2R K / 3
R ( 1+ l2/ R (2 l/R))
Cone
D l / 12
Dl / 2cos
Truncated cone
( l (D + D d + d) ) / 12
((D + d)/2) sqrt (l+((D d)/2))
30 Truncated cone
0.227(D d)
1.57(D d)
Cylinder
D l / 4
Dl
.
Where
l = Height of cone, depth of head or length of cylinder
= one- half apex angle of cone
D = Large diameter of cone / diameter of head or cylinder
R = Radius
r = Knuckle radius of F & D head
L = Crown radius of F & D head
h = Partial depth of horizontal cylinder
K,C = Coefficients
d = Small diameter of truncated cone
V = Volume
K=
L
2r
L L
1 + 1
R
R
R R
e = 1
l2
R2

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 7 of 87
5.2
PARTIAL VOLUME FOR HORIZONTAL VESSELS

Volume of cylinder (V1)

V1 = L R 2
sin( ) cos( )
57.3
h
cos( ) = 1 R
= Degrees{ A cos()}
Volume of Head (V2) (both heads)
V2 = 2 0.215 h (3R h )
Total Volume (V)
V = V1 + V2
5.3
PARTIAL VOLUME FOR VERTICAL VESSELS

Volume of cylinder (V1)
V1 =
D2h
Volume of Head (V2) (one head)
V2 = 0.215 h (3R D )
Total Volume (V)
V = V1 + V2
5.4
WETTED AREA FOR HORIZONTAL VESSELS

Wetted area of cylinder (A1)
A1 = R 2 ( Ar cos(1 h / R) ) L
Wetted area of heads (A2) (heads are assumed to be hemispherical) (two heads)
RH
A2 = 2R 2 1
Total wetted area (A)

A = A1 + A2

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 8 of 87
5.5
WETTED AREA FOR VERTICAL VESSELS

Wetted area of cylinder (A1)
A1 = D h
Wetted area of heads (A2) (heads are assumed to be hemispherical) (one head)
A2 = 2 R 2
Total wetted area (A)
A = A1 + A2
Where D = Diameter of the vessel (m)
R = Radius of the vessel = D/2 (m)
L = Length of the vessel (m)
h = Height of liquid from vessel bottom (m)
A1 = Wetted area of cylindrical portion (m)
A2 = Wetted area of heads (m)
A = Total wetted area of the vessel (m)
V1 = Partial volume of cylindrical portion (m)
V2 = Partial volume of heads (m)
V = Total liquid volume of the vessel (m)
5.6
TWO PHASE DENSITY AND VISCOSITY

The density and viscosity of mixed phase fluid is found by the following method:
= Ql / (Ql + Q g )
h = l + g (1 )
h = l + g (1 )
Where Q
l
g
h
= Volumetric flow rate (m/h)

= Liquid
= Gas or vapor
= Mixed phase or homogenous phase
= Density (kg/m)
= Viscosity (cP)
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 9 of 87
6.
INSULATION SPECIFICATION FOR PIPING
6.1
INSULATION THICKNESS FOR HOT SERVICE

The maximum fluid temperature (C) is shown as a function of the insulation thickness and
pipe size.
Insulation
Thickness (mm)
25
40
50
65
80
Nominal Pipe
Size
90
100
115
125
140
150
165
180
190
200
Maximum Fluid Temperature (C)
1/2
68
230
456
723
760
61
205
409
653
760
48
150
302
491
707
760
45
134
269
439
635
760
42
122
244
398
579
760
40
111
221
361
526
710
760
37
100
195
319
465
629
760
35
86
164
265
386
524
676
760
34
79
147
236
343
465
599
745
760
10
33
75
136
216
312
422
544
676
760
12
32
72
129
203
292
393
506
629
760
14
32
70
125
196
281
379
487
605
731
760
16
32
68
121
188
268
360
462
573
692
760
18
31
67
117
181
258
345
442
548
661
760
20
31
66
114
176
249
333
426
527
635
750
760
Over 24 and
flat surface
31
64
110
167
236
314
400
494
594
701
760
To obtain the correct insulation thickness, read across from the correct pipe diameter to a
tabulated process temperature that is greater or equal to the actual temperatures. Read up for
the insulation thickness. For example a 16 diameter pipe operating at 190C will require 80
mm of insulation.
6.2
INSULATION MATERIAL
Up to 343C (650F), magnesia is most used
From 871C to 1037C (1600F 1900F) a mixture of asbestos and diatomaceous
earth is used
Ceramic refractories are used for higher temperatures
Cryogenic equipment -129C (-200F) employs insulation with fine pores in which air is
trapped

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 10 of 87
7.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
Material
Carbon Steel
Stainless Steel
254 SMO (Avesta)
Titanium
Advantage
Low cost, easy to fabricate, abundant,
most common material. Resists most
alkaline environments well.
Relatively low cost, still easy to fabricate.
Resist a wider variety of environments than
carbon steel. Available is many different
types.
Moderate cost, still easy to fabricate.
Resistance is better over a wider range of
concentrations and temperatures
compared to stainless steel.
Very good resistance to chlorides (widely
used in seawater applications). Strength
allows it to be fabricated at smaller
thicknesses.
Disadvantage
Very poor resistance to acids
and stronger alkaline streams.
More brittle than other
materials, especially at low
temperatures.
No resistance to chlorides and
resistance decreases
significantly at higher
temperatures.
Little resistance to chlorides,
and resistance at higher
temperatures could be
improved.
While the material is
moderately expensive,
fabrication is difficult. Much of
cost will be in welding labor.
Pd stabilized
Titanium
Superior resistance to chlorides, even at

higher temperatures. Is often used on sea
water application where Titanium's
resistance may not be acceptable.
Very expensive material and

fabrication is again difficult and
expensive.
Nickel
Very good resistance to high temperature

caustic streams.
Moderate to high expense.

Difficult to weld.
Hastelloy Alloy
Very wide range to choose from. Some

have been specifically developed for acid
services where other materials have failed.
Fairly expensive alloys. Their

use must be justified. Most are
easy to weld.
Graphite
One of the few materials capable of

withstanding weak HCl streams.
Brittle, very expensive, and

very difficult to fabricate. Some
stream components have been
known to diffusion through
some types of graphites.
Tantalum
Superior resistance to very harsh services

where no other material is acceptable.
Extremely expensive, must be

absolutely necessary.
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 11 of 87
8.
SELECTION OF THERMODYNAMIC MODEL IN HYSYS

Application
Type
Model
Applicable Range
Remarks
OIL & GAS

Reservoir
Systems
Equations of state
for high pressure
hydrocarbon
applications
Platform
Separation
Equations of state
for high pressure
hydrocarbon
applications
Transportation of
oil and gas by
pipeline
Equations of state
for high pressure
hydrocarbon
applications
Peng-Robinson
(PENG-ROB)
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures
Should not be used if polar

components such as Alcohols
are present.
Redlich-KwongSoave (RKSOAVE)
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present.
Peng-Robinson
(PENG-ROB)
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
Peng-Robinson
(PENG-ROB)
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
Braun K-10
(BK10)
Suited for
vacuum
and low
pressure
applications
Applicable
range is 133 o
800 K. Can be
used up to
o
1100 K
Gives fast and acceptable

answers. Should be use as a
first attempt only. This model
should not be used for
systems containing
Hydrogen.
REFINERY
Low Pressure
applications (up
to several atm)
eg: Vacuum
tower & crude
tower
Petroleum
Correlation Models
Chao-Seader
(CHAO-SEA)
Grayson
Chao-Seader
(CHAO-SEA)
Medium
Pressure
applications (up
to several tens of
atm) Coker Main
Fractionator
FCC Main
Fractionator
< 140 atm
< 210 atm
< 140 atm
200-533 K
200-700 K
200-533 K
Petroleum
Correlation Models
Equation Of State
Models
This model should not be

used for systems containing
Hydrogen. If light ends
dominate, Equation of State
models can be used.
This model should be used
for systems containing
models can be used.
models can be used.
models can be used.
Grayson
< 210 atm
200-700 K
Peng-Robinson
(PENG-ROB)
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 12 of 87
Hydrogen Rich
Applications eg:
Reformer,
Hydrofiner,
Hydrotreaters &
HydroDesulfurisers
Lube Oil Unit,

De-Asphalting
Unit
Petroleum
Correlation Models
Equation Of State
Models
Equation Of State
Models

models can be used
Grayson
< 210 atm
200-700 K
Peng-Robinson
(PENG-ROB)
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
Peng-Robinson
(PENG-ROB)
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
Peng-Robinson
(PENG-ROB)
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
Peng-Robinson
(PENG-ROB)
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
Peng Robinson
MHV2 equation
of state
(PRMHV2)
Accurate up
to 150 bar
All
Temperatures
Can be used for mixture of

polar and non polar
components
Peng Robinson
Wong-Sandler
Equation Of
State (PRWS)
Accurate up
to 150 bar
All
Temperatures

polar and non polar
components
Predictive
Soave-RedlichKwong (PSRK)
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

polar and non polar
components
Redlich Kwong
MHV2 equation
of state
(RKSMHV2)
Accurate up
to 150 bar
All
Temperatures

polar and non polar
components
Redlich Kwong
Wong-Sandler
Equation Of
State (RKSWS)
Accurate up
to 150 bar
All
Temperatures

polar and non polar
components
Chao-Seader
(CHAO-SEA)
< 140 atm
200-533 K
Grayson
< 210 atm
200-700 K
Peng-Robinson
(PENG-ROB)
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures
GAS PROCESSING
Hydrocarbon
separations Demethanizer C3splitter
Cryogenic gas
processing
Gas Dehydration
with glycols
Equation Of State
Models
Equation Of State
Models
Flexible and
Predictive Equation
of State Model
PETROCHEMICALS
Ethylene Plant
Main
Fractionator
Petroleum
Correlation Models
Ethylene Plant
Light
Hydrocarbon
Equation Of State
Models

Hydrogen.
Hydrogen.
are present

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 13 of 87
Separation Train
Ethylene Plant
Quench Tower
Aromatics (eg:
BTX Extraction)
Substituted
hydrocarbons,
VCM Plant &
Acrylo Nitrile
Plant
Ether Production
eg: MTBE,
ETBE, TAME
Equation Of State
Models
Liquid Activity
Coefficients
Equation Of State
Models
Liquid Activity
Coefficients(very
sensitive to
parameters)
Equation Of State
Models
Ethyl Benzene
and Styrene
Plants
Liquid Activity
Coefficients
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
Peng-Robinson
(PENG-ROB)
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
NRTL
Low
pressures
up to 10
atm.
No component
should be close
to its critical
temperature.
UNIFAC
Low
pressures
up to 10
atm.
No component
should be close
to its critical
temperature.
UNIQUAC
Low
pressures
up to 10
atm.
No component
should be close
to its critical
temperature.
Peng-Robinson
(PENG-ROB)
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
NRTL
Low
pressures
up to 10
atm.
No component
should be close
to its critical
temperature.
UNIFAC
Low
pressures
up to 10
atm.
No component
should be close
to its critical
temperature.
UNIQUAC
Low
pressures
up to 10
atm.
No component
should be close
to its critical
temperature.
Peng-Robinson
(PENG-ROB)
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
All
Pressures
All
Temperatures

are present
NRTL
Low
pressures
up to 10
atm.
No component
should be close
to its critical
temperature.
UNIFAC
Low
pressures
up to 10
atm.
No component
should be close
to its critical
temperature.
UNIQUAC
Low
pressures
up to 10
atm.
No component
should be close
to its critical
temperature.

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 14 of 87
9.
PIG LAUNCHER AND RECEIVER

LAUNCHER
RECEIVER
Kiker line
BL
Kiker line
AL
AR
BR
Typical diameters of Major Barrel and Pipework:

Pipeline
diameter
Bypass line
Kicker line
Balance line
Drain line
Major barrel
4 6
10
10
12
12
6 8
16
14
6 10
16
16
8 12
18
18
10 12
20
20
10 16
24
24
12 18
28
28
16 20
10
32
30
16 24
10
36
32
16 24
10
36
36
18 28
12
40
38
20 28
12
42
40
20 32
12
44
42
20 36
16
46
48
24 36
18
52
56
32 40
20
60
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 15 of 87
Barrel lengths for Intelligent Pigs:

Approx. minimum barrel length (m)
(Notes 1 & 2)
Approx.
maximum
tool length
(m)
(Note 2)
Approx.
maximum
tool weight
(kg)
(Note 3)
AL
BL
AR
BR
2.8
60
2.8
0.5
2.8
2.8
2.8
90
2.8
1.5
2.8
2.8
3.9
170
4.1
1.5
3.9
3.9
10
4.3
300
4.3
1.5
4.3
4.3
12
4.3
365
4.3
1.5
4.3
4.3
14
4.8
380
4.8
1.5
4.8
4.8
16
5.1
700
5.1
1.5
5.1
5.1
18
5.1
810
5.1
1.5
5.1
5.1
20
5.1
840
5.1
1.5
5.1
5.1
24
5.7
1600
5.7
1.5
5.7
5.7
28
5.8
2000
5.8
1.5
5.8
5.8
30
6.0
2000
6.0
1.5
6.0
6.0
32
6.6
2270
6.6
1.5
6.6
6.6
36
6.6
3560
6.6
1.5
5.3
6.6
38
6.6
3600
6.6
1.5
5.5
6.6
40
6.6
4090
6.6
1.5
5.5
6.6
42
6.6
4550
6.6
1.5
6.4
6.6
48
6.6
Note 4
6.6
1.5
6.6
6.6
56
6.6
Note 4
6.6
1.5
6.6
6.6
Pipeline
diameter
Launcher
Receiver
NOTES:
1) Refer the figure above for details
2) The lengths are extreme figures. To be checked with supplier for accurate dimensions
3) The weight is indicative for the pig only, excluding the weight of lifting/loading trolley
4) To be checked with supplier

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 16 of 87
10.
PUMP SELECTION AND SYSTEM DESIGN
10.1
PUMP SELECTION
Service
Very high head at low flow
Metering small flows (< 1 m/h)
Viscous fluid (> 1000 cP)
Non-Newtonian fluid
Suspension of crystals or fragile solids
Entrained gas (> 2 vol%)
10.2
Type of Pump
Reciprocating
Reciprocating (plunger or diaphragm)
Rotary gear or screw
Screw
Rotary lobe
Rotary or diaphragm
Centrifugal pumps:
Single stage for 3.4 - 1134 m/h (15 - 5000 GPM) & 152 m maximum head
Multi Stage for 4.6 - 2500 m/h (20 - 11,000 GPM) & 1675 m maximum head
Efficiencies of 45% at 23 m/h (100 GPM), 70% at 113 m/h (500 GPM), 80% at 2270 m/h
(10,000 GPM).
Axial pumps can be used for flows of 4.6 - 22680 m/h (20 - 100,000 GPM)
Expect heads up to 12 m and efficiencies of about 65-85%
Rotary pumps can be used for flows of 0.23 - 1134 m/h (1 - 5000 GPM)
Expect heads up to 15,200 m (50,000 ft) and efficiencies of about 50 - 80%
Reciprocating pumps can be used for 2.3 - 22680 m/h (10 - 100,000 GPM)
Expect heads up to 300,000 m (1,000,000 ft).
Efficiencies:70% at 7.46 kW (10 hp), 85% at 37.3 kW (50 hp) and 90% at 373 kW (500 hp)
PUMP PERFORMANCE WITH IMPELLER AND SPEED CHANGE

Diameter change
Q2 = Q1
D2
D1
D
H 2 = H 1 2
D1
D
BHP2 = BHP1 2
D1
Speed change
Q2 = Q1
N2
N1
N
H 2 = H 1 2
N1
N
BHP2 = BHP1 2
N1

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 17 of 87
Dia & Speed change

D
N
Q2 = Q1 2 2
D1 N 1
D
N
H 2 = H 1 2 2
D
1 N1
D
N
BHP2 = BHP1 2 2
D1 N 1
10.3
EFFECT OF VISCOSITY ON PUMP PERFORMANCE
Alternate for centrifugal pump (rotary pump) to be considered when fluid viscosity is above
220 cSt (or 2500 SSU). Small pumps become impractical above 220 cSt.
Generally centrifugal pumps are limited to about 4000 SSU max. viscosity
Correction factors to head, capacity and efficiency should be applied when viscosity is
above 70 SSU.
Viscosity correction calculation:
Viscous capacity (gpm) Qvis = Qwater* Cq
Viscous head (ft)
Hvis = Hwater* Ch
Viscous efficiency
Evis = Ewater* Ce
Correction factors (Cq,Ch,Ce)
Cq=0.95-0.9 @200-1000 cSt

Ch=0.85-0.95 @200-1000 cSt
Ce=0.55-0.75 @200-1000 cSt
BHP @normal service = (Q*H*SG)/(2.31*1750*E)

BHP @viscous service = (Qvis*Hvis*SG)/(2.31*1750*Evis)
10.4
EFFECT OF VAPOR OR GASES

1) Most centrifugal pumps can handle up to 3 vol. of vapor per 100 vol. of liquid with the max.
limit at 7 - 8%.
2) If vapor is suspected in the pump suction area, specify any of the following:
- Self-priming type pump
- Increase suction pressure
- Specify low speed pump
- Specify that pump casing should be capable of accepting an oversize impeller to
counter the resulting loss in head and capacity.
10.5
MINIMUM FLOW BYPASS

1) Single stage pumps, bypass = 15 - 25 %
Multistage pumps, bypass = 25 - 35 %
Worthington suggests 30 gpm per 100 HP
2) The temperature rise in a turbine regenerative pump is much greater than in a conventional
centrifugal pump, since the HP input increases as the flow rate thro the turbine pump is
decreased, where as the HP input to a centrifugal pump decreases as flow is reduced.
Consequently a turbine pump is always provided with bypass and also a relief valve
3) The increase in liquid temperature at low flow rates may be calculated by assuming that all
the HP shown on the pump curve at the desired capacity is being converted to heat, except
that which is used to deliver the small capacity (by the following formulae).

