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Fiber attenuation
Fiber dispersion
Group velocity
Material dispersion
Waveguide dispersion
Chromatic dispersion compensation
Polarization mode dispersion
Polarization-maintaining fibers
Attenuation
Signal attenuation within optical fibers is usually expressed in the
logarithmic unit of the decibel.
The decibel, which is used for comparing two power levels, may be
defined for a particular optical wavelength as the ratio of the
output optical power Po from the fiber to the input optical power Pi.
(Po Pi)
*In electronics, dB = 20 log10 (Vo/Vi)
3
Po/Pi = 10[-Loss(dB)/10]
dBm
dBm is a specific unit of power in decibels when the reference power
is 1 mW:
dBm = 10 log10 (Power/1 mW)
e.g. 1 mW = 0 dBm; 10 mW = 10 dBm; 100 mW = - 10 dBm
=>
Intrinsic absorption
Pure silica-based glass has two major intrinsic absorption
mechanisms at optical wavelengths:
(1) a fundamental UV absorption edge, the peaks are centered in the
ultraviolet wavelength region. This is due to the electron transitions
within the glass molecules. The tail of this peak may extend into the
the shorter wavelengths of the fiber transmission spectral window.
(2) A fundamental infrared and far-infrared absorption edge,
due to molecular vibrations (such as Si-O). The tail of these absorption
peaks may extend into the longer wavelengths of the fiber transmission
spectral window.
10
IR absorption
UV absorption
(negligible in the IR)
11
Extrinsic absorption
Major extrinsic loss mechanism is caused by absorption due to
water (as the hydroxyl or OH- ions) introduced in the glass fiber during
fiber pulling by means of oxyhydrogen flame.
These OH- ions are bonded into the glass structure and have
absorption peaks (due to molecular vibrations) at 1.38 mm.
Since these OH- absorption peaks are sharply peaked, narrow spectral
windows exist around 1.3 mm and 1.55 mm which are essentially
unaffected by OH- absorption.
The lowest attenuation for typical silica-based fibers occur at
wavelength 1.55 mm at about 0.2 dB/km, approaching the minimum
possible attenuation at this wavelength.
12
(Lucent 1998)
13
Conventional Long
C band
1530
1460
1500
Ultra-long
L band
1565
U band
1625
1600
1675
l (nm)
14
15
2. Scattering loss
Scattering results in attenuation (in the form of radiation) as the
scattered light may not continue to satisfy the total internal reflection
in the fiber core.
One major type of scattering is known as Rayleigh scattering.
q > qc
Rayleigh
Scattering (1/l4)
0.2 dB/km
18
macrobending
(how do we measure bending loss?)
microbending power
coupling to higher-order
modes that are more lossy.
19
20
21
Fiber dispersion
Fiber dispersion results in optical pulse broadening and hence
digital signal degradation.
Optical pulse
broadened pulse
Optical fiber
input
output
Detection
threshold
Intersymbol interference
(ISI)
Signal distorted
Fiber length (km)
An increasing number of errors may be encountered on the digital
optical channel as the ISI becomes more pronounced.
23
1. Modal dispersion
When numerous waveguide modes are propagating, they all travel
with different net velocities with respect to the waveguide axis.
An input waveform distorts during propagation because its energy
is distributed among several modes, each traveling at a different speed.
Parts of the wave arrive at the output before other parts, spreading out
the waveform. This is thus known as multimode (modal) dispersion.
Multimode dispersion does not depend on the source linewidth
(even a single wavelength can be simultaneously carried by multiple
modes in a waveguide).
Multimode dispersion would not occur if the waveguide allows only
one mode to propagate - the advantage of single-mode waveguides!24
(neff = n1) 1
m=0
0.9
0.8
0.7
TE
0.6
0.5
0.4
TM
0.3
0.2
0.1
(neff = n2) 0
10
12
14
16
18
20
V ( 1/l)
Phase velocity for mode m = w/bm = w/(neff(m) k0)
(note that m = 0 mode is the slowest mode)
25
m=1
m=0
f2
f1
f0
The carrier wave can propagate along all these different zig-zag
ray paths of different path lengths.
26
(neff = n1)
(neff = n2)
V ( 1/l)
27
Optical pulse
2
1
m=0
m=2
m=1
T
multimode fiber
slowest mode
T
m=0
time
T + DT
modal dispersion: different modes arrive at the receiver with different
delays => pulse broadening
28
(vm=0 c/n1)
n1
L
The highest-order mode traveling near the critical angle needs time:
tm = L/vm Ln2/c
(vm c/n2)
~fc
(n1 ~ n2)
29
e.g. How much will a light pulse spread after traveling along
1 km of a step-index fiber whose NA = 0.275 and ncore = 1.487?
cladding
core
f0
The main advantage of single-mode fibers is to propagate only one
mode so that modal dispersion is absent.
However, pulse broadening does not disappear altogether. The group
velocity associated with the fundamental mode is frequency dependent
within the pulse spectral linewidth because of chromatic dispersion.
33
2. Chromatic dispersion
Chromatic dispersion (CD) may occur in all types of optical
fiber. The optical pulse broadening results from the finite spectral
linewidth of the optical source and the modulated carrier.
intensity 1.0
Dl linewidth
0.5
lo
l(nm)
Spectral linewidth
Real sources emit over a range of wavelengths. This range is the
source linewidth or spectral width.
Linewidth (nm)
Light-emitting diodes
20 nm 100 nm
1 nm 5 nm
0.1 nm
0.002 nm
35
broadened pulse
single mode
lo+(Dl/2)
lo
lo-(Dl/2)
Arrives
last
time
Arrives
first
time
phase velocity
37
carrier
The space- and time-dependent total real field of the wave packet
is given by
complex conjugate
Epacket = E exp i(k1z - w1t) + c.c. + E exp i(k2z - w2t) + c.c.
