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CONTENTS:
I. Classical Theories (Classical Era)
A. Henri Fayol
Focus: 14 Principles
B. Frederick Taylor
C. Max Weber
Focus: Bureaucracy
D. Gant Henry
Focus: Efficiency
E. Mooney James-(1884-1957):
Focus:Universal Principles of Management
II. Motivation Theories (Behavioral Era)
A.
Abraham Maslow (1943)
Focus: Hierarchy of Needs
B.
Frederick Herzberg (1923-2000),
Focus: 2 Factor Theories (Motivation-Hygiene Theory)
C.
Victor Vroom
Focus: Expectancy Theory
D.
Alderfer Clayton
E.
Barry Staw
F.
David McClelandFocus: Needs Theory
G.
Adams,Jo Sacy et. Al
Focus: Equity Theory
H.
B.F. Skinner and Edward L. Thorndike
Focus: Operant Conditioning/ Reinforcement theory
III. Neoclassical Organization Theory (Human Relation ERA)
A.
Elton Mayo
Focus: Hawthorne Study- Human Behavior in work Situation
B. CHESTER BERNARD
Focus: Psychosocial aspect of organization and management and function of
executive
C. Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)
Focus: Theory x and Theory y
D. MARY FOLLETT- "the art of getting things done through people."
Focus: Psychological& Sociological Aspect of Management
E. KURT LEWIN
Focus: Field Theory of HR
F. ALVIN TOFFLER
1. CLASSICAL ERA
During this era, management takes place within a structured organizational setting
with prescribed roles. It is directed towards the achievement of aims and objectives
through influencing the efforts of others.
Characteristics:
Emphasis on Structure
4. Unity of command
6. Subordination of
5. Unity of direction
individual interests to
to give an order.
3. Discipline Outward
8. Centralisation
11. Equity
13. Initiative
9. Scalar chain
10. Order
of personnel
Fayol was the first person to actually give a definition of management which is
generally familiar today namely 'forecast and plan, to organize, to command, to
co-ordinate and to control'.
Focus: Bureaucracy
The main features of bureaucracy according to Weber were:
that individuals functioned within the limits of the specialization of the work, the
degree of authority allocated and the rules governing the exercise of authority
The authority was vested in the official positions and not in the personalities that
held these posts. Rules, decisions and actions were formulated and recorded in
writing.
Charismatic authority: where acceptance arises from loyalty to, and confidence
in, the personal qualities of the ruler.
The Task and Bonus System: He linked the bonus paid to managers to how well
they taught their employees to improve performance.
E. Mooney James-(1884-1957):
Focus: Universal Principles of Management
C. Victor Vroom
Focus: Expectancy Theory
This theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among
alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.
Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individuals
factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities.
The theory suggests that although individuals may have different sets of
goals, they can be motivated if they believe that:
There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance,
Favorable performance will result in a desirable reward,
The reward will satisfy an important need,
The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort
worthwhile.
Motivation= Expectancy (E) x Valence (V) x Instrumentality (I)
M= E x V x I
D. Alderfer Clayton
Focus: ERG (Existence, Relatedness and Growth) Theory
Alderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created the ERG
theory. This theory posits that there are three groups of core needsexistence,
relatedness, and growthhence the label: ERG theory.
The existence group is concerned with providing our basic material
existence requirements.
The second group of needs are those of relatedness, the desire we have for
maintaining important interpersonal relationships.
These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to
be satisfied, and they align with Maslow's social need and the external
component of Maslow's esteem classification.
E. Barry Staw
Focus: Intrinsic and extrinsic Motivation
Motivations are commonly separated into different types based on the nature of
the motivating element (i.e., the motivator): intrinsic (from within) or extrinsic
(from outside).
The effectiveness of extrinsic motivators varies depending on factors like selfesteem, locus of control, self-efficacy, and neuroticism.
F.
Thorndike realized that not only were stimuli and responses associated, but
also that behavior could be modified by its consequences. He used these
findings to publish his now famous law of effect: the notion that pleasing aftereffects strengthen the action that produced it, whereas displeasing after-effects
weaken the likelihood it will be performed again, given the same situation.
The Hawthorne studies were conducted with the workers at the Hawthorne plant
of the Western Electric Company by Elton Mayo and Fritz Roethlisberger in the
1920s. The Hawthorne studies were a part of an emphasis on sociopsychological aspects of human behaviors in organizations.
The Hawthorne studies found that monetary incentives and good working
conditions are generally less important in improving employee productivity than
the individual need and desire to belong to a group and be included in decision
making and work.
B. CHESTER BERNARD, he was best known as the author of The Functions of the
Executive, perhaps the 20thcenturys most influential book on management and
leadership
Focus: Psychosocial aspect of organization and management and function of
executive
cooperation.