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 18 of 87
T =
At shut-off
T =
(BHP
fromcurve
0.000252 Q H Sg ) 42.4
Q 8.33 Sg Cp
(BHP
at shutoff
) 42.4
W Cp
Where T = Temp diff (F), Q = gpm, H = head (ft), Sg = Specific gravity;

Cp = Specific heat capacity (Btu/lbF), W = weight of fluid in pump (lb)
4) Minimum flow orifice sizing can be done by the following formulae:
Q = 29.8 K d 2 P
Sg
Where Q = gpm, K = orifice disc coef =0.65, d = orifice dia (inch),
P = pres. drop (psi), Sg = Specific Gravity
10.6
MINIMUM NPSH FOR CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

Pump capacity (m/h)
Up to 11.4
11.4 22.7
22.7 45.5
45.5 - 91
91 - 159
NPSHr (m)
1.5
1.8
2.1 2.4
2.7 3.0
3.0 3.7
Pump capacity (m/h)

159 - 227
227 - 455
454 - 568
> 568
NPSHr (m)
3.7 4.3
4.3 6.1
6.1 7.3
7.6
Required NPSH can be reduced as follows:

- Use a double suction pump
- Use a slower speed
- Use smaller pumps in parallel
- Use an oversize pump
- Use impeller with inducer
10.7
PUMP CENTERLINE ELEVATION FOR CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

Pump capacity (m/h)
Up to 45.5
45.5 227
10.8
Centerline
Elevation (m)
0.76
0.91
Pump capacity (m/h)

227 - 2270
2270 - 4545
Centerline
Elevation (m)
1.1
1.4
Pump capacity (m/h)

45.5 114
114 - 227
227 - 1136
Efficiency (%)
50 75%
60 80%
70 82%
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP EFFICIENCY

Pump capacity (m/h)
Up to 11.4
11.4 22.7
22.7 45.5
Efficiency (%)
20 40%
30 50%
35 65%

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 19 of 87
10.9
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP MOTOR RATING

Shaft Power (BkW)
Up to 22.4
22.4 74.6
> 74.6
Motor Rating
1.25 x BkW
1.15 x BkW
1.10 x BkW
10.10 STEAM TURBINE DRIVEN CENTRIFUGALPUMPS

Shaft Power (BkW)
37.3
74.6
149.2
Efficiency (%)
33
37
45
Shaft Power (BkW)

373
746
Efficiency (%)
58
64
10.11 PRESSURE DROP FOR EQUIPMENT AND PIPIING

Equipment / Piping Item
Exchangers / Air coolers / Double pipes
Pump suction screen
Rotary & turbine flow meters
Flow orifice
Pump suction
Pump discharge
0 - 57 m/h
57 - 159 m/h
> 159 m/h
Pressure Drop (bar)

0.7
0.07
0.5
0.2
Pressure drop
0.23 - 0.68 bar/km
Pressure drop
Carbon Steel Pipe

5.7 22.6 bar/km
3.4 15.8 bar/km
2 9.1 bar/km
Alloy Steel Pipe

13.6 33.9 bar/km
13.6 33.9 bar/km
4.5 15.8 bar/km
Higher velocity is considered for bigger pipes and for higher operating pressures.
10.12 MULTIPLYING FACTOR FOR EQUIVALENT LENGTH
Pipe dia
up to 3"
4"
6"
8" and above
30
1.9
2.2
2.7
3.4
Approx. straight length (m)

60
1.6
1.8
2.1
2.4
150
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.6

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 20 of 87
10.13 PUMP SEALS

In order to prevent leakage of pump fluid through the clearance between the pump shaft and
casing, two types of sealing device are generally used in pumps namely; (1) Gland Packing; (2)
Mechanical Seal
Gland Packing:
This is a simple packing by a sealing device which is a rope like material wound between the
pump shaft and casing. Frequent changeover of packing is required to prevent leakage. This is
used for domestic and water applications where leakage is not a concern.
Mechanical Seals
Single mechanical seals are generally used to arrest leakage, without frequent maintenance.
Double mechanical seals are sometimes preferred in toxic, flammable and corrosive services.
1) Packed seal (Mechanical seal)
Packed seal does not require an external flushing liquid if the pumped liquid has lubricating
properties at the seal conditions. An external flushing system is required for the
following:
- For vacuum service to prevent air intake.
- For abrasive containing fluids.
- For handling volatile fluids which vaporize at operating conditions and present a fire
hazard.
- For pumping toxic or corrosive liquids.
2) Seal piping
- Seal cooler duty can be estimated by for a seal fluid flow of 0.5 m/h per seal.
- For dead end seals the seal fluid flow can be 0.23 m/h per seal
- Seal fluid pressure can be 0.7 1.72 bar above packing box pressure.
Turbine or pump seal, gland, stuffing box cooling water rate shall be 1-2 m/h.
Refer API-610 to understand more about the type of flushing plans for each service.
10.14 CONTROL VALVE PRESSURE DROP FOR CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
1) Minimum pressure drop for a control valve is 0.7 bar @design flow rate.
2) Generally CV loss shall be taken as 25% of the total system friction loss or 10% of
operating pressure
3) More detailed approach for CV pressure drop is:
dPv = A dPf + B dPs

Where: dPv
dPf
dPs
A, B
Qd
Qm
= Control valve pressure drop

= Frictional pressure drop of system
= Pressure differential due to static head of system
= Multiplication factors (as given below)
= Design / rated flow rate
= Maximum process flow rate
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 21 of 87
Pump Over design Factor (Qd / Qm)
0-5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
0.294
0.468
0.658
0.875
0.950
0.059
0.094
0.132
0.175
0.200
10.15 PUMP SYSTEM CURVE
Hso
Hd
dPv
dPo
dPf
dPs
Qm in
Qm
Qn
Qd
Where:
dPv = Control valve pressure drop at maximum flow Qm
dPo = Control valve pressure drop at full open condition at design flow Qd
10.16 PUMP CALCULATION

Pb
H3
Pa
dPf2
dPf1
H1
PS
H2
Pd

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 22 of 87
Where: Pa
Pb
Pv
Ps
Pd
Sg
dPf1
dPf2
H1
H2
H3
= Suction vessel minimum operating pressure (barg)

= Discharge vessel maximum operating pressure (barg)
= Vapor pressure of fluid at maximum operating temperature (bara)
= Pump suction pressure (barg)
= Pump discharge pressure (barg)
= Specific Gravity of the fluid at operating conditions
= Suction piping frictional loss (bar)
= Discharge piping frictional loss (bar)
= Suction vessel minimum liquid level (LSLL) elevation (m) (bar)
= Pump suction nozzle elevation (m) (bar)
= Discharge vessel maximum liquid level (LSHH) elevation (m) (bar)
To convert elevation in meters to pressure unit = H / 10.2 * Sg (in bar)

Suction pressure (Ps)
Discharge pressure (Pd)
Pump differential pressure (DP)
Pump head (h)
= Pa + H1 H2 dPf1
= Pb + H3 H2 + dPf2
= Pd Ps
= DP *10.2 / Sg
Available NPSH (NPSHa)
= (Pa + 14.7) Pv dPf1 + (H1 - H2) (bara)

= NPSHa *10.2 / Sg
(m)
(barg)
(barg)
(bar)
(m)
General considerations:
1) RVP is lower than the True vapor pressure (TVP or Absolute vapor pressure) of
hydrocarbon liquids. Correction chart is used to find out TVP from RVP at operating
temperature. TVP is used for pump calculations
2) Calculated NPSHa - 1 m (less 1 m) should be given in the process datasheet. The
difference between vendor NPSHr and datasheet NPSHa should not be less than 1 m.
3) In absence of data pump suction elevation can be considered as 0.6 m for smaller pumps
and 1.0 m for larger pumps (> 200 m/h).
4) In absence of data take 0.1 bar line loss for suction piping or 0.05 bar for smaller pumps.
5) Spare single stage pumps in service over 260C and spare multistage pumps in service
over 200C must be kept warm for quick start-up, by providing a bypass around check
valve. Needle valve to be provided for the bypass.
6) Pumping capacity over design: Column overhead pumps
20%
Product and transfer pumps 10%
Design pressure of pump = Design pressure of suction vessel (PSV set) + Max. suction static
head + Max. pump differential pressure
Pump Power calculation
Power estimates for pumping liquids
BkW = { Flow (m/h) x Head (m) x Sp.Gr. } / {367 x Efficiency}
BHP = { Flow (US gpm) x Head (ft) x Sp. Gr. } / {3960 x Efficiency}
**Efficiency expressed as a fraction in these relations
An equation developed for efficiency based on the GPSA Engineering Data Book is:

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 23 of 87
Efficiency = 80-0.2855F+0.000378FG-0.000000238FG^2+0.000539F^2-0.000000639(F^2)G + 0.0000000004(F^2)(G^2)
Where; Efficiency is in fraction form, F = developed head (ft), G = flow (gpm)

Ranges of applicability are F = 15 - 91 m and G = 23 230 m/h
10.17 PUMP OVERDESIGN FACTOR
Service
Product
Reflux
Circulating reflux
Over design Factor

10%
15%
5%
Service
Sour water drain
Intermittent
Utilities
Over design Factor

25%
0%
10%
10.18 RECIPROCATING PUMP

a) Simplified formulas for sizing dampers (for pump speeds up to 100 rpm)
Pump type
Simplex, single-acting
Simplex, double-acting
Duplex, double-acting
Triplex, single & double-acting
Damper volume, US Gallons

V = 5 x discharge rate in gpm / rpm
V = 2.5 x discharge rate in gpm / rpm
For pump speeds above 100 rpm multiply the above volumes by (Pump rpm / 100).
b) Calculation of line shock pressure due to valve closure
The magnitude of line shock can be calculated by the following formula:
P=
Where,P
Vp
Sg
V
v
G
Sg V P (V v)
144 g
= Increase in pressure due to shock (psi)
= Velocity of pressure wave propagation in pipe (approx 4000 ft/s in small
pipes)
= Specific gravity of liquid (lb/ft)
= Velocity of liquid in pipe before valve closure (ft/s)
= Velocity of liquid in pipe at an interval equivalent to the time that a
pressure wave will travel up the pipe and back after the valve starts
closing (ft/s)
= Acceleration of gravity, 32 (ft/s)
Example:A 3" line 1000 ft long is carrying water at a pressure of 250 psi and at a velocity of 10 ft/s is
suddenly shut-off by a valve closing in 0.3 sec. Assuming that the velocity of the pressure
wave in the pipe is approx 4000 ft/s, it would take 0.5 sec for the wave to travel up the pipe
and back. This is slower than the time required for the valve to close and consequently v (the
velocity thro the valve after the pressure wave has made one complete cycle) is equal to zero.

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 24 of 87
P = 62.5 * 4000 * (10 - 0) / (144 * 32.2) = 540 psi

Total surge pressure = Original pressure in pipe + shock pressure
= 250 + 540 = 790 psi
In general water hammer will occur when the total surge pressure exceeds twice the static
pressure. Therefore, in the above example, water hammer will occur.
c) Calculation of damper volume required to reduce shock
Dampers to absorb the shock of fast closing valves are mounted just upstream of the valve. To
calculate the minimum surge volume, the following equation may be used.
R P2 ((0.005 L) T )
A = 0.004
(P2 P1 )
Where,
A = Surge volume required (US gpm)

R = Pipe flow rate (US gpm)
T = Normal closing time of valve in sec. (T=0 for instantaneous closure
valves)
L = Length of pipe (ft)
P1 = Actual flow pressure at the inlet of valve (source pres. - line DP) (psi)
P2 = Upper pressure limit which the surge should be limited to in absorbing
the decelerating flow on valve closure. This should be set at 1.5 times
the static pressure in the line when the valve is closed and the liquid is
at rest (psi)
Example:
In a 3"-40 sch line 1000 ft long water @ 230 gpm at 10 ft/s is flowing at 250 psi. Fric. Drop is
4.5 psi/100ft. Valve closure time is 0.3 sec.
P1 = 250 - (4.5*1000/100) = 205 psi
P2 = 250 * 1.5 = 375 psi
A = 0.004 * 230 * 375 * (0.005 * 1000 - 0.3) / (375-205) = 9.5 gallons.

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 25 of 87
11.
VESSEL SELECTION AND SIZING
11.1
STORAGE TANKS CAPACITY

1) For fixed and roofless tanks the working capacity should be the volume between the top of
the suction nozzle and the maximum safe working level in the tank.
2) For floating roof tanks the working capacity should be the volume between the maximum
highest safe position for the roof and the minimum allowed position for the roof.
3) For study purposes the working capacity will be multiplied by 1.05 for fixed roof tanks and
1.10 for floating roof tanks to obtain nominal tank capacities for cost estimating purposes.
11.2
TYPE OF ROOF
U.S. environmental protection agency requires the following for storage of hydrocarbon in
petroleum refineries:
1) Hydrocarbons with a natural vapor pressure of 1.5 psia (0.103 bara) or less at storage
temperature may be stored in a freely vented fixed roof tank
2) Hydrocarbons with a natural vapor pressure between 1.5 psia to 11.0 psia (0.103 bara to
0.76 bara) at storage temperature may be stored in floating roof tanks
3) Hydrocarbons with a natural vapor pressure in excess of 11.0 psia (0.76 bara) at storage
temperature should be stored in a fixed roof tank with a vapor recovery or refrigeration
system.
4) The flammability of the stored material, regulations governing the emission of the vapor to
the atmosphere together with cost of the product lost due to evaporation, should be
considered.
11.3
TYPE OF STORAGE VESSELS

1) For less than 3.8 m (1000 gallons) vertical tanks on legs can be used.
2) Between 3.8 m and 38 m (1000 to 10,000 gallons) horizontal tanks on concrete supports
can be used.
3) Beyond 38 m (10,000 gallons) vertical tanks on concrete pads can be used.
4) Liquids with low vapor pressures, tanks with floating roofs can be used.
5) Raw material feed tanks are often specified for 30 days feed supplies
6) Storage tank capacity should be at 1.5 times the capacity of mobile supply vessels.
7) For example, 28.4 m (7500 gallon) tanker truck, 130 m (34,500 gallon) rail cars
8) Liquid drums are usually horizontal. Gas/Liquid separators are usually vertical
9) Optimum Length/Diameter ratio is usually 3, range is 2.5 to 5
11.4
HOLDUP TIME
1)
2)
3)
4)
Holdup time is 5 minutes for half full reflux drums and gas/liquid separators
Design for a 5-10 minute holdup for drums feeding another column
For drums feeding a furnace, a holdup of 30 minutes is a good estimate
Knockout drum in front of compressors should be designed for a holdup of 10 times the
liquid volume passing per minute.

