ADVANCED TRENDS

IN
MANUFACTURING
TECHNOLOGYOPTICAL FIBER
SENSORS IN
MEDICINE

ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL SENSORS

Optical fibre sensors are non-electrical and hence are free from electrical
interference usually associated with electronically based sensors.
They are immune from cross talk.
There is a high degree of mechanical flexibility associated with fibre optic and
this combined with this reduced size, allows access to otherwise inaccessible
areas of the body.
They are suitable for telemetry applications as bulk of the instrumentation can
be at a reasonable distance from the patient.
These sensors do not involve any electrical connection to the patient body,
there by ensuring patient safety.
More than one chemical species can be measured with a single sensor by
employing more than one probe detection wavelength offering substantial
economic advantage.
These devices are intrinsically safe, involving low optical power generally a
few milliwatts.
The sensors are capable of observing a sample in its dynamic environment, no
matter how distant, difficult to reach or hostile the environment.
The cost is low enough to make the sensor disposable for many applications.

TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBRE SENSORS:

Optical fibre sensors are generally classified in to three types as follows:
PHOTOMETRIC SENSORS
PHYSICAL SENSORS
CHEMICAL SENSORS.
PHOTOMETRIC SENSORS:
Several types of measurements can be made by using the optical fiber as a
device for highly localized observation of the spectral Intensity in the blood or
tissue. Light emanating from a fibre end will be scattered or fluoresced back into
the fibre, allowing measurement of the returning light as an indication of the
optical obsorption fluorescence of the volume at the fibre tip. The variations in the
returning light are sensed using a photodetector.such sensors monitor variations
either in the amplitude frequency of the reflected light.
AMPLITUDE MEASURMENTS:
PRINCIPLE: Based on the absorption of light by light.

The most widely used photometric sensor in the amplitude measurement

category is the oximeter. This device measures the oxygen saturation of blood
based on the fact that hemoglobin and oxyhameoglobin have different absorption
spectra. The use of fibre-optic catheters allows oxygen saturation to be monitored
intra-arterially.
Blood flow measurement based on dye densitometry is closely related to
oximetry. A dye, commonly indocyanine green is injected into the blood and its
concentration monitored by its obsorption at a appropriate wavelength. the time
variation of dye concentration can then be used to calculate cardiac output by
dilution techniques.
Monitoring the amplitude of the reflected or transmitted light at a specific
wavelengths can provide useful information concerning the metabolic state of the
tissue under investigation. The technique is non-invasive and fibre optics plays an
important role as the technique enables very small areas of tissue to be examined
so that metabolism at a localized level can be followed. The method is based on
flurometry and depends up on the direct observation of tissue and
bloodluminescence using fibre optic light guide to connect the instrument tissue.
FREQUENCY MEASURMENTS:
PRINCIPLE: Doppler effect
The second category of photometric sensors using fibre-optic light guide is
based on the frequency changes in the signal. The most common example is that
of laser Doppler velocimetry. In this method, light from a laser, normally
helium/neon, is sent via a fibre on to the skin surface. The moving red blood cells
scatter the light and produce a Doppler frequency shift because of their
movement. When the light, shifted and unshifted in frequency is mixed a
spectrum of beat frequencies is obtained. Using a number of different processing
techniques on the beat frequency spectrum, information on the blood flow can be
obtained.

PHYSICAL SENSORS:
Two of the most important physical parameters that can be advantageously
measured using fibre-optics are temperature and pressure. These sensors are based
the attachment of an optical transducer at the end of optical fibre.
TEMPATURE SENSORS:
PRINCIPLE: The principle of temperature sensor is based on variation of

refractive index with temperature.

The production of localized and control hyperthermia (elevated

temperatures in the range of 42-45centigrade or higher) for cancer treatment by
Electromagneticenergy, either in the radio frequency or microwave frequency
range, posses a difficult temperature measurement promblem. Traditional
temperature sensors, such as thermistorsor or thermocouples, have metallic
components and connecting wires which perturb the incident electromagnetic
fields and may even cause localized heating spots in the temperature readings may
be erretic due the interference. This problem overcome by using temperature
sensors based on fibre optics. These devices utilize externally induced changes in
the characteristics of the optical fibres and offer typical advantages of optical
fibres such as flexibility, small dimensions and immunity from EM interference.
One of the simplest types of temp.sensors consists of a layer of liquid
crystal at the end of optical fibres, giving a variation in light scattering with
temperature at a particular wavelength.Fig.1 shows ray path configuration of a
temperature sensor which utilizes a silica core silica-clad fibre, with an unclad
terminal portion immersed in a liquid which replaces a clad the temperature rise
causes a reduction in the refraction index of the liquid clad fibre section therefore,
the traveling from the silicon-clad fibre to the liquid clad fibre undergoes the
attenuation which decreases by increasing temperature .The light from an 860 nm
LED is coupled in to the fibre.The light reflected backwards is sent along the
same fibres and the light amplitude modulation induced by the thermo sensitive
cladding applied on the distal end of the fibre is detected and processed .Scheggiet
al (1984) constructed a miniature temperature probe for medical use with 0.8 mm
external diameter and 0.5mm internal diameter. The sensitivity achieved was +0.1
centigrade or 0.1 centigrade in the temperature interval 20-50 centigrade.
Another type of temperature sensor is based upon the temperature
dependence f the band edge absorption of infrared light in GaAs (gallium
arsenide) crystal, proposed and developed by Christensen (1977). The variation of
band-gap energy with temperature (thermal wave length shift) provides a
measurable variation in the transmission efficiency of infrared light through the
crystal.
In the temperature measuring system based on this principle, light is
emitted by an LED, transmitted to and from the crystal via optical fibres and
measured by a photo detector. No metal parts are used in temperature probe
design, resulting in transparency of the probe to electromagnetic fields. Single
sensor probe of 1.2mm-diameter based on this technique are commercially
available.
Fluoroptic temperature sensors (Culshaw, 1982) are other useful devices
Which can be used for tissue temperature measurement. They contain a rare earth
phosphor, which is illuminated by a white light along a short length of large core
optical fibre. The light excites the phosphors, which emits a number of lines. By