Theory X assumes that workers are idle and that they have to be forced to do
their work. Therefore, the management will come up with systems and rules
that will guarantee that their workers will work efficiently and diligently. These
may sometimes result to harsh and threatening methods.
Theory Y, on the other hand, presumes that employees have the ability to
maximize their potential as well as their productivity rate, as long as they are
provided with sufficient facilities and benefits. Managers are expected to
provide support and a helping hand so that all their workers are assured,
guided and continuously motivated. McGregor is convinced that the Theory Y
should and must be adopted in working places for it is more practical and its
method is far more superior than that of Theory X
E. KURT LEWIN
Focus: Field Theory of HR
These coexisting facts make up a "dynamic field," which means that the state
of any part of the field depends on every other part of it
Behavior depends on the present field rather than on the past or the future.
"This is in contrast both to the belief of teleology that the future is the cause of
behavior, and that of asociationism that the past is the cause of behavior."
F. ALVIN TOFFLER
Focus: Future Shock
Future Shock is a book written by the futurist Alvin Toffler in 1970. In the book,
Toffler defines the term "future shock" as a certain psychological state of
individuals and entire societies. His shortest definition for the term is a
personal perception of "too much change in too short a period of time"
To minimize Future Shock is develop the mechanism and techniques to guide the
direction of change and to the pressure of change.
are key to the situation at hand. Basically, its the approach that it depends. For
example, the continuing effort to identify the best leadership or management style might
now conclude that the best style depends on the situation. If one is leading troops in the
Persian Gulf, an autocratic style is probably best (of course, many might argue here,
too). If one is leading a hospital or university, a more participative and facilitative
leadership style is probably best.
A. Chandler (1962)
organization would naturally evolve to meet the needs of its strategy -- that
form follows function.
highly volatile industries, they noted the importance of giving managers at all
levels the authority to make decisions over their domain. Managers would be
free to make decisions contingent on the current situation.
System Theories
Attention began to focus on organisations as 'systems' with a number of interrelated sub-systems. The 'systems approach' attempted to synthesize the classical
approaches ( 'organizations without people') with the later human relations
A. Ludwig von Bertalanffy in 1928/ Kast and Rosenzweig, 1972/ Scott, 1981.
Focus: Sytems theory
B. Likert Rensis
Focus: Four (4) Leadership Systems
decision-making and the degree to which people are involved in the decision.
a.)Exploitive authoritative
In this style, the leader has a low concern for people and uses such methods as
threats and other fear-based methods to achieve conformance. Communication is
almost entirely downwards and the psychologically distant concerns of people are
ignored.
b.) Benevolent authoritative
When the leader adds concern for people to an authoritative position, a 'benevolent
dictatorship' is formed. The leader now uses rewards to encourage appropriate
performance and listens more to concerns lower down the organization, although
what they hear is often rose-tinted, being limited to what their subordinates think that
the boss wants to hear. Although there may be some delegation of decisions, almost
all major decisions are still made centrally.
c.) Consultative
The upward flow of information here is still cautious and rose-tinted to some degree,
although the leader is making genuine efforts to listen carefully to ideas.
Nevertheless, major decisions are still largely centrally made.
d.) Participative
At this level, the leader makes maximum use of participative methods, engaging
people lower down the organization in decision-making. People across the
organization are psychologically closer together and work well together at all levels.
B. Senge (1990)
Described systems thinking as: understanding how our actions shape our
reality. If I believe that my current state was created by somebody else, or by
forces outside my control, why should I hold a vision? The central premise
behind holding a vision is that somehow I can shape my future, Systems
thinking helps us see how our own actions have shaped our current reality,
thereby giving us confidence that we can create a different reality in the future
Trait Theory
Behavioral Theories
Role Theory
Participative Leadership
o
Situational Leadership
o
Contingency Theories
o
Transformational Leadership
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early
leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and
followers, while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational
factors and skill levels. While many different leadership theories have emerged, most
can be classified as one of eight major types:
Great man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent that great
leaders are born not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic
and destined to rise to leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used
because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in
terms of military leadership.
Early research on leadership was based on the study of people who were
already great leaders. These people were often from the aristocracy, as few from lower
classes had the opportunity to lead. This contributed to the notion that leadership had
something to do with breeding.
The idea of the Great Man also strayed into the mythic domain, with notions that in
times of need, a Great Man would arise, almost by magic. This was easy to verify, by
pointing to people such as Eisenhower and Churchill, let alone those further back along
the timeline, even to Jesus, Moses, Mohammed and the Buddah.