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 26 of 87
11.5
VELOCITY CRITERIA
1) Liquid/Liquid separators should be designed for settling velocities of 2-3 inch/min (0.00085
m/s to 0.0013 m/s)
2) Gas velocities in gas/liquid separators
Velocity = k
( V
1)
Where k =
0.35 with horizontal mesh deentrainers

0.167 with vertical mesh deentrainers
0.1 without mesh deentrainers
Velocity is in ft/s
A 6 (150 mm) mesh pad thickness is very popular for such vessels
3) For positive pressure separations, disengagement spaces of 6-18 (150 mm to 450 mm)
before the mesh pad and 12 inches (300 mm) after the pad are generally suitable
11.6
DESIGN CONDITIONS
1) The design pressure for atmospheric storage tanks is +100 mmWC (or full of water) / -50
mmWC
2) Design pressure is 10% or 0.69 bar to 1.7 bar above the maximum operating pressure,
whichever is greater, as applicable
3) The maximum operating pressure is taken as 1.7 bar (25 psi) above the normal operation
pressure, as applicable
4) For vacuum operations, design pressures are 1 barg (15 psig) to full vacuum
5) For systems with maximum operating temperature (MOT) between -30C and 345C,
design temperatures is typically MOT + 15C (to 25C as applicable). Above this range the
margin increases
6) Minimum design temperature is 0C to 5C less than the minimum operating temperature
7) Minimum wall thicknesses for maintaining tank structure are:
6.4 mm (0.25 in) for 1.07 m (42 in) diameter and under
8.1 mm (0.32 in) for 1.07 m - 1.52 m (42-60 in) diameter
9.7 mm (0.38 in) for diameters over 1.52 m (60 in)
8) Allowable working stresses are taken as 1/4 of the ultimate strength of the material
11.7
MECHANICAL DESIGN
1) Thickness calculation based on pressure and radius is given by:
(Pressure) * (outer Radius)
Thickness =
(Allowable stress) * (Weld Efficiency) 0.6 (Pressure)
Where : pressure = psig, radius = inch, stress = psi, corrosion allowance = inch
** Weld efficiency can usually be taken as 0.85 for initial design work
2) Guidelines for corrosion allowances are as follows: 0.35 in (9 mm) for known corrosive
fluids, 0.15 in (4 mm) for non-corrosive fluids, and 0.06 in (1.5 mm) for steam drums and air

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 27 of 87
receivers
3) Generally 1.5 mm to 3.0 mm is considered as the minimum corrosion allowance (CA) for
Carbon Steel equipment/piping while Nil corrosion allowance is considered for Stainless
Steel and non-metallic equipment/piping
11.8
SIZING EXPLOSION HATCHES
W=
3600 W '
e
Where W = Required relieving capacity (lb/h)

W' = Weight of air and gas in the vessel (lb)
e = Time to attain maximum pressure (sec)
Time to attain maximum pressure for mixture of gases and air at 1 atm & 150F is 0.01 sec for
H2, 0.045 sec for ethane, 0.056 for propane, 0.06 for hexane and naphtha, 0.0117 for
acetylene, 0.06 for benzene, 0.10 for toluene.
The required open area, A, to discharge the relieving capacity, W, using a discharge
coefficient of 0.8 is:
A =W
Z T / M
245 P1
Where A = Discharge area (in)

P1 = Relieving pressure (psia)
T = Initial temperature (R)
Z = Compressibility factor, at P1 & T
M = Mixture MW

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 28 of 87
12.
HEAT EXCHANGERS
Some of the important design tips for heat exchanger design are:
1) Fluids that are corrosive, fouling, scaling, high pressure drop or under high pressure are
usually placed in tube side
2) Hot, viscous and condensing fluids are typically placed on the shell side
3) Pressure drops are about 1.5 psi (0.1 bar) for boiling/vaporization and 3-10 psi (0.2-0.7 bar)
for other services
4) The minimum approach temperature for shell and tube exchangers is about 20F (10 C)
for fluids and 10F (5C) for refrigerants.
5) Cooling tower water is typically available at a maximum temperature of 90F (30C) and
should be returned to the tower no higher than 115F (45C)
6) Double pipe heat exchangers may be a good choice for areas from 100 to 200 ft2 (9.3-18.6
m2)
7) Spiral heat exchangers are often used to slurry interchangers and other services containing
solids
8) Plate heat exchanger with gaskets can be used up to 320F (160C) and are often used for
interchanging duties due to their high efficiencies and ability to "cross" temperatures.
9) For the heat exchanger equation, Q = UAF (LMTD), use F = 0.9 when charts for the LMTD
correction factor are not available
10) Shell and Tube heat transfer coefficient for estimation purposes can be found in many
reference books
11) Most commonly used tubes are (19 mm) outer diameter on a 1 triangular spacing at 16
ft (4.9 m) long
12) A 1 ft (300 mm) shell will contain about 100 ft2 (9.3 m2)
A 2 ft (600 mm) shell will contain about 400 ft2 (37.2 m2)
A 3 ft (900 mm) shell will contain about 1100 ft2 (102 m2)
13) Typical velocities in the tubes should be 3-10 ft/s (1-3 m/s) for liquids and 30-100 ft/s (9-30
m/s) for gases
12.1
DESIGN MARGINE
The following design margins shall be adopted as applicable:
1) Heat exchangers shall be designed with 10% margin on area while using the normal heat
duty.
2) While designing heat exchangers, 10% margin on normal duty shall be considered and the
exchanger shall be designed with minimum over design factor (say 2% to 5%) on area.
3) If the design duty (10% to 15% over design factor) is used for sizing the heat exchangers,
then the exchanger shall be designed with minimum over design factor (say 2% to 5%) on
area.
12.2
EVAPORATORS
1) When the boiling point rise is appreciable, the economic number of effects in series with
forward feed is 4-6.
2) When the boiling point rise is small, minimum cost is obtained with 8-10 effect in series.
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 29 of 87
12.3
HEAT EXCHANGER DETAILS

1) TEMA shell types:
TEMA X
TEMA G
TEMA H
TEMA J21
TEMA J12
TEMA E
TEMA K
ACU
2) Baffle cut orientation; parallel, perpendicular and 45 with reference to shell nozzle
Parallel
0
45
Perpendicular
90
3) Tube length : Length up to the tangent point of the outermost tube for U-tubes. The length
in the tube sheets should be included. Effective area is excluding the tube sheet.
U-tube exchanger
Overall tube length

Total tube length
4) Shell inlet nozzle location

Horizontal
Vertical
code
0
code
1
code
2
5) U-tube nozzle location
Code 0, normal
Code 1, in front of
Code 2, behind U

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Date: 08/02/08
Page 30 of 87
6) Shell side inlet nozzle location: Normally it is assumed to be at the tube channel end.
Code N, shell inlet at

tube end
Code Y, shell inlet at

tube channel end
Distance from tangent point to last baffle: Generally the last baffle is placed at the at the
tangent point of the U-tube
7) Tube arrangement
Triangular Pitch
Rotated Square
Pitch
Rotated
Triangular Pitch
Square Pitch
Flow
30
45
Pitch
Pitch
60
Pitch
90
Pitch
8) Impingement device: An impingement plate will be added if the inlet nozzle pV value is
greater than TEMA standards (1500 lb/ft s or 2232 kg/m s)
9) Adding a shell in parallel: If pressure drop limitations are not met at the maximum shell
diameter permitted, a unit can be added in parallel.
10) Adding a shell in series: If a pure counter flow exchanger has been selected, a shell can be
added in series only if the required heat duty can not be achieved at the maximum
permitted shell diameter. For multi-tube pass exchangers shells in series can be added if
the F-factor is less than 0.7
11) Temperature cross: When the outlet temp of the cold fluid is higher than the outlet temp of
hot fluid, it is called the temperature cross. For small exchangers, temperature cross does
not have much effect on the type of shells. But for large exchangers shells in series to be
used.
12) Baffle design: Baffle window cut should be between 17% to 35%. Baffle spacing should be
20% to 100% of shell ID. For no-tube-in-window exchangers, the ratio of window velocity to
cross-flow velocity should normally be 2 to 3. For double segmental baffles (for low pres
drop service), baffle spacing should not be too small to avoid ineffective shell side flow
patterns.
13) No-tube-in-windows baffle cut design: The baffle cut shall be limited between 15 - 30% of
shell diameter
14) Baffle cut out of window: The portion of the baffle which is continuous into the window acts
as a sealing strip in the window to force the fluid into the bundle. Continuous baffles should
be considered for pull-through floating heads.
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 31 of 87
12.4
HTRI SHELL SIDE FLOW FRACTIONS

This is for shells with single phase fluid flow. The shell flow is broken down into 5 major
streams.
E
Window
Baffle
1) B-stream : Main cross flow stream through the bundle. B should be at least 60% of the total
flow for turbulent flow and 40% for laminar flow. If the baffle spacing is too narrow, more
flow will be forced into the A, C and E streams, thereby decreasing the heat transfer.
2) C-stream : Bundle to shell cross flow bypass stream. C should not normally exceed 10%.
Additional sealing strips can be incorporated to decrease this flow fraction. Although this
stream is partially effective for heat transfer, a high C-stream flow fraction, especially for
pure cross flow shells ("X"), can lead to a severe delta correction to the mean temp
difference
3) F-stream : Tube pass partition bypass stream. F should not normally exceed 10%.
Additional seal rods can be incorporated to decrease this flow fraction. Although this stream
is partially effective for heat transfer, a high C-stream flow fraction, is not recommended. To
block the F-stream flow fraction, program assumes one seal rod of a diameter equal to the
tube diameter for each 6 tube rows of cross flow in the exchanger
4) A-stream : Tube-to-baffle hole leakage stream. A-stream is large in narrow baffle spacing
where large TEMA clearances apply. However, the A-stream is fairly effective thermally. It
will decrease for multi-segmental baffles. Fouling layers might seal this A-stream. The
design should be examined by giving a zero tube-to-baffle clearance and the built-up
fouling layer thickness for a safe design from a pres drop stand point.
5) E-stream : Baffle-to-shell leakage stream. E-stream is highly ineffective thermally because
it does not contact the heat transfer surface; but, since it mixes poorly with the other
streams, it can cause distortions of the temp profile. If E-stream is more than 15%, double
segmental baffle or other modifications should be tested. If E-stream causes (ST program
only) low delta correction factor (< 0.8), corrective action is required.
F-stream seal rods: Allocate one seal rod of the tube diameter for each 6 rows in cross flow
in the exchanger
Sealing strips: These are metal strip or rod placed between the shell and the bundle which
has the effect of forcing the bundle bypass C-stream back into the bundle.

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 32 of 87
12.5
SHELL SIDE ANNULAR DISTRIBUTOR
Clearance
Slot area
Length
Thermal correction factor "F" = (TUBE) x (BAFFLES) x (F/G) x (HOT/COLD); where TUBE is
the uncorrected F-factor based on the no of tube passes, shell style and temp BAFFLES is the
correction when there are few baffles. (F/G) is the correction for thermal leakage through
longitudinal baffle for TEMA "F","G","H" shells.
(HOT/COLD) is the correction for nonconstant overall h.t.coeff due to diff in the h.t.coeff at the
hot and cold ends.
Effective MTD = (LMTD) x F x (DELTA): where DELTA is the profile distortion due to the Eand C-stream leakage
12.6
SHELL SIDE HEAT TRANSFER LIMIT

If there is spare shell side pres drop available, the shell side coefficient can be increased by
various methods:
1) Changing the shell type to "F" or "G" can increase the shell side velocity and h.t.coefficient.
But the mean temperature difference may increase.
2) Reducing the tube pitch
3) Decreasing the tube size to accommodate more tubes in a smaller shell
4) Considering finned tubes
5) If DELTA is lower than 0.85, adding a shell in series gives best result, or using sealing
strips might improve the performance
12.7
TUBE SIDE HEAT TRANSFER LIMIT

If there is spare tube side pressure drop available, the tube side coefficient can be increased
by various methods:
1) Changing the tube length
2) Decreasing tube diameter
3) When in laminar flow switching the tube side fluid to shell side usually results in a more
efficient design
4) Increasing the tube pitch, gives less tubes in the given shell ID
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 33 of 87
12.8
LIQUID DRIVING HEAD FOR THERMOSIPHON EXCHANGERS
Main pipe
H
Liquid Driving
Head (Static
Head)
C
F
E
Nozzle pipe
Header pipe
Main pipe
1) For horizontal thermosiphon reboilers, most recirculating type feed systems can be
designed with kettle type since the height of the outlet piping entering the column is above
the liquid level in the column as shown in figure.
2) For thermosiphon reboiler systems for which the reboiler outlet piping enters the distillation
column at a height below the liquid level in the trap-out tray as shown in figure the piping
should be checked to ensure that the liquid level does not cover the exit nozzle.
3) For horizontal thermosiphon reboiler designs, the reboiler exit weight fraction should be
limited to 0.5 to avoid tube wall dry out.
4) For an effective design, most of the available loop pressure drop is used across the
reboiler. As a rule of thumb, this should be around 60 - 70%. However, the inlet and outlet
piping design may change this requirement.
Recirculating Feed System
Once through Feed System
Vapor+Liquid
Vapor+
Liquid

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 34 of 87
13.
COLUMNS & TOWERS
13.1
GENERAL DESIGN RULES

1) For ideal mixtures, relative volatility can be taken as the ratio of pure component vapor
pressures
2) Tower operating pressure is most often determined by the cooling medium in condenser or
the maximum allowable reboiler temperature to avoid degradation of the process fluid
3) For sequencing columns:
Perform the easiest separation first (least trays and lowest reflux)
If relative volatility or feed composition varies widely, take products off one at time as
the overhead
If the relative volatility of components does vary significantly, remove products in order
of decreasing volatility
If the concentrations of the feed vary significantly but the relative volatility does not,
remove products in order of decreasing concentration.
4) The three most common types of trays are valve, sieve, and bubble cap. Bubble cap trays
are typically used when low-turn down is expected or a lower pressure drop than the valve
or sieve trays can provide is necessary
5) Bubble cap trays are used only when a liquid level must be maintained at low turn down
ratio; they can be designed for lower pressure drop than either sieve or valve trays.
6) The optimum Kremser absorption factor is usually in the range of 1.25 to 2.00
13.2
TRAY COLUMNS/TOWERS
1) The most economic number of trays is usually about twice the minimum number of trays
2) The minimum number of trays is determined with the Fenske-Underwood Equation
3) Typically, 10% more trays than calculated are specified for a tower
4) Tray spacings should be from 18 to 24 (450 to 600 mm), with accessibility in mind
5) Peak tray efficiencies usually occur at linear vapor velocities of 2 ft/s (0.6 m/s) at moderate
pressures, or 6 ft/s (1.8 m/s) under vacuum conditions.
6) Pressure drop per tray is of the order of 3 of water or 0.1 psi (0.007 bar)
7) Tray efficiencies for distillation of light hydrocarbons and aqueous solutions are usually in
the range of 60-90% while gas absorption and stripping typically have efficiencies closer to
10-20%
8) Sieve tray holes are 0.25 to 0.50 in. diameter with the total hole area being about 10% of
the total active tray area
9) Valve trays typically have 1.5 diameter holes each with a lifting cap. 12-14 caps/square
foot of tray is a good benchmark. Valve trays usually cost less than sieve trays
10) The most common weir heights are 2 and 3 (50 to 80 mm) and the weir length is typically
75% of the tray diameter
11) For towers that are at least 3 ft (0.9 m) in diameter, 4 ft (1.2 m) should be added to the top
for vapor release and 6 ft (1.8 m) should be added to the bottom to account for the liquid
level and reboiler return
12) Limit tower heights to 175 ft (53 m) due to wind load and foundation considerations
13) The Length/Diameter ratio of a tower should be no more than 30 and preferably below 20
14) Liquid redistributors are needed every 5-10 tower diameters with pall rings but at least
every 20 feet (6.1 m). The number of liquid streams should be 3-5 /ft in towers larger than
3 ft dia, and more numerous in smaller towers
15) A rough estimate of reboiler duty as a function of tower diameter is given by:
Q = 0.5 D for pressure distillation
Q = 0.3 D for atmospheric distillation
Q = 0.15 D for vacuum distillation

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 35 of 87
Where Q = Reboiler duty (Million Btu/h)