using Filters, two of these lines at 540 and 630 nm are selected, and the ratio of
their intensities is a single valued function of the temperature of the phosphor. By
measuring this ratio, an exact measure of temperature may be made. The
measurement is independent of the output light intensity. Resolution of 0.1
centigrade over the range 50 to +250centigrade is reported with this technique.
PRESSURE SENSORS:
PRINCIPLE: Intracarnial pressure is measured on pressure balancing
system, intracardiac pressure measurements done by measuring dynamic
pressure.
Measurement of intracranical and intracardiac pressure are both important
and can be performed using fibre optic sensors. For intracranial pressure
measurement, the device is based on the pressure balancing system. Here static
pressure is to be monitored and a sensor based on the deflection of a cantilever
mirror attached to a membrane causes the light emitted frame center optical fibre
to be reflected differentially towards either of the light-collecting fibres located on
each side of the control fibre. The ratio of the light collected by the two different
fibres is sensed and suitable feedback air pressure is applied to the interior of the
probe through a pneumatic connecting tube, balancing the membrane to its null
position and providing a readout of the balancing pressure.
A similar sensor based on the deflection of a mirror has been developed for
monitoring intravascular pressure. For intravascular use, dynamic pressure
measurement is needed and hence the sensors should not only be small but also
have good frequency response in order to follow the pressure waveforms
faithfully.
CHEMICAL SENSORS:
The development of optical fibre sensors for chemical species attracted
much interest. The ability of these fibres to transmit lights over great distances
with low power loss and the interaction of light with a measurand provide the
basis of these sensing devices.
The basic concept of chemical sensors based on optical fibres (sertz, 1984)
is illustrated. Light from a suitable source is applied to the fibre and is directed to
a region where the light interacts with the measurement system or with a chemical
transducer. The interaction results in a modulation of optical and the modulated
light is collected by the same or another optical fibre and measured by photodetection system.
The optical sensing of chemical species is based on the interaction of these
entities with light. When light strikes a substance, a variety of interaction may

occur between the photons of the electromagnetic radiation and the atoms and
molecules of the substance. These interactions involve an exchange of energy and
may lead to absorption, transmission, emission, scattering or reflection of light.
The quantized nature of this energy transfer produces information about the
composition of the system and forms the basis of the spectroscopic method of
chemical analysis (Narayana Swamy and Seville, 1988).
Two types of
chemical species:

optical fibre sensors have been developed for measuring

Spectroscopic sensors: This type of sensors detects the analyte species

directly through their characteristic spectral properties. In these sensors,
the optical fibre functions only as a light guide, conveying light from the
source to the sampling area and from the sample to the detector. Here, the
light interacts with the species being sensed.
Chemical sensors: In the chemical sensors, a chemical transduction
system is interfaced to the optical fibre at its end. In operation, interaction
with analyte leads to a change in optical properties of the reagent phase,
which is probed and detected through the fibre optic. The optical property
measured can be absorbance, reflectance or luminescence. These sensors
have a great specificity as a consequence of the incorporation of the
chemical transduction system.

FIBRE OPTIC BASED BLOOD GAS SENSORS:

PRINCIPLE:

With in each fibre core, excitation light reflects along the fibre
toward the fluorescent dye at the fibres tip. The dye at the tip reacts to the
exitation light and analyte concentration by fluorescing .The flouroscent
signal then returns in the same fibre to the monitor, which measures the
intensity of signal from this blood gases are analysed. Principle is explained
in figure 4.
DESCRIPTION: with in the sensor assembly are three optical fibres-one each
for measuring blood oxygen, carbon di oxide and PH. The optical fibre is
approximately 10cm long and also has a thermocouple or thermistor wire running
along side the fibre to measure the temperature near the sensor tip. Temperature
correction is necessary for optical blood gas sensors. The solubility of the gas
namely oxygen and carbon di oxide in the sensing material, is a function of
temperature and optical properties of the sensing chemistry also change as the
temperature varies. The fibres and the temperature sensor are encased in a
protective tubing to contain any fibre fragments in case of sensor breakage.

WORKING: Each fibre is as thin as human hair and coated at the tip with a
specific chemical dye.When light of a known wavelength strikes the dye, the dye
fluoresces, giving off light of a different wavelength. The fluorescent emission
changes in the intensity as a function of the concentration of the analyte (oxygen,
carbondioxide or PH) in the blood. The emitted light travels back down the fibre
to the monitor where it is converted into an electrical signal by using a solid-state
detector or a photomultiper. The signal is amplified before it is given to adigitizer.
Signal processing to relate the light intensity to the analyte concentration is
achieved using a microprocessor and is digitally displayed .