2. Trait Theories:
Assumptions
People who make good leaders have the right (or sufficient) combination of traits
Similar in some ways to "Great Man" theories, trait theories assume that people inherit
certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories
often identify particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. If
particular traits are key features of leadership, then how do we explain people who
possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in
using trait theories to explain leadership.
Early research on leadership was based on the psychological focus of the day, which
was of people having inherited characteristics or traits. Attention was thus put on
discovering these traits, often by studying successful leaders, but with the underlying
assumption that if other people could also be found with these traits, then they, too,
could also become great leaders.
Researched both success and failure identified four primary traits by which leaders
could succeed or 'derail':
Admitting error: Owning up to mistakes, rather than putting energy into covering
up.
Intellectual breadth: Able to understand a wide range of areas, rather than having
a narrow (and narrow-minded) area of expertise.
3.
Contingency Theories:
Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities
of the followers and aspects of the situation.
A. Fiedler's Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) Theory
Assumptions
Relationships, power and task structure are the three key factors that drive
effective styles.
Fiedler identified the a Least Preferred Co-Worker scoring for leaders by asking
them first to think of a person with which they worked that they would like least to work
with again, and then to score the person on a range of scales between positive factors
(friendly, helpful, cheerful, etc.) and negative factors (unfriendly, unhelpful, gloomy,
etc.). A high LPC leader generally scores the other person as positive and a low LPC
leader scores them as negative.
High LPC leaders tend to have close and positive relationships and act in a
supportive way, even prioritizing the relationship before the task. Low LPC leaders put
the task first and will turn to relationships only when they are satisfied with how the
work is going.
Three factors are then identified about the leader, member and the task, as follows:
Leader-Member Relations: The extent to which the leader has the support and
loyalties of followers and relations with them are friendly and cooperative.
Task structure: The extent to which tasks are standardised, documented and
controlled.
Leader's Position-power: The extent to which the leader has authority to assess
follower performance and give reward or punishment.
If you have the skills and expertise to resolve important problems, then you are
going to be in demand. And by the law of supply and demand, that gives your the
upper hand in negotiations. It also gives you power from the reciprocity created.
If you work in a central part of the workflow of the organization, then what you do is
very important. This gives you many opportunities to be noticed. It also means you
are on the critical path, such that if your part of the company fails, the whole show
stops. Again creating attention and giving you bargaining power.
4. Situational Theories:
Assumptions
Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon
situational variables. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain
types of decision-making.
When a decision is needed, an effective leader does not just fall into a single
preferred style, such as using transactional or transformational methods. In practice, as
they say, things are not that simple.
Factors that affect situational decisions include motivation and capability of
followers. This, in turn, is affected by factors within the particular situation. The
relationship between followers and the leader may be another factor that affects leader
behavior as much as it does follower behavior.
The leaders' perception of the follower and the situation will affect what they do
rather than the truth of the situation. The leader's perception of themselves and other
factors such as stress and mood will also modify the leaders' behavior.
Yukl (1989) seeks to combine other approaches and identifies six variables:
Subordinate ability and role clarity: followers knowing what to do and how to do it.
Organization of the work: the structure of the work and utilization of resources.
Hersey and Blanchard (1999) and other books suggest leaders should adapt
their style to follower development style (or 'maturity'), based on how ready and
willing the follower is to perform required tasks (that is, their competence and
motivation).
There are four leadership styles (S1 to S4) that match the development levels
(D1 to D4) of the followers. The four styles suggest that leaders should put
greater or less focus on the task in question and/or the relationship between the
leader and the follower, depending on the development level of the follower
to feel that they can have some influence. Under this leadership style the decision and
the full responsibility for it remain with the leader but the degree of involvement by
subordinates in decision taking is very much greater than telling or selling styles (the
Consulting style).
Democratic: Using this style the leader would characteristically lay the problem before
his or her subordinates and invite discussion. The leader's role is that of conference
leader, or chair, rather than that of decision taker. He or she will allow the decision to
emerge out of the process of group discussion, instead of imposing it on the group as
its boss (the Joining style).
increasing the follower's self-esteem and making the job more interesting. This
approach is best when the work is stressful, boring or hazardous.
Participative leadership- Consulting with followers and taking their ideas into
account when making decisions and taking particular actions. This approach is
best when the followers are expert and their advice is both needed and they
expect to be able to give it.
there are serious implications for selecting (or failing to select) the best
alternative.
Vroom and Yetton defined five different decision procedures. Two are autocratic, two are
consultative and one is Group based
5. Behavioral Theories:
Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are
Did leadership decision experiments in 1939 and identified three different styles
An autocratic style works when there is no need for input on the decision, where
the decision would not change as a result of input, and where the motivation of
people to carry out subsequent actions would not be affected whether they were or
were not involved in the decision-making.
2. Democratic
In the democratic style, the leader involves the people in the decision-making,
although the process for the final decision may vary from the leader having the final
say to them facilitating consensus in the group.