D = Tower diameter (ft)
13.3
REFLUX DRUMS
1) The most economic reflux ratio usually is between 1.2 Rmin and 1.5 Rmin
2) Reflux pumps should be at least 25% over designed
3) Reflux drums are almost always horizontally mounted and designed for a 5 min holdup at
half of the drum's capacity. A take off pot for second liquid phase such as water in
hydrocarbon systems, is sized for a linear velocity of that phase of 0.5 ft/s (0.15 m/s) with
minimum diameter of 16 (400 mm)
13.4
PACKED TOWERS
1) Packed towers almost always have lower pressure drop than comparable tray towers
2) Packing is often retrofitted into existing tray towers to increase capacity or separation
3) For gas flow rates of 500 ft/min (14.2 m/min) use 1 in (2.5 cm) packing, for gas flows of
2000 ft/min (56.6 m/min) or more, use 2 in (5 cm) packing
4) Ratio of tower diameter to packing diameter should usually be at least 15
5) Due to the possibility of deformation, plastic packing should be limited to an unsupported
depth of 10-15 ft (3-4 m) while metallic packing can withstand 20-25 ft (6-7.6 m)
6) Liquid distributor should be placed every 5-10 tower diameters (along the length) for pall
rings and every 20 ft (6.5 m) for other types of random packing
7) For redistribution, there should be 8-12 streams per sq. foot of tower area for tower larger
than 3 feet in diameter. They should be even more numerous in smaller towers
8) Packed columns should operate near 70% flooding
9) Height Equivalent to Theoretical Stage (HETS) for vapor-liquid contacting is 1.3-1.8 ft (0.40.56 m) for 1 in pall rings and 2.5-3.0 ft (0.76-0.90 m) for 2 in pall rings
13.5
DESIGN PRESSURE DROPS

Service
Absorbers and Regenerators
Non-Foaming Systems
Moderate Foaming Systems
Fume Scrubbers
Water Absorbent
Chemical Absorbent
Atmospheric or Pressure Distillation
Vacuum Distillation
Maximum for Any System
Pressure drop (in H2O/ft packing)

0.25 - 0.40
0.15 - 0.25
0.40 - 0.60
0.25 - 0.40
0.40 - 0.80
0.15 - 0.40
1.0

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 36 of 87
14.
COMPRESSORS AND VACUUM EQUIPMENT

The following chart is used to select the type of compressor:
1) Fans should be used to raise pressure about 3% (12 or 300 mm water), blowers to raise to
less than 2.75 barg (40 psig), and compressors to higher pressures
2) The theoretical reversible adiabatic power is estimated by:
Power = m Z R T1
[( P2 / P1 ) a] 1
a
where:
T1 = Inlet temperature; R = gas constant; Z1 = Compressibility; m = molar flow rate
a = (k 1) / k
k = Cp / Cv
T2 = T1 ( P2 / P1 ) a
T2 = Outlet temperature for adiabatic reversible flow
3) Exit temperatures should not exceed 204C (400F)
4) For diatomic gases (Cp/Cv = 1.4) this corresponds to a compression ratio of about 4
5) Compression ratios should be about the same in each stage for a multistage unit,
P
Ratio = n
P1
1/ n
with n stages.
6) Efficiencies for reciprocating compressors are:

- 65% at compression ratios of 1.5
- 75% at compression ratios of 2.0
- 80-85% at compression ratios between 3 and 6

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 37 of 87
7) Efficiencies of large centrifugal compressors handling 2.8 to 47 m/s (6000-100,000 acfm)

at suction is about 76-78%
8) Flash gas compressors typically have an overall compressor ratio in the range 5 to 10
9) For compressors, the brake horsepower per stage can be determined from
k 1
k Pd k
BHP = 0.0857 (Z av ) (Z s )
k 1 P 1
s
Where BHP = Brake horsepower per stage
Qg = Volume of gas (MMscfd)
Ts = Suction temperature (R)
Zs = Suction compressibility factor
Zd = Discharge compressibility factor
Zav = (Zs + Zd) / 2
E
= Efficiency %
High speed reciprocating units use 70%
Low speed reciprocating units use 78%
Centrifugal units
- use 75%
K = Ratio of specific heat, Cp/Cv
Ps = Suction pressure of stage (psia)
Pd = Discharge pressure of stage (psia)
1
k
14.1
k 1
k
Q g Ts

E
VACUUM PUMPS
1) Reciprocating piston vacuum pumps are generally capable of vacuum to 1 torr (1 mmHg
absolute)
2) Rotary piston types can achieve vacuums of 0.001 torr
3) Single stage Jet ejectors are capable of vacuums up to 100 torr, 2-stages to 10 torr, 3stages to 1 torr, and 5-stages to 0.05 torr
4) A three stage ejector requires about 100 lb steam/lb air (100 kg steam/kg air) to maintain a
pressure of 1 torr
5) Air leakage into vacuum equipment can be approximated as follows:
Leakage = k V 2 / 3
Where k = 0.20 for P >90 torr, 0.08 for 3 < P < 20 torr, and 0.025 for P < 1 torr
V = equipment volume (ft)
Leakage = air leakage into equipment (lb/h)

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 38 of 87
15.
SAFETY SYSTEM & PSV DESIGN
15.1
SAFETY SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

1) For direct discharge of fluids to atmosphere, they should be in the vapor state, below their
auto ignition temperature, and should meet one of the following requirements: Flammable vapors of MW less than 28.9 (MW of air).
Flammable vapors heavier than air with MW less than 70 but with minimum discharge
velocity of 500 fps (152 m/s), based on maximum capacity of the relief valve
Vapors of any MW that are non-flammable, non-toxic and non-condensable
2) In all other cases relieved fluids should be disposed to a flare system.
3) Boilers having more than 47 m of water heating surface or electric boilers having a power
input of more than 500 kW shall have 2 or more PSV.
4) For electric boilers the minimum relieving capacity shall be 1.6 kg/hr/kW input
5) For Boilers, if additional PSV are used the highest pressure setting shall not exceed the
MAWP by more than 3%. When multiple PSV are installed, the difference between the
highest and lowest set pressure should not be greater than 10% of the highest set
pressure.
6) For Pressure vessels, if additional PSV are used the highest pressure setting shall not
exceed 105% of MAWP. For multiple PSV, one of which is installed for fire exposure only,
this particular valve may be set at a pressure not exceeding 110% of MAWP
7) Fire exposure protection of vessels by water spray @ 0.05 - 0.2 gpm/ft of total vessel area.
Fire exposure is considered for a wetted area up to 25 ft (7.62 m) from grade. Average or
normal liquid level to be considered for vessels, High liquid level for columns, surge drums
and KO drums. 50% of storage tank height or 25 ft (7.62 m) from grade, which ever is
higher.
8) For flare fire relief load, consider plot area between 2000-5000 ft (186-465 m). Use 2500
ft (232 m) for a paved drained surface in a plant where NFPA required fire fighting
equipment is available.
9) If fire proofing insulation is not provided, environmental factor (F) should be = 1.0
15.2
SAFETY VALVE BACK PRESSURE

1) Super imposed back pressure = pressure at PSV discharge before valve opening
2) Builtup back pressure = pressure at PSV discharge header after valve opening.
3) Conventional PSV shall be used when the superimposed back pressure varies over a
range not exceeding 10% of the set pressure (gauge). However the performance of PSV at
builtup back pressure to be studied by the vendor before selecting the PSV
4) Balanced type PSV can be used for >10% superimposed back pressure. However when
builtup back pressure exceeds 30-50% of set pressure, capacity of PSV for vapors and
gases starts to fall below the theoretical capacity. With liquids, the capacity reduction starts
at 15% of set pressure. The fall in capacity depends on overpressure, type and make of
PSV.
5) Pilot operated relief valves are used when operating pressure is very close to set pressure
or when set pressure is below 10-15 psig (0.7 1.0 barg)
15.3
SAFETY VALVE RELIEF LOAD CALCULATION

PSVs relief load can be calculated by considering the following major failure scenarios:

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 39 of 87
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Blocked outlet
Gas blow by case
Inadvertent valve opening
Reflux failure
Tube rupture
Fire case
Reverse flow
Thermal relief case.
15.3.1 Blocked Outlet

Blocked outlet case can occur when the control valves at the outlet of the vessel close at the
same time due to the stoppage of instrument air supply or plant shut down.
The relief quantity shall be the design flow rate to the vessel.
15.3.2 Fire Case
The amount of heat absorbed by a vessel open to fire is markedly affected by the type of fuel
feeding the fire.
The following equivalent formulas are used to evaluate the condition where there are prompt
firefighting efforts and drainage of flammable materials away from the vessels are available:
q = 21000 F A 0.18
Q = 21000 F A 0.82
Where adequate drainage & firefighting equipment do not exist, the following equation should
be used:
Q = 34500 F A 0.82
Where q = Average unit heat absorption (Btu/h/ft of wetted surface)
Q = Total heat absorption (input) to the wetted surface (Btu/h)
F = Environmental factor (Values for various type of installation are given in
Table 5 in API 521 page 25)
A = Total wetted surface (ft)
The discharge area for pressure relief devices on vessels containing super critical fluids, gases
or vapors exposed to open fires can be estimated by using the following equation.
A=
F'=
F ' A'
P1
0.1406 (Tw T1 )1.25

C K D T1 0.6506
The relief load can calculated directly, in pounds per hour.
(T T1 )1.25
W = 0.1406 M P1 A' w 1.1506
T
1

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 40 of 87
Where A = Effective discharge area of the valve (in)

A = Exposed surface area of the vessel (ft)
F = PSV Factor (= 0.01 min. or 0.045 if value is not known)
P1 = Upstream relieving pressure (psia)
P1 = PSV set pressure + allowable over pressure + atmospheric pressure
C = Cp/Cv
KD = Coefficient of discharge (=0.975 max)
M = Molecular weight of the gas
TW = Vessel wall temperature (R) (for CS vessels = 1100F)
T1 = Gas temperature (R) at the upstream relieving pressure, determined from
the following relation.
T1 = ( P1 / Pn ) Tn
Where Pn = Normal operating gas pressure (psia)
Tn = Normal operating gas temperature (R)
Air Coolers
For air coolers heat absorption equation becomes
Q = 21000 F A1.0
Total bare tube area to be considered instead of finned area, since fins are burned out in the
first few minutes of fire.
Water spray nozzles are some times mounted below the tubes in case of fire. API 520
recommends a minimum of 0.05 - 0.2 gpm/ft water spray rate.
15.3.3 Inadvertent Valve Opening
CV =
W
N 6 FP Y X P1 1
Y =1
X
3 FK X K
Where W = Mass to be relieved (kg/h)
N 6 = Constant (27)
FP = Geometric factor
Y = Downstream pressure (bara)
X = Ratio of pressure drop
P1 = Upstream pressure (bara)
1 = Upstream gas density (kg/m)
15.3.4 Thermal Expansion

As per API RP 521, the relieving capacity requirements for hydraulic expansion cases will be
very small as relieving fluid will be liquid. Therefore X 1 nominal pipe size relief valve is
commonly used

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 41 of 87
Cold fluid blocked in and continuous heat input from hot fluid. Two conditions can occur:
Cold fluid remains liquid and expands
WL = B Q / c
Cold fluid vaporizes
WV =
(T1 Tbp )
(T1 Tav )
Q/ L
Where WL, Wv = weight of liquid or vapor relieved (lb/h)

Q = Normal exchanger duty (Btu/h)
L = Latent heat of vaporization at relieving conditions (Btu/lb)
T1 = Hot side inlet temperature (F)
Tbp = Cold side boiling temperature at relieving pressure (F)
Tav = Average of inlet and outlet temperature of cold side during normal
operation (F)
c = Specific heat of cold medium (Btu/lb F )
B = Coefficient of expansion of cold medium (1/F)
Fluid
Oil
Oil
Oil
Oil
API
3 to 34.9
35 to 50.9
51 to 63.9
64 to 78.9
Expansion Coef.
0.0004
0.0005
0.0006
0.0007
Fluid
Oil
Oil
Oil
Water
API
79 to 88.9
89 to 93.9
=>94
Expansion Coef.
0.0008
0.00085
0.0009
0.0001
15.3.5 Tube failure and leakage

Tube failure is considered a viable contingency when the design pressure of the low pressure
side is less than 2/3 rd (=67%) of design pressure of high pressure side.
However, if the high pressure side of the exchanger operates at 1000 psig (69 barg) or more
and contains a vapor or liquid that can flash or result in vaporization of liquid on the low
pressure side, complete tube failure should be considered, regardless of the pressure
differential.
Install a PSV, if the piping and downstream equipment on the low pressure side do not have
the capacity to handle material leaked from high pressure side without exceeding 110% of the
equipment design pressure.
A tube failure is considered to be a sharp break in one tube. The high pressure fluid flows
through both openings, which is equal to twice the cross section area of a single tube.
Following equation can be used to calculate the flow from high to low pressure sides.
WL = 2 1.256 d 2 C (P
Where WL = Relieving rate. (kg/h)

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 42 of 87
d = Tube inside diameter (mm)

C = Orifice coefficient
P = Differential pressure (Operating pressure of high pressure side (bara) Relieving pressure of PSV (1.1 times set pressure of PSV) (bara)
= Density of high pressure fluid (kg/m)
For a discharge coef. of 0.7, Cp/Cv=1.33 and twice the cross sectional area of one tube
q L = 41.8 d 2
P1 P2
Sg
qV = 385 d 2 P1
M
Z T
Where qL, qv = Quantity of liquid (gpm) or vapour (lb/h)

d = tube inside diameter (inch)
M = MW
P1 = normal high pressure side (psig)
Sg = specific gravity
P2 = 1.1 times low pressure design pressure (psig)
Z = compressibility factor
T = vapor temperature (R) at operating conditions
If the calculated discharge exceeds the normal total flow in the high pressure side, the latter
flow should be used.
Possible flash of liquid to vapor shall be taken into account due to both pressure reduction and
mixing of a volatile fluid with a hot fluid.
Valves on low pressure side provided only for isolation may be assumed fully open, control
valves in a position equivalent to the minimum normal flow unless the valve could automatically
close due to the emergency situation.
15.4
SETTLE-OUT PRESSURE
In high pressure oil & gas handling facilities the compressor suction KO drum has to be
designed based on settle-out pressure. In case of compressor trip the suction and discharge
shutdown valves will close and the gas from high pressure discharge side will flow through the
recycle control valve to the suction side. A new settle-out condition is reached.
The settle-out pressure is calculated by the following formula:
( P V ) + ( P2 V2 )
Ps = 1 1
V1 + V2
Where Ps
P1
P2
V1
V2
= Settle-out pressure (barg)

= Suction side pressure before settle-out (barg)
= Discharge side pressure before settle-out (barg)
= Suction side volume (including KO drum, piping, etc) (m)
= Discharge side volume (including KO drum, piping, etc) (m)

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 43 of 87
16.
PIPE SIZING
The major criteria for line sizing are velocity and pressure drop
1) Liquid lines should be sized for a velocity of (5+D/3) ft/s and a pressure drop of 2.0 psi/100
ft of pipe at pump discharge. At the pump suction, size for (1.3+D/6) ft/s and a pressure
drop of 0.4 psi/100 ft of pipe.
**D = pipe diameter (inch)
2) Steam or gas lines can be sized for 20D ft/s and pressure drops of 0.5 psi/100 ft of pipe
3) Limits on superheated, dry steam or gas line should be 61 m/s (200 ft/s) and a pressure
drop of 0.1 bar/100 m (0.5 psi/100 ft) of pipe. Saturated steam lines should be limited to 37
m/s (120 ft/s) to avoid erosion.
4) For turbulent flow in commercial steel pipes, use the following:
M 0.2
20000 D
Where:P = Frictional pressure drop (psi/100 ft)
M = Mass flow (lb/h)
= Viscosity (cP)
= Density (lb/ft)
D = ID of pipe (inch)
For smooth heat exchanger steel tubes replace 20000 with 23000
P =
5) For two phase flow, an estimate often used is Lockhart and Martinelli. First, the pressure
drops are calculated as if each phase exist alone in the pipe, then
0.5
P
X = L
PG
Now the total pressure drop can be calculated by one of the following:
PTOTAL = YL PL or YG PG
Where
YL = 4.6 X 1.78 + 12.5 X 0.68 + 0.65
YG = X 2 YL
6) Control valves require at least 0.7 bar (10 psi) pressure drop for sufficient control
7) Flange ratings include 10, 20, 40, 103, and 175 bar (150, 300, 600, 1500, and 2500 psig)
8) Globe valves are most commonly used for gases and when tight shutoff is required. Gate
valves are common for most other services.
9) Screwed fitting are generally used for line sizes 2 inches and smaller. Larger connections
should utilize flanges or welding to eliminate leakage.
10) Pipe Schedule Number = 1000 P/S (approximate) where P is the internal pressure rating in
psig and S is the allowable working stress of the material is psi. Schedule 40 is the most
common.
11) About 15% margin in flow should be considered in general for line sizing
12) For fuel oil and heating oil, lines to be sized for 25% margin on flow
13) Pump suction lines should be checked for NPSH requirement. More critical if the liquid is at
its saturation temperature

