IE 262

Abrasive Machining and Finishing

Operations
Non-precision grinding
The common forms are called,
snagging and off-hand grinding. Both are
done primarily to remove stock that can not
be taken off as conveniently by other
methods. The work is pressed hard against
the wheel or vice versa. The accuracy and
surface finish are of secondary importance.
Precision grinding
Precision grinding is concerned with
producing good surface finishes and
accurate dimensions.
3 types of precision grinding exists
–External cylindrical grinding
–Internal cylindrical grinding

–Surface grinding
 Bonded Abrasives Used in
Abrasive-Machining Processes
• There are many situations in
manufacturing where the
processes described thus far
cannot produce the required
dimensional accuracy and
surface finish for a part.

• An abrasive is a small, hard

particle having sharp edges and
an irregular shape, unlike the
cutting tools described earlier.

• Abrasives are capable of

removing small amounts of
material from a surface through a
cutting process that produces tiny
chips.
A variety of bonded abrasives used in abrasive-machining
processes.
 Workpieces and Operations Used
in Grinding

With the use of computer controlled machines, abrasive processes now are capable
of producing wide variety of workpiece geometries and very fine dimensional accuracy
 Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives
• Conventional Abrasives
Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3)
Silicon Carbide (SiC)
• Superabrasives
Cubic Boron nitride (CBN)
Diamond
These abrasives are much harder than conventional cutting tool materials.
Characteristics of abrasives: 1) hardness, 2) friability

Friability is defined as the ability of abrasive grains to fracture into smaller pieces.
This property gives abrasives their self-sharpening characteristics.
 Abrasive Workpiece Material
Compatibility
• As in selecting cutting tool materials for machining particular
workpiece materials, the affinity of an abrasive grain to the
workpiece material is an important consideration.

• Because of its chemical affinity, diamond cannot be used for

grinding steels because dimaond dissolves in iron at the high
temperatures encountered in grinding.

Aluminum Oxide: Carbon steels, ferrous alloys, alloy steels

Silicon Carbide: nonferrous metals, cast irons
Cubic Boron Nitride:Steels and cast irons above 50 HRc hardness
Diamond: Ceramics, cemented carbides
 Grinding Wheel Model

Schematic illustration of a physical model of a grinding wheel showing its structure

and wear and fracture patterns.

Because each abrasive grain typically removes only a very small amount of material
at a time, high rates of material removal can be achieved only if a large number of these
grains act together. This is done by bonded abrasives typicall in the form of a grinding
wheel in which the abrasive grains are distributed and oriented randomly.
Grain size
Important parameter in determining
surface finish and material removal rate.
Small grit sizes produce better finishes,
larger grit sizes permit larger material
removal rates.
Also, harder materials need smaller grain
sizes to cut effectively, while softer materials
require larger grit size.
Grain sizes used in grinding changes
between 8-250, while 8 is very coarse, but
250 is very fine.
Grinding Wheels

Common types of
grinding wheels made
with conventional
abrasives. Note that
each wheel has a
specific grinding face;
grinding on other
surfaces is improper
and unsafe.
 The Grinding Process
• Grinding is a chip removal process that
uses an individual abrasive grain as
the cutting tool. The major differences
between grinding and single point
cutting tool are:

The individual abrasive grains have

irregular shapes and and are spaced
randomly along the periphery of the
wheel.

The average rake angle of the grains is

highly negative typically -60 deg
therefore plastic deformations is higher

Not all the grains are active because of

the radial positions of the grains

Surface speeds in grinding is very high

 Chip Formation by Abrasive Grain

(a) Grinding chip being produced by a single abrasive grain: (A) chip, (B) workpiece, (C)
abrasive grain. Note the large negative rake angle of the grain.
(b) Schematic illustration of chip formation by an abrasive grain with a wear flat. Note the
negative rake angle of the grain and the small shear angle.
 Schematic illustration of the
surface-grinding process, showing
various process variables. The
figure depicts conventional (up)
grinding.

Undeformed chip length, l = Dd C: the number of cutting points per unit

⎛ 4v ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞ area of the periphery of the wheel
Undeformed chip thickness, t = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ VCr ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠ r=ratio of chip width to average undeformed
⎛v chip thickness
d⎞
Grain force ∝ ⎜ ⎟(strength of the material)
⎝V D⎠ D=200 mm
d=0.05 mm
1/ 4 3/ 4 ⎛ V ⎞
1/2
Temperature rise ∝ D d ⎜ ⎟ v=30 m/min
⎝v⎠ V=1800 m/min
Volume of material removed
Grinding ratio, G = l=(200x0.5)^0.5=3.2 mm
Volume of wheel wear C=2 per mm2 r=15
t= 0.006 mm
 Abrasive Grain Plowing Workpiece
Surface
The energy dissipated in producing a
grinding chip consists of the energy required
for the following actions:

•Chip formation
•Plowing
•Friction

The wear area continuosly rubs along

the ground surface, dissipates energy
and make grinding operation less
effective.

Chip formation and plowing of the

workpiece surface by an abrasive grain.
 Temperature
• The temperature rise in grinding is an important
consideration because:

It can adversely affect the surface properties

including metallurgical changes

The temperature rise can cause residual stresses

on the workpiece. Because of the adverse effect
of tensile residual stresses on fatigue strength process
variables should be selected carefully
 Grinding wheel wear
• Attritious grain wear
• Grain fracture
• Bond fracture
Grinding-Wheel Dressing
(a) Forms of grinding-
wheel dressing.
(b) Shaping the grinding
face of a wheel by
dressing it with
computer control.
Note that the diamond
dressing tool is normal
to the surface at point
of contact with the
wheel.

Dressing is the process of

conditioning worn grains on the
surface of a grinding wheel by
producing sharp new edges.
 Various Surface-Grinding
Operations

Schematic illustrations of various surface-grinding operations.

(a) Traverse grinding with a horizontal-spindle surface grinder.
(b) Plunge grinding with a horizontal-spindle surface grinder.
(c) A vertical-spindle rotary-table grinder (also known as the Blanchard type.)
Horizontal-Spindle Surface Grinder

Schematic illustration of a horizontal-spindle surface grinder.

 Cylindrical-Grinding Operations

Examples of various cylindrical-grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding, (b) plunge

grinding, and (c) profile grinding.
Plunge Grinding on Cylindrical
Grinder

Figure 26.17 Plunge grinding of a workpiece on a cylindrical

grinder with the wheel dressed to a stepped shape.
 Internal Grinding

Schematic illustrations of internal grinding operations: (a) traverse grinding, (b)

plunge grinding, and (c) profile grinding.
Centerless Grinding

Figure 26.22 Schematic

illustration of centerless
grinding operations: (a)
through-feed grinding, (b)
plunge grinding, (c) internal
grinding, and (d) a
computer numerical-control
cylindrical-grinding
machine. Source:
Courtesy of Cincinnati
Milacron, Inc.
 Creep Feed Grinding

(a) Schematic illustration of the creep-feed grinding process. Note the large wheel
depth-of-cut, d.
(b) A shaped groove produced on a flat surface by creep-grinding in one pass.
Groove depth is typically on the order of a few mm.
(c) An example of creep-feed grinding with a shaped wheel. This operation also
can be performed by some of the processes described in Chapter 27.
 Honing

Schematic illustration of a honing tool used to improve the

surface finish of bored or ground holes.
Lapping
Increase in Machining and Finishing Cost
as a Function of Surface Finish Required

Figure 26.34 Increase in

the cost of machining and
finishing a part as a
function of the surface
finish required. This is the
main reason that the
surface finish specified on
parts should not be any
finer than necessary for the
part to function properly.