Democratic decision-making is usually appreciated by the people, especially if they
have been used to autocratic decisions with which they disagreed. It can be
problematic when there are a wide range of opinions and there is no clear way of
reaching an equitable final decision.
3. Laissez-Faire
The laissez-faire style is to minimize the leader's involvement in decision-making,
and hence allowing people to make their own decisions, although they may still be
responsible for the outcome.
Laissez-faire works best when people are capable and motivated in making their
own decisions, and where there is no requirement for a central coordination, for
example in sharing resources across a range of different people and groups.
Rensis Likert et al
Rensis Likert identified four main styles of leadership, in particular around decisionmaking and the degree to which people are involved in the decision
1. Task-oriented behavior
Effective managers studied did not do the same kind work as their subordinates.
Their tasks were different, and included planning and scheduling work, coordinating
activities and providing necessary resources.
They also spent time guiding subordinates in setting task goals that were both
challenging and achievable.
2. Relationship-oriented behavior
Effective managers not only concentrated on the task, but also on their relationship
with their subordinates. They were more considerate, helpful and supportive of
subordinates, including helping them with their career and personal problems. They
recognized effort with intrinsic as well as extrinsic reward, thanking people for effort.
Overall, the effective preferred a general and hands-off form of supervision rather
than close control. They set goals and provided guidelines, but then gave their
subordinates plenty of leeway as to how the goals would be achieved.
3. Participative leadership
Effective leaders use a participative style, managing at the group level as well as
individually, for example using team meetings to share ideas and involve the team in
group decisions and problem-solving. By their actions, such leaders model good
team-oriented behavior.
The role of the manager is more facilitative than directive, guiding the
conversation and helping to resolve differences. The manager, however, is
responsible for results and is not absolved of responsibility. As such, they may make
final decisions that take recommendations from the team into account.
The effect of participative leadership is to build a cohesive team which works
together rather than a set of individuals.
6. Participative Theories:
Assumptions
People are less competitive and more collaborative when they are working on
joint goals.
When people make decisions together, the social commitment to one another is
When people have agreed to do a job, a part of the deal is that they cede all
authority to their manager.
The prime purpose of a subordinate is to do what their manager tells them to do.
Focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. Transformational
leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and
higher good of the task. These leaders are focused on the performance of group
members, but also want each person to fulfill his or her potential. Leaders with this style
often have high ethical and moral standards.
Working for a Transformational Leader can be a wonderful and uplifting experience.
They put passion and energy into everything. They care about you and want you to
succeed.
Bass defined transformational leadership in terms of how the leader affects followers,
who are intended to trust, admire and respect the transformational leader.
He identified three ways in which leaders transform followers:
Getting them to focus first on team or organizational goals, rather than their own
interests.
Association with a higher moral position is motivating and will result in people
following a leader who promotes this.
a.
b.
CRITERIA
TRANSACTIONAL
BASIS OF RELATIONSHIP Exchange-based and
TRANSFORMATIVE
Focus on ends beyond
utilitarian
Satisfaction with exchange
utilitarian
Mutual increase in
PURPOSE
Satisfaction of immediate
aspirations
Arouses needs to create
ROLES PLAYED BY
needs
Managers
larger meaning
Leaders
PARTNER
BOUNDARIES
Examines institutional
SUPPORT OF EXISTING
goals
Transcends self-interests
INSTITUIONAL GOALS
PARTNER IDENTITY
partners
Maintain institutional
identity
END GOAL
the community
Engaged whole
exchanges
unlimited exchanges.
DEMOCRATIC
AUTHOCRATIC
LAISSEZ-FAIRE
DEFINITION
Democratic
leadership, also
known as
participative
leadership, is a
type of leadership
style in which
members of the
group take a more
participative role in
the decisionmaking process
Autocratic
leadership provide
clear expectations
for what needs to
be done, when it
should be done,
and how it should
be done. There is
also a clear division
between the leader
and the followers
A laissez-faire leader
lacks direct supervision
of employees and fails
to provide regular
feedback to those under
his supervision.
BEHAVIOR
OF LEADER
TEAM LEADER
DIRECTIVE/
DECIDES ALONE
PERMISSIVE/ ABSTAIN
FROM
LEADING/DELEGATIVE
FOCUS
ON PEOPLE
ON TASK
ON INITIATIVE AND
EXPERTISE
BEHAVIOR
OF
FOLLOWER
CONTRIBUTE TO
DECISION
MAKING
FOLLOW ORDER
WHEN TO
USE IT
CAN BE USED TO
EMPLOYEES
WHO HAS SOME
PERIOD OF
WORK
EXPERIENCE
AND EXPERTISE.
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