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 44 of 87
14) 100% margin is desirable for pump suction lines

15) Pump suction line is generally one (or) two sizes higher than the discharge line
16) Liquid overflow line size shall be at least one size higher than the largest liquid inlet line to
that equipment
17) Most of the time, the line size is same as that of the vessel nozzle
18) For pumps and compressors, the connected pipeline (inlet and outlet) sizes are generally
higher than those of the equipments
19) Safety valve inlet line sizing is based on a pressure drop corresponding to about 3% of the
set pressure (in absolute)
20) Minimum velocity of 1 m/sec is preferred for water services and liquids carrying suspended
solid
21) The pressure downstream of PSV, shall not exceed 10% of the PSV set pressure for
conventional safety valves. For balanced type valves it is preferable to limit this pressure to
40% of the set pressure
22) For free draining line, sizing should be less than 1 m/sec velocity

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 45 of 87
Recommended Velocity and Pressure Drop for Process Liquids (not Water)
SL. NO.
Type of Service
Recommended Velocity
(m/s)
1.5 - 4.5
Max. Allowable Pressure

drop (bar/km)
9.0
1.2 - 1.5
---
3.0 - 4.5
1.8 - 3.0
1.5 - 2.5
-------
1.
General recommendation
2.
0.6 - 1.8
1.2 - 2.4
1.1
2.2
6.
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
Liquid density (kg/m)
320
800
1600
Pump suction
Boiling liquid
Non-boiling liquid
Pump discharge (m/h)
< 57
57 - 159
> 159
Liquid flow on gravity
1.8 - 2.4
2.4 - 3.0
3.0 - 4.5
0.9 2.4
13.5
9.0
4.5
0.9
7.
Vessel / Column Inlet
1.2 - 1.8
---
3.
4.
5.
8.
Outlet (+vortex breaker)
9.
Outlet to reboilers
10.
Liquid from total condenser
1.0
0.9
0.3 - 1.2
0.33
0.9 - 1.8
1.1
11.
Liquid to/from chillers
1.2 - 1.8
---
12.
Refrigerant liquid
0.6 - 1.2
0.9
13.
Self venting lines (max velocity)
0.18
---
NOTE :
The velocity higher than 3.0 m/sec for any line should be used only after due consideration for
velocity limitations.
Recommended Velocity and Pressure Drop for Steam Services
Type of Service
Steam Headers : Saturated
Superheated
(m/s)

Drop (bar/km)
60 (max)
75 (max)
Steam Pressure 0 - 3.5 barg

3.5 10 barg
10 20 barg
20 barg and above
Process steam piping (saturated)
30 - 50
0.57
1.1
2.2
3.4
---
Boiler steam piping (superheated)
35 - 100
6.8
Steam lines to Turbine (superheated)
35 - 100
6.8
Steam lines to Turbine exhaust header
---
3.4
Turbine exhaust to header ( > atm)
---
1.1
3.8 - 4.6
---
Driving steam to pumps & recip. equip.

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 46 of 87
Recommended Velocity and Pressure Drop for Water (Condensate)

(m/s)
0.6 - 5.0

drop (bar/km)
4.5
2.
Pipe diameter
< 1
2
4
6
8
10
12
16
20 and above
Pump suction
0.6 - 0.9
0.9 - 1.3
1.5 - 2.0
2.0 - 2.7
2.4 - 3.0
3.0 - 3.6
3.0 - 4.3
3.0 - 4.6
3.0 - 4.8
1.2 - 2.1
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
---
3.
Pump discharge
1.5 - 3.0
---
4.
Boiler feed water
2.4 - 4.5
---
5.
Condensate from condenser
0.9 - 1.5
---
6.
Process water
Cooling water
(once thro, brackish/sea)
Cooling water
(circulating, clean)
Water drain lines (gravity flow)
0.6 - 1.5
5.5
3.6 - 4.9
4.5
1.5 - 3.0
5.0
1.2 - 2.1
---
SL. NO.
Type of Service
General service
1.
7.
8.
9.
Recommended maximum Velocity for Special Liquids or Materials

Sl. No.
Type of Service
Recommended
Maximum Velocity
(m/s)
Carbon steel pipe with

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Phenolic water
Concentrated H2SO4
Salt water
Caustic solution (low temp.)
Stainless steel pipe with
CO2 -rich amine liquid
Cement pipe with salt water
Coal Tar enamel lined pipe with salt water
Plastic pipe or rubber lined pipe with
Liquid in general
Liquid with suspended solids
0.9
1.2
1.8
1.2
3.0
4.5
4.5
3.0
0.9 (min. velocity)

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 47 of 87
Recommended Velocity and Pressure Drop for Vapors (not Steam)

Type of Service
General recommendation
Pressure 0.7 barg and less
Up to 3.5 barg
3.5 - 10 barg
10 - 14 barg
14 - 34 barg
34 barg and above
Vessel / Column outlet
Pressure 0.7 barg and less
Up to 3.5 barg
Above 3.5 barg
(m/s)

Drop (bar/km)
-------------
0.22
0.34
0.68
1.3
3.4
4.5
38 - 60
18 - 30
12 - 15
0.11 - 0.22
0.45 - 1.1
0.45 - 1.1
Compressor suction
---
1.1
Compressor discharge
---
2.2
Refrigerant suction
5.0 - 11.0
---
Refrigerant discharge
11.0 - 18.0
---
---
1.1
General gas lines

Vapor lines (excluding flare lines)
Maximum V2 (1) (kg/m.s2)
Continuous operation:
P 20 bar g
20 < P 50 bar g
50 < P 80 bar g
80 < P 120 bar g
P > 120 bar g
6,000
7,500
(2)
10,000
15,000
20,000
Discontinuous operations e.g.:

Compressor anti-surge
P 50 barg
50 < P 80 barg
P > 80 barg
10,000 (2)
15,000
25,000
(1) Gas density in kg/m, V = gas velocity in m/s

(2) Value could be increased but not exceeding 15,000 in case of debottlenecking

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 48 of 87
17.
SELECTION OF VALVES
Some of the most common types of valves are:
17.1
GATE VALVES
Best suited control: Quick opening
Recommended uses:
1. Fully open/closed, non-throttling
2. Infrequent operation
3. Minimal fluid trapping in line
Applications: Oil, gas, air, slurries, heavy liquids, steam, non-condensing gases, and corrosive
liquids
Advantages
High Capacity
Tight shut-off
Low cost
Little resistance to flow
17.2
Disadvantages
Poor control
Cavitate at low pressure drops
Cannot be used for throttling
GLOBE VALVES
Best suited control: Linear and equal percentage
Recommended uses:
1. Throttling service/flow regulation
2. Frequent operation
Applications: Liquids, vapors, gases, corrosive substances, slurries
Advantages
Efficient throttling
Accurate flow control
Available in multiple ports
17.3
Disadvantages
High pressure drop
More expensive than other valves
BALL VALVES
Best suited control: Quick opening, linear
Recommended uses:
1. Fully open/closed, limited-throttling
2. Higher temperature fluids
Applications: Most liquids, high temperatures, slurries
Advantages
High Capacity
Tight sealing with low torque
Low cost
Low leakage and maintenance
Disadvantages
Poor control
Prone to Cavitation

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 49 of 87
17.4
BUTTERFLY VALVES
Best suited control: Linear, equal percentage
Recommended uses:
1. Fully open/closed or throttling services
2. Frequent operation
3. Minimal fluid trapping in line
Applications: Liquids, gases, slurries, liquids with suspended solids
Advantages
High Capacity
Good flow control
Low cost and maintenance
Low pressure drop
17.5
Disadvantages
High torque required for control
Prone to Cavitation at lower flows
OTHER VALVES
1) Another type of valve commonly used in conjunction with other valves is called a check
valve. Check valves are designed to restrict the flow to one direction. If the flow reverses
direction, the check valve closes.
2) Relief valves are used to regulate the operating pressure of incompressible flow.
3) Safety valves are used to release excess pressure in gases or compressible fluids.
17.6
CONTROL VALVES
Control valves are of three types based on how the valve travel or stroke (openness) relates to
the flow:
Equal Percentage: equal increments of valve travel produce an equal percentage in flow
change
Linear: valve travel is directly proportional to the valve stoke
Quick opening: large increase in flow with a small change in valve stroke
17.7
SOME RULES OF THUMB

Equal Percentage (most commonly used valve control)
Used in processes where large changes in pressure drop are expected
Used in processes where a small percentage of the total pressure drop is permitted by the
valve
Used in temperature and pressure control loops
Linear
Used in liquid level or flow loops
Used in systems where the pressure drop across the valve is expected to remain fairly
constant (i.e. steady state systems)
Quick Opening
Used for frequent on-off service
Used for processes where "instantly" large flow is needed (ie. safety systems or cooling
water systems)

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 50 of 87
17.8
CONTROL VALVE FLOW COEFFICIENT
17.8.1 CV FOR INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID

The limiting pressure drop corresponding to the occurrence of the critical flow is defined as:
Pcritical = P1 Pv
Control valve flow coefficient can be calculated using the following formulas:
P = P1 P2
Cf =
P
PVC
NORMAL FLOW
CRITICAL FLOW
P < C f Pcritical
P C f Pcritical
C v = 1.16 Q
FOR LIQUID
G
P
C v = 1.16 Q
G
C f Pcritical
2
Where P1 = Upstream pressure (bara)

P2 = Downstream pressure (bara)
Pv = Vapor pressure of liquid at flowing temperature (bara)
Pc = Critical pressure of liquid (bara)
Pvc = Differential pressure between the inlet pressure and the pressure at Vena
Contracta (bar)
T = Upstream flowing temperature (K)
G = Specific gravity @STP
Cf = Pressure recovery factor (assume 0.8 0.9 if no data is available)
Cv = Valve flow coefficient
Q = Volumetric flow rate (m/h) @STP
17.8.2 CV FOR COMPRESSIBLE FLUID
The limiting pressure drop corresponding to the occurrence of the critical flow is defined as:
2
Pcritical = 0.5 C f P1
Control valve flow coefficient can be calculated using the following formulas:
P = P1 P2
G=
g
@ STP
AIR
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 51 of 87
NORMAL FLOW
CRITICAL FLOW
P < 0.5 C f P1
P 0.5 C f P1
FOR GAS
Cv =
SATURATED
STEAM
SUPERHEATED
STEAM
Q
G T
295 P ( P1 + P2 )
Cv =
Cv =
Cv =
72.4 W
Cv =
P ( P1 + P2 )
72.4 W (1 + 0.00126 Ts )
P ( P1 + P2 )
Q G T
257 C f P1
Cv =
83.7 W
C f P1
83.7 W (1 + 0.00126 Ts )
C f P1
Where P1 = Upstream pressure (bara)

P2 = Downstream pressure (bara)
T = Upstream flowing temperature (K)
Ts = Steam superheat temperature (C)
G = Gas specific gravity @STP
Cf = Pressure recovery factor (assume 0.8 0.9 if no data is available)
Cv = Valve flow coefficient
W = Mass flow rate (tph)
Q = Volumetric flow rate (m/h) @STP
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 52 of 87
17.9
CONTROL VALVE ISOLATION AND BYPASS VALVE SIZE

CONTROL VALVE MANIFOLD
IF REQUIRED
3/4"
3/4"
1) For control valve diameter < 4" in continuous service, complete manifold
(block+bypass) shall be provided
2) For control valve diameter > 4" the need for installation of block & bypass valve
and handwheel around the control valve shall be defined for case by case
3) Bypass valves are globe valves for size <8" or butterfly valves for size >6"
Dia. Block
& By-pass
Valve Size
= 1
= 1
10
10
10
10
12
12
12
14
14
12
14
= 2
= 3
= 4
= 6
= 8
= 10
= 12
= 14
= 16
Control Valve Size
10
12
14
16
16
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 53 of 87
17.10 POSITIVE ISOLATION OF EQUIPMENT

All equipment with spare, by-pass or inspectable are isolated by spacer or spectacle blinds for
allowing safe maintenance in the following cases:
Hydrocarbon service
Chemical product (operating pressure 75 barg)
Other service for operating temperature T 170C
Drums (in all cases), columns, filters and all pressure vessels will be isolated for maintenance.
The used of spectacle blind or spacer will be in accordance with the following table:
150#
300#
600#
900#
1500#
2500#
DOUBLE VALVING ARRANGEMENT

TRAIN A
3/4"
3/4"
COULD BE SDV
TRAIN B
3/4"
3/4"
1) Double valving will be provided if the operating pressure is higher or equal than 75 barg
and for piping rating > 600#
2) Type of valve and isolation by spacer or spectacle blind must be as per the standard practice
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 54 of 87
17.11 TYPE OF ISOLATION VALVE ACCORDING TO SERVICE

Hydrocarbon Liquid/Gas
2 Ball valve FB(
Valve upstream,
downstream PSV
Ball valve FB ( )
BDV Ball valve FB ( )
ESDV Ball valve FB (
)
Chemical Product, Air,

Nitrogen, Inert gas & CO2
2 Ball valve FB(
)
Valve upstream,
downstream PSV
Ball valve FB (
BDV Ball Valve
FB ( )
ESDV Ball valve
FB ( )
Glycol
Same criteria as
hydrocarbon
services if operating
temperature is
170 oC, the type of
ball valve will be
revised.
2 Butterfly
valve
Machinery suction:
Ball valve FB (
> 2 Butterfly
valve
for sea
water.
Reduced ball valve ( ) will

be used for the other cases.
Also SDV (except if located
at equipment suction).
Reduced ball valve ( )

will be used for the other
cases. Also SDV (except if
located at equipment
suction).
The process will decide if

( ) is acceptable or not for
the different services.
The process will decide if

( ) is acceptable or not
for the different services.
Limit of ball valve utilization:

T = 170 oC
If operating temperature is
170C, the type of ball valve
will be revised.
Limit of ball valve

utilization:
T = 170 oC
If operating temp. is
170C, the type of ball
valve will be revised.
INJECTION
WATER
P > 150 bar
Ball valve ( )
17.12 TYPCAL VALVE ARRANGEMENTS

PRESSURISATION BY-PASS
DOUBLE VALVING
3/4"
2"
BYPASS
< 2 Gate
valve
2 Gate
valve or
diaphragm valve
for sea water
Pressure valve to flare:

Ball valve FB (
)
Machinery suction:
Ball valve FB (
Sea Water,
Cooling Water &
Hot Water
D
2"
LC
BYPASS
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 55 of 87
DETAILS OF SAMPLE CONNECTION

AS IN PID DRAWING
SP
3/4"
Liquid sample connection with

temperature < 65C and a vapor
pressure < ATM
300 min
1/2"
2"
DO
DRAIN
UTILITY INJECTION
Injection dia =3/4"
MIN
CHEMICAL LINE
Sam e piping class

Dia = 3/4"
D
Top or Side
connection
PRO CESS LINE
Rem ovable
UTILITY INJECTION
Injection dia > 3/4"
UTILITY LINE
3/4"
FLOW
Process Class
3/4"
Process or Utility class
Utility Class
PSV INSTALLATION
TO FLARE HEADER
3/4"
LO
SP
3/4"
SPEC
BREAK
LO
V
LO
3/4"
600 min
LO
V
SPEC
BREAK
LO
V
PSV
SPEC
BREAK
PSV
SPEC
BREAK
PSV
LC
NOTES:
1) Distance between PSV and reducer is minimum
2) Downstream block valve is installed flange to flange (if the builtup back pressure is high this
valve is installed downstream the reducer)
3) The minimum distance of 600 mm is required in case of cold depressurisation to avoid icing of
the ball valve
NUMBER OF PSV & SET PRESSURE

1) Only one PSV is installed for Thermal or Fire relief case
2) 1+1 or multiple PSVs are installed for other relief cases. The total relief load is shared by all the operating PSVs
3) For multiple PSVs one PSV is set at Design pressure and is in operation while a similar PSV is in standby. All other PSVs are
set at 105% of set pressure and are in operation.
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 56 of 87
PUMPS HANDLING HYDROCARBON & GLYCOL
UC
3/4"
UC
3/4"
3/4"
3/4"
3/4"
NOTES:
1) "Y" type strainer are installed for lines <6"
and "T" type strained are installed for lines >4"
2) For water services the pump drains are
collected in a tray which is routed to open drain
3) A bypass around the pump non-return valve
shall be installed if the pump operating temp is
>80C for spare pump heating or for draining
the spare pump discharge side
4) Utility connection (UC) is required only for
hydrocarbon services
COLLECTED
DRAIN
DRAINAGE PIPING FROM HORIZONTAL VESSELS
Level
instr. drain
DRAINAGE PIPING FROM VERTICAL VESSELS AND PROCESS

PIPING
PROCESS LINE
Level
instr. drain
COLLECTED
DRAIN
COLLECTED
DRAIN
2"
D
2"
3/4"
SPEC
BREAK
3/4"
SPEC
BREAK

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 57 of 87
18.
FLARE SYSTEM
Generally there are two types of flares:
Ground flare (in case of more land area available)
Elevated flare (common practice)
Burning pit, an excavated pit of 5 ft depth, with a burner inserted in a wall. These are not
generally
used because of excessive smoke. Location - at least 500 ft from process and
storage area and from any roadway.
Flares can be designed for smokeless operation. Two types of smokeless flares are:
Steam sparged flare
Air assisted flare
The flare system shall be any one or combination of the following:
HP flare system
LP flare system
The general philosophy for LP and HP flare system in an Oil & Gas facility are:
1) Relieving devices with set pressure <= 10 barg are connected to the LP flare system.
2) Relieving devices with set pressure > 10 barg are connected to the HP flare system.
Relief devices can not relieve the design relief rate, when the back pressure is more than
certain limit, as stated below:
1) Back pressure for conventional safety valves shall be < 10% of set pressure.
2) Back pressure for balanced bellows safety valves shall be < 50% of set pressure.
3) Back pressure for pilot operated safety valves shall be < 90% of set pressure.
18.1
ELEVATED FLARE
Elevated flares consists of a stack (guyed, self-supporting or with a supporting structure) with a
burner tip, pilot burners and associated fuel system, igniter and miscellaneous auxiliaries.
Recommended distances of the flare stack from other equipments are:
1) >200 ft (61 m) to a separator/floating roof tank which could be ignited by an occasional
falling spark
2) > 400 ft (122 m) to any other equipment
3) > 500 ft (152 m) to any equipment having an elevation within 125-150 ft of the elevation of
the flare tip
Flare stack diameter is generally sized on a velocity basis, although pressure drop should be
checked. Diameter of the flare stack is to be not less than that of the flare tip. Flare tip shall be
sized for Mach 0.2 to 0.4 at max emergency load. The higher limit is to be used with fuels with
high burning velocities. For example, small amounts of H2 in a hydrocarbon fuel increases the
burning velocity and permits higher gas velocities in the tip without flame blow off. Minimum
velocity at full capacity should be 100 fps. Too low a tip velocity can actually cause heat and
corrosion damage.
Flare stack height is generally designed based on the radiant heat intensity generated by the
flame. A check should also be made on the max ground concentration level if toxic and
corrosive pollutants are present in the stream.

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 58 of 87
Some heat intensity levels which have been employed in design are:
1) 3.16 kW/m (1000 Btu/h ft): storage tanks containing volatile materials and control rooms
or areas where personnel must remain at their posts.
2) 4.73 kW/m (1500 Btu/h ft): used by some companies for acceptable intensity in operating
areas where operators wearing normal clothing were likely to perform their duties and
where general area radiant shielding exists.
3) 6.31 kW/m (2000 Btu/h ft): in open areas where no shelter is available and only escape is
required.
4) 15.77 kW/m (5000 Btu/h ft): on structures and in operating areas where operators are not
likely to perform their duties and where shelter from radiant heat is available, e.g. behind
equipment.
Elevated Flare Flash Back Protection
Protection shall be provided against flash back from the flare tip to the flare header and
blowdown drum. For this purpose gas purging in connection with sealing devices are
recommended. Two methods of sealing are : (a) Molecular seal, (b) Liquid seal
Liquid Seal
A liquid seal is often provided in the flare stack either at the base of the stack itself or in a
separate seal drum. The preferred liquid is water although oil may also be used. In sizing a
seal drum, first determine the maximum pressure on the flare side. The minimum seal length
provided by the water discharge pipe is then specified for 200% of maximum operating
pressure of the drum or 10 ft, whichever is greater.
The drum diameter is set to provide sufficient vapor/liquid disengaging area, with the vapor
velocity V limited to Vc.
(D d )
V = 0.157
d
V = velocity (ft/s) D = density of entrained liquid, (lb/ft)
d = density of gas (lb/ft)
The height of vapor space in a vertical drum should be approx 2 - 3 times the drum diameter. If
a horizontal vessel is used a minimum dia of 3 ft is recommended for this purpose. A seal drum
design pressure of 50 psig is suggested to protect the drum from pressure surges, as with the
blowdown drum. However if continuous gas purging is not used, the seal drum design pressure
should be 150 psig in order to withstand the overpressure due to explosion. Gunite lining is
normally used for corrosion control.
Pipe Seal
Pipe seal usually consisting of a loop or trap built into the base of the flare stack or the flare
line inlet connection, are designed to be filled with water to prevent flashback into the flare
headers. The slop of the inlet is designed to provide a volume of water below the normal
sealing water level equivalent to the volume of 10 ft of the inlet line. Although the 10 ft volume
basis is arbitrary, it should provide adequate sealing against flashback. Depth of the water seal
is usually held to about 12 in since greater depths can cause gas pulsations. Seal water level is
maintained by a continuous flow of water at about 20 gpm.
Smokeless Operation
A diluents such as steam, air or water may be used to improve flame characteristics i.e. reduce
smoke and luminosity. Steam is preferred to compressed air because of cost. Steam can be
injected into the flare stack below the burner tip. Steam required for smokeless operation can
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 59 of 87
be calculated from the following formula :

10.8
WS = WHC 0.68
Ws = Steam rate (lb/h) Whc = hydrocarbon rate (lb/h)
M = Gas MW
When unsaturated hydrocarbons are present (which are more difficult to burn) following steam
rates shall be used :
Steam
rate (kg
steam /
kg gas)
0.25
For no spoke
operation
---
For reduced
luminosity
---
10
0.35
---
---
20
0.6
---
---
30
0.75
---
---
35
0.88
1.55
---
40
1.75
2.75
50
1.2
2.15
3.2
60
1.45
2.55
3.65
65
1.55
2.75
3.85
% unsaturates
No smoke operation
Smokeless operation is usually specified for only 10 - 30% of the max flare load.
Ignition
The number of pilot units (with remote ignition) required per flare is largely a function of wind
conditions. If the prevailing wind is strong, then one pilot unit may be adequate. Standard flare
tip includes three pilot units uniformly distributed around the top of the flare.
Smokeless operation
1) The stack itself will be of carbon steel. The foot of the stack (below the main seal) is
cement filled
2) The bottom of the stack and inlet are to be gunite-lined from the cement fill to a height of 6'0" above
the sealing water level. Dip leg and bottom of flare stack are to be insulated
and steam traced to a
height of 6'-0" above sealing water level (to vaporize condensed
hydrocarbons)
3) The top 10' of flare stack and pilot assembly to be type SS-310. If steam is injected in to the
flare stack, below the burner tip, the entire tip assembly will be of heat-resisting alloy
4) Sometimes, when a gas stream has a continuous high level of H2S, there is an economic
advantage to providing a separate flare, header and seal drum for the H2S rich stream
Noise
The roar of combustion is the one source of noise that cannot be avoided with elevated flares.
At moderate release rates this source generally does not cause problem, but if the roar
remains objectionable, the moderate (and most frequent) release can be burned in a ground
flare, keeping the elevated flare for emergencies.
In smokeless flares, generally steam is used which increases the combustion roar. In this case
the noise can be reduced to some extent by using a multipoint steam nozzle.

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Date: 08/02/08
Page 60 of 87
18.2
GROUND FLARE
Ground flare is similar to an elevated flare, but without any supporting structure. It requires 76
152 m (250 - 500 ft) sterile distance. A ground flare may be either single tip or multi-jet type.
The former is no longer recommended. All new installations are multi-jet type. A multi-jet
ground flare is designed for burning gas at nearly atmospheric pressure. The gas is supplied
by a manifold of parallel burner lines which lead to a number of vertically discharging 1"
diameter burners. Solid rods acting as flame holders are mounted above the outlet of the
burners parallel to the burner lines, their main function being to prevent the flame from riding
up to the top of flare.
The flames are surrounded by a refractory lined stack. The stack acts as a chimney, drawing
air in to the combustion zone. The stack in turn is surrounded by a windbreak to reduce wind
effects and luminosity at ground level.
The use of a ground flare requires a clear distance of about 500 ft from any processing unit or
storage facility and not less than 200 ft from property line fence.
Design Criteria
Large flow rates cannot be treated by a ground flare; John Zinc suggests a max. flow rate of
40000 - 60000 lb/h. To determine the diameter of a ground flare, the ESSO formula for multijet
flares can be used :
D = 0.826 Q
D = Stack dia (ft)
Q = Heat release (MMBtu/h)
For stack diameters up to 25 ft, the stack length is usually made 32 ft. For larger diameters, the
stack height should be suitable increased. The bottom of the stack is elevated to allow air for
combustion to enter. Minimum clearance between bottom of stack and grade is either 6 ft or
0.3 D, whichever is greater.
Sealing Device
The same for elevated flare can be used. A special sealing device "two stage water seal for
use with integrated flare system" has also been developed for a combined elevated and ground
flare. The base of the elevated flare contains a seal drum with two dip legs. Gas is first sent
through the lower seal to ground flare. Up to the capacity of the ground flare, all gas is sent to
the ground flare, with increasing gas flows handled by varying the number of burners
operating. As the gas flow increases further the upper seal is broken and gas is sent to the
elevated flare.
Smokeless operation
Smokeless flaring - both ground & elevated flares can be operated under smokeless condition
by suitable injection of steam or air. However smokeless firing under all conditions is
uneconomic and smokeless operation is generally specified only for 10-30% of the maximum
flare load. Smoke production, depending upon MW and gas flow can be reduced in multi-jet
ground flares with steam or water injection. However a multi-jet ground flare is less smoky than
an elevated flare without steam injection.
Material of construction
Ground flares are generally constructed of fire brick or of a CS cylinder lined with about 8" of
refractory material.

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Date: 08/02/08
Page 61 of 87
Noise
From available data and consequent extrapolations, it has been found that, in the absence of
combustion- drive pulsation, the grade level flare is likely to be about 10 dB quitter at the same
load than an elevated flare.
18.3
VENT STACK
If vapors from pressure relief valves may be directly discharged to atm, this can be done by
simply piping to a safe location (called as vent pipe) or by collecting these vapors via laterals
and headers and disposing of them together with other valve emissions to the atmosphere
through a common stack (called as vent stack).
Air dilution
The mass flux (in lb/h) when discharged directly to the atm may be expressed by the following
equation:
W
= 0.264 X / D
Wo
Where:X = distance from the jet nozzle (vent pipe end) (ft)
D = vent pipe (nozzle dia) (ft)
W = weight flow rate of vapor-air mixture at the distance X from the vent pipe
end (lb/h)
Wo = weight flow rate of the vapors discharged by the vent pipe (lb/h)
Based on this info, hydrocarbon vapors discharging from a safety valve into the atmosphere
will entrain sufficient air to be below their LEL at a distance approx 120 tail pipe diameters
away from the end of the vent. In order to supply the energy requirement for this amount of
mixing, it is necessary that the velocity of the discharged hydrocarbon vapors be more than
152 m/s as they leave the tail-pipe. When reduction of pipe size is required to maintain 152 m/s
or higher outlet velocity, the pipe end should be reduced for a length equal to 3 pipe diameters.
Location of vent stacks
1) At least 1.83 m (6 ft) above the highest adjacent structure or tower.
2) At least 3.66 m (12 ft) above the highest adjacent platform.
3) At least 4.57 m (15 ft) above grade.
4) At least 15.2 m (50 ft) or 120 pipe diameters, whichever is greater, away from the nearest
platform structure or tower when located at an elevation lower than the platform, structure
or tower.
5) At least 30.5 m (100 ft) or 120 pipe diameters, whichever is greater, away from the tops of
flue gas stacks or other ignition sources regardless of the atmospheric vent elevation.
Design Criteria
High discharge velocities are desirable in order to obtain good hydrocarbon-air mixing and
reach a concentration below 3% by weight within a reasonable distance from the stack.
Tip Diameter
The tip dia. is usually sized for an exit velocity of 500 fps at the max relief rate. Sonic velocity is
to be avoided.

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 62 of 87
DO 2
4
WMAX
3600 d V U O MAX
Where Do = Stack tip outlet inside dia (ft)

Wmax = Max relief rate (lb/h)
dv = Vapor density (lb/ft)
Uo max = Max allow exit velocity (ft/s) (500 fps or about 0.5 sonic velocity,
whichever is lower)
Stack Diameter
Not less than tip diameter. Total pressure drop due to header, stack, tip and exit loss shall be
checked against available pressure drop.
Stack Height
Vent stack height shall be selected to ensure that :
1) Toxic compound concentration at ground or at any other point of interest is lower than the
threshold limit. If the pollutant is odorous, the odor threshold of perception at ground level
inside / outside the plant should be checked.
2) Radiant heat intensity, in the event the relieved stream should become ignited, does not
exceed the limits valid for flare stacks.
3) Vapor concentration at ground or at any other point of interest is limited to 0.1-0.5 times the
lower flammability limit of the vapor
Silencing
Silencers are sometimes provided in vent stacks to reduce noise caused by high velocity gas
discharge into atmosphere. Silencers are generally provided in case of continuously operated
vent stacks.
Sealing
In every vent stack installation, careful consideration should be given to the problem of any
accumulation of liquid in the line leading to the stack. To cope with this situation, it is important
to avoid any pocket in the line and to slope the system to a low point drain. Seals shall be
provided with a ht. equiv. to at least 1.5 times the back pressure under max relief load.
Snuffing Steam
The possibility that the vent stack may become accidentally ignited by lightning or from other
sources usually makes a remotely controlled snuffing steam connection desirable on a vent
stack or any atm vent handling flammable vapors. It is impractical to size the steam supply line
for a rate sufficient to extinguish a fire under max venting conditions.
Purging
Continuous purging of vent systems should be provided in case discharge of flammable vapors
or gases is anticipated through long headers leading to the final vent stack. (purge rate shall be
as given in elevated flare)

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Date: 08/02/08
Page 63 of 87
18.4
FLARE HEADER AND SUB-HEADER SIZING

Network Sizing Criteria
Fluid
Phase
Gas
Phase
Two
Phase
TOTAL Spec
GS ECP 103
Service
SAIPEM Standard
Mach No.
V
(kg/m s)
Mach No.
V
(kg/m s)
Lines downstream of relieving

device and sub-headers
0.7
< 150 000
0.5
< 100 000
Headers
0.7
< 150 000
0.7
< 100 000
Lines downstream of relieving

device, sub-headers and
headers
0.25
< 50 000
Lapple method and charts

For vapors and gases Lappel method may be used for both adiabatic and isothermal
conditions. Although flow in a relief header approaches adiabatic conditions, no significant
errors are made if calculations are limited to isothermal flow because hydrocarbons above 50
MW have a specific heat ratio, k, approaching 1. This corresponds to isothermal expansion.
The slight errors deriving from the assumption of isothermal flow are on the conservative side.
Lappel chart for isothermal flow to be used. Corresponding charts for adiabatic flow can be
found in Perry handbook.
Calculation
Gci = 12.6 Po
M
((2 Z ) 1) To
Where Gci = critical mass flow (lb/s ft)

Po = upstream pressure (psia)
To = upstream temperature (R)
M = MW of vapor
Z = compressibility factor, at flow conditions or average over the pipe length
N = 4 f
Le
D
Where N = line resistance factor

D = ID of pipe (ft)
Le = equivalent length of pipe & fittings (ft)
f = Fanning friction factor; initial estimate of 0.004 is suggested. This can be
rechecked later using Reynolds number.
Note
When Darcy or Moody friction factor is available, their value must be divided by 4, to obtain
Fanning friction factor.
When analyzing a relief header, made up of various sections of different diameter, each

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 64 of 87
section with dia D and resistance factor N can be converted to an equivalent diameter De
having a line resistance factor Ne equal to
D
Ne = N e
D
Any diameter may be selected as equivalent diameter (De), but the calculation of mass velocity
(G and Gci) must be referred to this diameter De.
The total resistance factor Nt of the entire header, referred to the equivalent diameter, De is the
sum of equivalent resistance factors Ne of the various sections of the header.
The pressure drop of the header can be found using Lappel chart with Nt and G/Gci calculated
with equivalent diameter De.
Compressible fluids & flashing liquids
For the sizing of a blow down header carrying saturated liquids flashing as the pressure drops,
the following equation may be used:
(N Va / 2) + V
P = P1 P2 = 7.26 w 2
D4
Where P1 = inlet pressure (psia)
P2 = outlet pressure (psia)
w = mass flow rate (liquid + gas) (lb/s)
N = number of velocity heads, as defined in Lapple method
Va = average specific volume (ft/lb)
D = pipe diameter (inch)
V = V2 V1 = increase in specific volume of fluid between inlet and outlet,
(ft/lb)
Suggested velocities and sonic flow
Sonic velocity may be calculated from the following formula (valid for ideal gas):
VS = 223
(Z k T )
M
Where Vs = sonic velocity (ft/s)
K = Cp/Cv at fluid temperature
MW = molecular weight
T = fluid temperature (R)
Z = compressibility factor (approx. 1 at low pressure)
Even if sufficient pressure is available, depending on the lowest set pressure of relief valve in
the system, it is not desirable to size the header so that the flow becomes sonic (high noise
level and pipe vibrations).
To prevent this, the value for the ratio (P2/Po) / (G/Gci) must be larger than 0.6 and preferable
not less than 1, P2 being the pressure in the downstream vessel.
The recommended range of values for flare headers and other piping when pressure drop is
not controlling are listed below:
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Page 65 of 87
Flare System
18.5
(P2/Po) / (G/Gci)
V / Vs
Downstream piping of safety valves
1 to 2
0.25 to 0.65
Flare headers
1 to 2
0.25 to 0.65
Flare stacks
2 to 3
0.20 to 0.40
FLARE KO DRUM SIZING

A knock out (KO) drum is provided in the flare system to collect the liquid in the flare gas
before being set to the flare stack. Flare KO drum shall be sized according to API 521. Flare
KO drum shall be sized to meet the following criteria:
1) KO drum shall be sized to hold the maximum liquid relief in any relief case or scenario,
between normal liquid level (NLL) and high liquid level (HLL or LHH), for a relief duration of
5 minutes (liquid hold-up time for general oil & gas facility). This hold-up time varies for
each type of project.
2) The vapor space above high liquid level or high high liquid level (LSH, LAH, LSHH, LAHH)
shall be sufficient to allow the maximum gas relief rate with a particle size separation of
>600 microns (as per API 521) or >400 microns (as per TOTAL spec).
3) KO drum type shall be selected based on the following considerations:
4) If there is no space constraint, generally horizontal KO drum is preferred.
5) The residence time for liquid separation, is more in horizontal KO drum than vertical drum.
If the liquid relief rate is more to the flare system, horizontal KO drum shall be selected.
6) The available liquid holdup volume is more in a horizontal drum than in a vertical drum for
the same amount of gas rate. Therefore, horizontal drum shall be selected for system
having substantial liquid relief.
7) Vertical KO drums are preferred due to tight space constraints. Vertical KO drums are
selected for gaseous relief systems, where no or less liquid carryover is expected.
8) The suggested design pressure of blowdown drum is 50 psig to offer a satisfactory
resistance in case of overpressure
9) A steam coil is generally provided in the blowdown drum to prevent heavy hydrocarbons
from reaching their pour point. For the same reason, tracing is normally provided on suction
and discharge lines of the blowdown pumps
10) The blowdown pumps can be motor or steam turbine driven. It is advisable for safety to
have one pump motor driven and one steam driven
11) Due to variety of liquids handled, SG value is usually given as a wide range (e.g. 0.6-0.85)
12) A water boot may or may not be provided below the drum
13) Blowdown drum should be sloped 1:250 towards the liquid outlet nozzle
14) Horizontal KO drums shall be provided with either single pass or two pass arrangement to
optimize the design. The different types of KO drum are shown below:

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Date: 08/02/08
Page 66 of 87
Flare Gas
Relief Gas
Flare Gas
Relief Gas
FLARE KO
DRUM
FLARE KO DRUM
(Single pass)
Flare Gas
Relief Gas
Flare Gas
Relief Gas
FLARE KO DRUM
(Tw o pass)
FLARE KO DRUM
(Tw o pass)
15) For most of the oil & gas facility, high high level in flare KO drum initiates plant shutdown
system. Therefore, KO drum sizing should be done carefully to hold the emergency liquid
relief. KO drums are provided with the following equipment / accessories:
16) KO drum pump to evacuate the liquid for further processing. The KO drum pump shall be
sized to evacuate the liquid collected during emergency relief in 20 30 minutes.
17) KO drums are sometimes provided with boot to enhance the suction head to avoid NPSH
problem for the KO drum pump. The reason for providing boot are:
Flare headers are routed with slop towards the KO drum, and hence the KO drum is
located at ground level or lowest level in the plant. There would not be sufficient liquid
head for the pump for safe operation. To avoid cavitation in the pump and to boost the
NPSH, boots are provided from which the pump suction is taken.
The liquid collected in the KO drum are mostly at bubble point or flashing nature. This
creates cavitation problem in the pump. By adding a boot of sufficient height, the
suction static head and NPSH can be improved.
For satisfactory performance of any pump, the available NPSH should be >1 meter. In
cases, where the NPSH is lower than 1, which is a typical case for KO drum pump,
special pumps like canned pumps are selected.
18) KO drums are also provided with internal / external heaters. The reasons for the heater are:
To keep the liquid warm, to avoid freezing of the liquid or to reduce the viscosity of the
liquid.
Internal heaters are sometimes used to vaporize the light liquid collected in the KO
drum, so that they can be flared. For such cases pumps may not be provided for the
KO drum.
Generally electrical heaters are used in flare KO drum due to the remote location in the
plant and their rare operational requirement.

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Date: 08/02/08
Page 67 of 87
19) Following procedure from API 521 shall be used for flare KO drum sizing:
Liquid particles will separate when:
the residence time of the vapour or gas is equal to or greater than the time required to
travel the available vertical height at the dropout velocity of the liquid particles
the vertical gas velocity is sufficiently low to permit the liquid dropout to fall
The dropout velocity of a particle in a stream is calculated using the following equation:
U C = 1.15 g D
Where Uc
g
D
l
v
C
( l v )
v C
= dropout velocity (m/s)

= acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s)
= particle diameter (m)
= density of the liquid at operating condition (kg/m)
= density of the vapour at operating condition (kg/m)
= drag coefficient
= viscosity of the gas (cP)
The drag coefficient (C) is calculated using the following equation:

C (Re) 2 = 0.13 10 8
v D 3 ( l v )
2
[ (
C = 10^ (- 0.0001 Log C Re 2
)]
[ (
- 0.0028 Log C Re 2
)]
[ (
+ 0.1225 Log C Re 2
)]
[ (
- 1.136 Log C Re 2
(The drag coefficient (C) can also be taken from Figure-20 on page 64 in API 521)
The liquid dropout time is calculated as:
= hv / U c
Where = dropout time (sec)
hv = vertical height available above liquid level in KO drum (m)
The actual vapour velocity is calculated as:
Uv =
Qv / 3600
( Av N b )
Where Qg = volumetric vapour flow rate (m/h)

Av = vapour cross sectional area (m)
Nb = number of vapour passes
The required drum length is calculated as:
)]
+ 2.8091)

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 68 of 87
Lmin = U v N b
The selected KO drum length should be > Lmin
(Otherwise the above calculation to be repeated until the required KO drum length has
been arrived)
According to in-house KO sizing criteria, the gas flow area of KO drum shall meet one of
the following requirements of max:
max =
Q *max
Av min
Q *max = Qv max
v
l v
Where max = Gas load factor (m/s)

= 0.07 m/s for general sizing
= 0.10 m/s for KO drum with no inlet device and significant liquid
quantities
= 0.15 m/s for KO drum with Schoepentoeter inlet device and significant
liquid quantities
= 0.25 m/s for KO drum with relatively dry gas feed and/or with battery
limit KO drums (generally selected)
Qv, max = Maximum gas flow rate (m/s)
v
= Density of gas (kg/m)
l
= Density of liquid (kg/m)
Av, min = Minimum vapour flow area (m)
18.6
TYPES OF FLARE HEADERS

At times it may be economical to provide more than one header for the following reasons:
1) A small header is provided to handle relief streams which require sophisticated materials of
construction for corrosion or design temperature reasons, while a large diameter header
handles the remaining relief streams.
2) Two separate headers might prove economic when a considerable quantity of gas to be
relieved comes from relief valves set at high pressure. In this case a high back pressure
can be chosen to design one of the headers, using high velocity and smaller diameter,
while other discharges are sent to a low pressure header.
Header pressure drop, DP ~= W / D
W = mass flow rate, kg/h
D = density, kg/m
For flare load, at a time single risk is assumed. For fire case a fire area of 185 - 465 m (2000 5000 ft) can be assumed. Generally, 232 m (2500 ft) of fire area shall be taken to calculate
the relief load. Areas larger than 465 m (5000 ft) are to be considered if enclosed by a curb or
dike. Fire areas should be smallest areas which can be isolated by means of fire fighting
equipment. In case of power failure, air coolers still absorb 20-30% of design heat duty by
natural convection.

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Date: 08/02/08
Page 69 of 87
Relief of acid or toxic gases

Hazardous gases such as H2S, Cl2, HCN, CO, etc. should be processed in order to convert
them to a less objectionable compound; e.g. H2S to liquid sulfur, Cl2 to NaOCl with NaOH
wash, etc. Alternately it might be desirable to incinerate these gases in a properly designed
incinerator.
However during emergencies, it may be necessary to discharge these gases to flare. In this
case, special precautions must be taken, such as: A separate blow down header, without pockets, with suitable materials to prevent
corrosion. In the case of wet H2S it is desirable to insulate and steam trace the line.
The hazardous gas, piped thro a separate header, can be discharged either to the common
flare (downstream the seal or at flare tip) or preferable, to a separate flare for better burner
control.
18.7
FLARE HEADER PURGING

Explosive conditions can occur if air enters the relief header or flare system. Air may enter the
system when (1) the gas density is lower than air, (2) air can enter the flare stack while gas
escapes, (3) at the end of hot gas flaring, during system cooing and creation of vacuum causes
air to be sucked into the system, (4) natural draft of flare headers may cause, in case of leaking
joints, air to enter.
Water seal and molecular seals can be provided to prevent air diffusion in to the flare header.
In freezing climates, steam injection and heating coils to be provided for water seals.
It is also necessary to provide the injection of gas (fuel gas or inert gas) for the following
reasons:
To provide a continuous purge of the system
To prevent vacuum condition when the system cools down after hot gas flaring.
Purge gas velocity in the header can be 0.61 - 0.91 m/s (2-3 ft/s), for flares without water seal
and molecular seal. With sealing devices, a purge rate of 0.015 - 0.091 m/s (0.05-0.3 ft/s) is
generally satisfactory. Higher purge velocity is required for low molecular weight gas and
higher stack diameters.
Safe condition exists, if O2 concentration is kept lower than 50% of the LEL inside the vent
stack, at 7.62 m (25 ft) from the top.
Purge gas velocity is a function of diameter of stack and MW of the purge gas. The table below
gives typical purge gas rates for various gas MW and stack diameters. The purge gas rates
given are for vent stacks. For flare stacks, lower purge gas rates (50% of given values) can be
used because the presence of the flame is a deterrent to oxygen diffusion.
Recommended purge gas velocity (m/s)
Molecular weight of gas
8
12
20
Dia of stack
10"
0.006
0.005
0.002
20"
0.018
0.012
0.009
30"
0.052
0.043
0.037
40"
0.168
0.015
0.137
28
0.002
0.006
0.034
0.128

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Date: 08/02/08
Page 70 of 87
Purge gas rate required to prevent vacuum conditions after a hot gas flaring, can be calculated
by the following formula :
G = 60 VO
(1 (Ta / T ))
t
Where G = Purge gas flow rate (ft/s)

Vo = Total flare system volume (ft)
T = Hot gas temperature (R)
Ta = Ambient air temperature (R)
t = Time for cooling from T to Ta (min) (~ 10-20 min)

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Date: 08/02/08
Page 71 of 87
19.
HEAT TRANSFER FLUID (HTF) SYSTEM DESIGN

HOT OIL SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
CONSUMERS
N2
HOT OIL
MAKEUP
TC
PC
TRIM
COOLER
SURGE TANK
FC
HOT OIL
SUPPLY PUMP
TC
FIRED
HEATER
Surge vessel is sized based on the following criteria:

1) To provide adequate volume to accommodate the fluid thermal expansion when heated
from ambient to normal working temperature
2) To provide adequate NPSH for the HTF pumps
3) The surge drum is located at an elevation such that the normal operating HTF level in the
drum will be located above the elevation of the highest component in the HTF system
The volume between the minimum and normal working level shall be at least the larger of the
following:
1) The volume increase of the total HTF inventory when the temperature is raised from
minimum operational to normal working level
2) The volume of HTF lost via a ruptured tube in 15 minutes in a heat consumer operating
with a process pressure below the HTF system pressure.
The volume between the normal and maximum working level shall be at least :
1) The volume increase of the total HTF inventory when the temperature is raised from normal
to maximum working level
2) Spill-over control valve and piping shall be designed for 30% of pump capacity
3) Fluid velocity shall not exceed 2 m/s
4) U-tube exchanger shall be used if hot oil is used in tube side
5) Moderate operating temperature of hot oil system is 275C
6) Fouling resistance of 0.00017 mK/W shall be used for HTF service
Heat transfer fluids used are: petroleum oils below 600F (315C), Dowtherms or other
Synthetics below 750F (400C), molten salts below 1100F (600C)
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Date: 08/02/08
Page 72 of 87
20.
COOLING WATER SYSTEM DESIGN

1) Water in contact with air under adiabatic conditions eventually cools to the wet bulb
temperature
2) Tower fill is of a highly open structure so as to minimize pressure drop, which is in standard
practice a maximum of 2 of water
3) Chimney-assisted natural draft towers are of hyper-boloidal shapes because they have
greater strength for a given thickness; a tower 250 ft high has concrete walls 5-6 thk.
4) With industrial cooling towers, cooling to 90% of the ambient air saturation level is possible
5) Relative cooling tower size is dependent on the water temperature approach to the wet
bulb temperature:
Twater out - Twb
Relative Size
2.4
15
1.0
25
0.55
COOLING WATER SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
Soft Water
Makeup
H2SO4
DOSING
TANK
CHEMICAL
DOSING
TANK
CONSUMERS
ID FAN
CELL-1
CELL-2
CELL-3
COOLING TOWER BASIN
SCREENS
BLOWDOWN
EMERGENCY CW
PPUMPS
COOLING WATER
CIRCULATION PUMPS

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Page 73 of 87
General consideration
1) Water circulation rates are generally 2-4 gpm/ft (81-162 lit / min / m) and air velocities are
usually (1.5-2.0 m/s)
2) Countercurrent induced draft towers are the most common. These towers are capable of
cooling to within 2F (1.1C) of the wet bulb temperature. Approach of 5-10F (2.8-5.5C) is
more common
3) Evaporation losses are about 1% by mass of the circulation rate for every 10F (5.5C) of
cooling. Drift losses are around 0.25% of the circulation rate. A blow down of about 3% of
the circulation rate is needed to prevent salt and chemical treatment buildup
4) Cooling tower water is received from the tower between 80-90 F (27-32 C) and should be
returned between 115-125 F (45-52 C) depending on the size of the tower. Seawater
should be return no higher than 110 F (43 C)
5) Cooling water systems shall be designed for the conditions specified in the data /
requisition sheet, and in no case shall be designed for a working pressure of less than 7
barg
6) Provision shall be made for complete venting and draining of the system.

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Date: 08/02/08
Page 74 of 87
21.
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
1) A ton of refrigeration equals the removal of 12,000 Btu/h (12,700 kJ/h) of heat
2) For various refrigeration temperatures, the following are common refrigerants:
Temp (F)
Temp (C)
Refrigerant
0 to 50
-18 to -10
Chilled Brine or Glycol
-50 to 0
-45 to -18
Ammonia, Freon, Butane
-150 to -50
-100 to -45
Ethane, Propane
3) Compression refrigeration with 100F condenser requires the following power @HP/ton at
various temperature levels:
1.24 at -6.7C;
1.75 at -17.8C;
3.1 at -40C; 5.2 at -62.2C
4) Below -62.2C, cascades of two or three refrigerants are used
5) In single stage compression, the compression ratio is limited to about 4
6) In multistage compression, economy is improved with inter-stage flashing and recycling,
so-called economizer operation
7) Absorption refrigeration (ammonia to -34.4C, lithium bromide to +7.2C) is economical
when waste steam is available at 12 psig or so

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 75 of 87
22.
CHILLED WATER SYSTEM

CHILLED WATER SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
SOFT WATER or DM
WATER MAKEUP
COOLING
WATER
HOT WELL
CHILLER
UNIT
CONSUMERS
COLD WELL
=30%-40% of
vessel
diam eter
CHILLED WATER
TANK
BLOWDOWN
CHILLED WATER
PUMPS
CHILLED WATER
CIRCULATION PUMPS
1) DM water is used as make-up water for the chilled water system
2) Chilled water supply temperature is approx 5C to 10C. Return temperature is 10C to
15C
3) The tank / pump / piping material of construction is Carbon Steel
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 76 of 87
23.
CHILLED BRINE SYSTEM
CHILLED BRINE SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

BRINE MAKEUP
CONSUMERS
CHILLED BRINE
TANK
COOLING
WATER
CHILLER
UNIT
DRAIN
CHILLED BRINE CIRCULATION

PUMPS
1) 40% ethylene glycol solution is used as the brine solution
2) Chilled brine supply temperature is approx -15C to -5C. Return temperature is -10C to
0C
3) The tank / pump / piping material of construction is Carbon Steel and some times LTCS
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Date: 08/02/08
Page 77 of 87
24.
DM WATER SYSTEM
DM water is used as make up water for boiler feed water to generate steam. DM water is
some times used as Process water and diluents for acids and chemicals preparation.
DM WATER SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
ACTIVE CARBON
FILTER
SAND FILTER
SOFTENER
CATION
EXCHANGER
WEAK BASE
ANION
EXCHANGER
RAW
WATER
BLOWER
DEGASSER
BACK WASH
WATER
HCl
TANK
NaOH
TANK
DEGASSER PUMP
DRINKING
WATER
SOFT WATER FOR

COOLING WATER
MAKEUP
MIXED BED
EXCHANGER
STRONG BASE
ANION
EXCHANGER
DM WATER PACKAGE
DM WATER TANK
DM WATER
CONSUMERS
DM WATER PUMPS
HCl
TANK
ACID DRAIN
NaOH
TANK
Boiler Feed Water (BFW) specification is presented in the following table:

Sl.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Characteristics
Total hardness as CaCO3 max. (mg/lit)
pH value
Oxygen as O2 max. (mg/lit)
Fe+Cu+Ni max. (mg/lit)
Total solids, alkalinity
Silica
Oil
Organic matter
Water Tube Boiler

20 bar
10
0.05
----(1)
-----
40 bar
60 bar
2
0.5
8.5 9.5
0.02
0.01
--0.02
----(1)
(1)
---------
Fire Tube
Boiler
<25 bar
2
(1)
----(1)
-----
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Date: 08/02/08
Page 78 of 87
25.
STEAM SYSTEM
Boilers generate steam either at saturated or at superheated conditions by burning the fuel.
Steam is used for power generation, heating, stripping, atomizing and is used as driving force
for turbines. The fuels used are (1) Solid fuels such as coal; (2) Liquid fuels such as fuel oil,
LSHS, diesel, naphtha, etc; (3) gaseous fuels such as hydrogen, natural gas, hydrocarbon
gas, etc.
The two types of boilers are (1) Fire tube boilers and (2) Water tube boilers.
Fire tube boilers: Water is boiled in a vessel inside the boiler and hot flue gas passes through
the tubes immersed in water.
Water tube boilers: Hot flue gas passes through the shell side and water passes through the
tubes from an overhead drum.
Boiler is supplied by vendors as a package which consists of:
Main boiler system with boiler/steam control system
Boiler Feed Water (BFW) system and BFW pumps
Fuel handling system & burner management system
Combustion air system & atomization system
Economizer for heating BFW using flue gas (optional)
Air pre-heater using flue gas (optional)
Boiler stack & flue gas monitoring system
Chemical dosing system
STEAM SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

HP/MP STEAM
CONSUMERS
HP STEAM
ATM
TC
PC
BOILER
CHEMICAL
DOSING
TANKS &
PUMPS
LP STEAM
CONSUMERS
LP STEAM
DESUPERHEATER
DM WATER
MAKEUP
PC
VENT STACK
DEAERATOR
LC
LLP
STEAM
HP/MP CONDENSATE
ATM
PC
PC
PC
FLASH VESSEL
LC
FUEL OIL
CONDENSATE VESSEL
BOILER
BLOWDOWN
CONDENSATE PUMPS
BFW PUMPS
CONDENSATE PUMPS
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 79 of 87
Boiler Feed Water (BFW) specification is presented in the following table:

Sl.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Characteristics
Total hardness as CaCO3 max. (mg/lit)
pH value
Oxygen as O2 max. (mg/lit)
Fe+Cu+Ni max. (mg/lit)
Total solids, alkalinity
Silica
Oil
Organic matter
Water Tube Boiler

20 bar
10
0.05
----(1)
-----
40 bar
60 bar
2
0.5
8.5 9.5
0.02
0.01
--0.02
----(1)
(1)
---------
Fire Tube
Boiler
<25 bar
2
(1)
----(1)
-----
Note (1) : Values depends on circumstances

Characteristics of blow down water (or boiler water) from boiler are presented in the following
table:
Sl.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
20 bar
40 bar
60 bar
Fire Tube
Boiler
<25 bar
50-100
30-70
20-50
50-100
300
150
60
350
700
500
300
1200
75
30-50
0.1-1.0
--200
3000
40
20-40
0.1-0.5
--50
2000
20
15-30
0.05-0.3
----1200
<4
30-70
0.1-1.0
--50
3500
Characteristics
Sodium phosphate in terms of CaCO3
max. (mg/lit)
Caustic alkalinity in terms of CaCO3
max. (mg/lit)
Total alkalinity in terms of CaCO3 max.
(mg/lit)
Silica as SO2 max. (mg/lit)
Sodium sulphate as Na2SO3 (mg/lit)
Hydrazine as N2H4 (mg/lit)
Chloride as Cl max (mg/lit)
Suspended solids max. (mg/lit)
Dissolved solids max. (mg/lit)
Water Tube Boiler
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 80 of 87
26.
PLANT & INSTRUMENT AIR SYSTEM

The general selection criteria for compressor is given in the following Table:
Type of Compressor
Capacity (m/h)
Pressure (bar)
From
To
From
To
Roots blower compressor single stage
100
30000
0.1
Reciprocating - Single / Two stage
100
12000
0.8
12
Reciprocating - Multi stage
100
12000
12.0
700
Screw - Single stage
100
2400
0.8
13
Screw - Two stage
100
2200
0.8
24
Centrifugal
600
300000
0.1
450
PLANT & INSTRUMENT AIR SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
PC
INSTRUMENT AIR
CONSUMERS
ATM
INSTRUMENT
AIR RECEIVER
AFTERFILTER
PC
SERVICE AIR
CONSUMERS
DRIER BEDS
E LE C T R IC
H EA T ER
E LE C T R IC
H EA T ER
ATM AIR
PLANT AIR
RECEIVER
PRE-FILTER
COOLING
WATER
AIR COMPRESSOR PACKAGE WITH

INTER/AFTER COOLERS
AIR DRIER
PACKAGE
1) Unless otherwise specified, the instrument air pressure in the air supply piping shall be 7
barg under normal operation and never less than 4.2 barg for proper operation of the
instruments

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 81 of 87
2) To prevent condensation in the supply piping or in the instruments, the dew point of the air
at operating pressure shall always be at least 10C lower than the lowest expected
ambient temperature for the air system at any location
3) To reduce the load on the air drier, the air from the compressors shall be cooled to a
temperature of 10 C maximum above the cooling medium inlet temperature
4) The quantity of solids in instrument air shall be less than 0.1 g/m and the diameter of the
particles shall not be more than 3 mm
5) Safety/relief valves shall be provided when required by statutory regulations, and/or by the
relation between maximum compressor discharge pressure and the maximum allowable
working pressure of vessels and piping
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 82 of 87
27.
NITROGEN GENERATION SYSTEM

Nitrogen is used as inert gas in the Process systems. Mainly nitrogen is used as blanketing
and purge gas for petrochemical, refinery and oil & gas plants.
PSA unit is generally used to generate nitrogen up to a nominal purity of 97.5%. Higher purity
of nitrogen is also generated in PSA unit using additional systems. 99.99% purity nitrogen is
obtained only from Liquid N2 generation plants.
NITROGEN GENERATION SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
NITROGEN
BUFFER
VESSEL
NH3 CRACKING UNIT
PC
PC
PSA
NH3
CYLINDERS
NITROGEN
COOLER/SEPARATOR/RE
GENERATION HEATER
AIR RECEIVER
BOOSTER COMPRESSOR
B ED S
H E A T LE SS A IR
D R IER B E D S
ATM AIR
M O IS T UR E
SEP A R A T OR
COOLING
WATER
M O IST UR E
SE P A R A T O R
AIR COMPRESSOR PACKAGE WITH

INTER/AFTER COOLERS
PC
NITROGEN
CONSUMERS
NITROGEN
RECEIVER
PSA NITROGEN PACKAGE

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 83 of 87
28.
INCINERATOR SYSTEM
Waste organic and inorganic liquids/gases which can not be sent to flare or other disposal
systems, also where there is no other disposal system is available, are disposed by
incinerator.
INCINERATOR SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
VENT STACK
WASTE ORGANIC
CHEMICAL
MAIN COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
WASTE
LIQUID DAY
TANK
POST
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
WASTE ORGANIC PUMP
AIR
BLOWER
FUEL OIL
DAY TANK
DUPLEX
FILTER
FUEL OIL
PUMP
FUEL OIL
HEATER
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 84 of 87
29.
EFFLUENT TREATMENT SYSTEM
EFFLUENT TREATMENTSYSTEM CONFIGURATION

ACID TANK, ACID PUMP,
ACID MEASURING TANK &
ACID DOSING TANK
PRIMARY CLARIFIER
DAP
TANK
UREA
TANK
ALUM
TANK
CLEAR EFFLUENT
STREAMS
NEUTRALISING
TANK
AERATION TANK
LOCAL EFFLUENT
SLUDGE DRYING BEDS
Na2SO3
TANK
SECONDARY
CLARIFIER
LIME DOSING TANK
ACID EFFLUENT
TREATED EFFLUENT TO
DISPOSAL
pHIC
FINAL TREATED
EFFLUENT TANK
1) Underground piping in drainage service should have a minimum diameter of 200 mm

2) Piping used in oil drip/drain service shall have a minimum diameter of 100 mm
3) Glass Reinforced Epoxy (GRE) material should be used for hydrocarbon contaminated
water drainage networks. The minimum allowable pressure rating for GRE piping used in
underground drainage service should be 8 barg
4) The use of reinforced concrete pipes should be considered in instances where pipe
diameters of greater than 900 mm are required for design purposes
5) The lines for oily water to water treatment facilities, shall be sized in order to retain the size
of oil droplets in the water. This can be achieved by providing low flow velocities. The
maximum velocity of hydrocarbon contaminated effluents in an underground drainage
system shall not exceed 0.9 m/s. This velocity will generally prevent dispersion of oil by
turbulence. This should also be considered in selection of fittings and instruments in these
lines to avoid shearing of oil droplets. This velocity may be exceeded only under the fire
fighting design condition.

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 85 of 87
6) Velocities of less than 0.3 m/s shall be avoided in order to prevent a premature separation
and consequent accumulation of oil/sediment within the drainage network.
7) The maximum effluent temperature within any drainage network shall not exceed 45 C.
Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 86 of 87
30.
PROCESS CONTROLS
Vent to
Flare
TYPICAL COLUMN CONTROLS
FG / N2
PC
LC
FC
1
FC
FC
TC
Top Product /
Distillate
FEED
TC
50
LC
MP Steam
FC
MP Cond.
Bottom s
Vent to
Flare
TYPICAL SEPARATOR CONTROLS
FC
PC
Process Gas to
Com pressor or FG
OIL / WATER / GAS

FEED
LC
LC
FC
Water
FC
Oil

Rev.: A
Date: 08/02/08
Page 87 of 87
31.
REFERENCE
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
Chemical Engineers Handbook, 7th Edition, by Perry

API Standard 520 on Sizing, Selection and Installation of Pressure-Relieving Devices
in Refineries 7th Edition Jan-2000
API Standard 521 on Pressure Relieving and Depressurising Systems 5th Edition Jan2007
API Standard 650 on Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage 10th Edition Nov-2001
API Standard 610 on Centrifugal Pumps for Petroleum, Petrochemical and Natural
Gas Industries 9th Edition Jan-2003
API Standard 620 on Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-pressure
Storage Tanks 10th Edition Feb-2002
API Standard 2000 on Venting Atmospheric and Low-pressure Storage Tanks 5th
Edition April-1998
API Standard 674 on Positive Displacement Pumps - Reciprocating 2nd Edition June1995
API Standard 675 on Positive Displacement Pumps Controlled Volume 2nd Edition
Oct-1994
API Standard 676 on Positive Displacement Pumps - Rotary 2nd Edition Dec-1994
HTRI Handbook
Shell DEPs
TOTAL General Specification GS EXP 303 on Process Sizing Criteria Nov-2001

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WORK IMPROVEMENT PLAN

PROCESS DESIGN GUIDELINES

WORK IMPROVEMENT PLAN

PROCESS DESIGN GUIDELINES

WORK IMPROVEMENT PLAN

WORK IMPROVEMENT PLAN

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ........................................................................................................5

INSULATION SPECIFICATION FOR PIPING..........................................................................9

MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION .......................................................................................10

SELECTION OF THERMODYNAMIC MODEL IN HYSYS.....................................................11

PIG LAUNCHER AND RECEIVER.........................................................................................14

PUMP SELECTION AND SYSTEM DESIGN .........................................................................16

VESSEL SELECTION AND SIZING.......................................................................................25

HEAT EXCHANGERS ............................................................................................................28

COLUMNS & TOWERS..........................................................................................................34

COMPRESSORS AND VACUUM EQUIPMENT ....................................................................36

SAFETY SYSTEM & PSV DESIGN........................................................................................38

PIPE SIZING ...........................................................................................................................43

SELECTION OF VALVES ......................................................................................................48

FLARE SYSTEM ....................................................................................................................57

HEAT TRANSFER FLUID (HTF) SYSTEM DESIGN .............................................................71

COOLING WATER SYSTEM DESIGN...................................................................................72

REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS ................................................................................................74

CHILLED WATER SYSTEM...................................................................................................75

CHILLED BRINE SYSTEM.....................................................................................................76

STEAM SYSTEM ....................................................................................................................78

PLANT & INSTRUMENT AIR SYSTEM .................................................................................80

NITROGEN GENERATION SYSTEM ....................................................................................82

INCINERATOR SYSTEM .......................................................................................................83

EFFLUENT TREATMENT SYSTEM.......................................................................................84

PROCESS CONTROLS .........................................................................................................86

WORK IMPROVEMENT PLAN

WORK IMPROVEMENT PLAN

PROCESS DESIGN GUIDELINES

** Viscosities of organic liquids vary widely with temperature

Boiling Point of Water as a Function of Pressure:

WORK IMPROVEMENT PLAN

VOLUME AND SURFACE AREA

2R + (l / e) ln ((1+ e)/(1 e))

100 60% F& D head

((D + d)/2) sqrt (l+((D d)/2))

WORK IMPROVEMENT PLAN

PARTIAL VOLUME FOR HORIZONTAL VESSELS

PARTIAL VOLUME FOR VERTICAL VESSELS

Volume of Head (V2) (one head)

WETTED AREA FOR HORIZONTAL VESSELS

Total wetted area (A)

WORK IMPROVEMENT PLAN

WETTED AREA FOR VERTICAL VESSELS

TWO PHASE DENSITY AND VISCOSITY

= Volumetric flow rate (m/h)

WORK IMPROVEMENT PLAN

PROCESS DESIGN GUIDELINES

INSULATION SPECIFICATION FOR PIPING

INSULATION THICKNESS FOR HOT SERVICE

Maximum Fluid Temperature (C)

WORK IMPROVEMENT PLAN

254 SMO (Avesta)

Superior resistance to chlorides, even at

Very expensive material and

Very good resistance to high temperature

Moderate to high expense.

Very wide range to choose from. Some

BHP @normal service = (QHSG)/(2.311750E)