= 2E {cos [(ko + dk)z - (wo+ dw)t] + cos [(ko dk)z - (wo dw)t]}
= 4E cos (zdk - tdw) cos (koz wot)
The resultant wave packet has a carrier, which has a frequency wo
and a propagation constant ko, and an envelope cos (zdk tdw).
Therefore, a fixed point on the envelope is defined by zdk tdw =
constant, and it travels with a velocity
vg = dz/dt = dw/dk
group velocity
39
k = n(l) 2p/l
=>
w = 2pc/l
=>
dw/dl = -2pc/l2
Hence
vg = c / [n l(dn/dl)] = c / ng
41
1.465
1.478
1.46
1.476
1.455
1.474
1.45
n(l)
1.445
1.472
1.44
1.47
1.435
600
1.468
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
ng(l)
1.466
1.464
1.462
1.46
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
Wavelength (nm)
42
velocity (m/s)
2.080E+08
2.070E+08
Phase velocity
dispersion
v = c/n
2.060E+08
2.050E+08
vg= c/ng
2.040E+08
2.030E+08
2.020E+08
Group velocity
dispersion (GVD)
2.010E+08
2.000E+08
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
Wavelength (nm)
43
DT = (dT/dl) Dl = [d(L/vg)/dl] Dl
= L [d(1/vg)/dl] Dl
44
45
30
Fused silica
20
1276 nm
Anomalous
(D > 0)
10
0
1100
1200
1400
1500
1600
1700
Wavelength (nm)
-10
-20
1300
Normal
(D < 0)
-30
46
vg
2.0530E+08
2.0525E+08
Normal Anomalous
(D > 0)
(D < 0)
2.0520E+08
2.0515E+08
2.0510E+08
2.0505E+08
2.0500E+08
Dmat = 0
@ 1276 nm
2.0495E+08
2.0490E+08
1100
1200
1300
1400
Wavelength (nm)
C band
1500
1600
1700
47
Zero-dispersion wavelength
Material dispersion Dmat = 0 at l ~ 1276 nm for fused silica.
48
ncore
nclad
core pulse
slower
cladding pulse
faster
Singlemode fiber
time
=>
broadened pulse !
Waveguide dispersion depends on the mode field distribution
in the core and the cladding. (given by the fiber V number)
50
LP01
2.405
V ( 1/l)
51
Group velocity
vg,eff = dw/db
or
vg,eff-1 = db/dw
Waveguide effective index
52
Dmat = 0
D = Dmat + Dwg
D=0
lo ~ 1310 nm
Dwg(l) compensate some of the Dmat(l) and shifts the lZD from about
55
1276 nm to a longer wavelength of about 1310 nm.
DT = D L Dl
Consider the maximum pulse broadening equals to the bit time
period 1/B, then the dispersion-limited distance:
LD = 1 / (D B Dl)
e.g. For D = 17 ps/(kmnm), B = 2.5 Gb/s and Dl = 0.03 nm
=> LD = 784 km
(It is known that dispersion limits a 2.5 Gbit/s channel to roughly
900 km! Therefore, chromatic dispersion is not much of an issue in
56
low-bit-rate systems deployed in the early 90s!)
=> LD 1 / B2
57
Zero-dispersion slope
If D(l) is zero at a specific l = lZD, can we eliminate
pulse broadening caused by chromatic dispersion?
There are higher-order effects! The derivative
dD(l)/dl = So
Dispersion (ps/nm-km)
30
20
10
0
1100
1313 nm
1200
1300
1400
D(l) > 0
1500
1600
1700
Wavelength (nm)
-10
D(l) < 0
-20
60
=>
(B DT < 1)
*For a multimode semiconductor laser with Dl = 2 nm and a dispersionshifted fiber with So = 0.05 ps/(km-nm2) at l = 1.55 mm, the BL product
approaches 5 (Tb/s)-km. Further improvement is possible by using
single-mode semiconductor lasers.
61
62
63
(standard)
ncore(r)
ncore(r)
Dispersion [ps/nm-km]
WDM
1500
1550 1600
(recall
DT = D L Dl )
time
+D (red goes
slower)
Positive dispersion
transmission fiber
time
Distance (km)
67
Positive dispersion
transmission fiber
-D
+D
-D
-D
+D
-D
-D
+D
-D
Distance (km)
Dispersion [ps/nm-km]
SM
+ve
17
+ve
SM fiber
lo
-80
DCF
DCF
-ve
SM
+ve
DCF
-ve
DCF
-ve
Dispersion-Compensating Fiber
The concept: using a span of fiber to compress an initially chirped pulse.
Pulse broadening with chirping
ls
ls
ll
ll
ls
ll
ls
ll
Initial chirp and broadening by a transmission link Compress the pulse to initial width
L1
L2
DCF (D < 0)
Laser
Detector
L
LDCF
D2 L2 = - D1 L1
L2 dD2/dl = - L1 dD1/dl
=> Dispersion and slope compensation: D2 / (dD2/dl) = D1 / (dD1/dl)
(In practice, two fibers are used, one of which has negative slope, in which the pulse
wavelength is at zero-dispersion wavelength lzD.)
73
Dispersion [ps/nm-km]
SM fiber
16
l1
DCF
17 18
l2
+ve
l
-D
Splice loss
-D
76
Ey DT
Ey
vgy = c/ngy
Ex
Ex
Single-mode fiber L km
*1. Pulse broadening due to the orthogonal polarization modes
(The time delay between the two polarization components is
characterized as the differential group delay (DGD).)
2. Polarization varies along the fiber length
77
Elliptical polarization
79
Lo
B1
L1
B2
B3
L2
L3
Ex
Ey
t
Randomly changing differential group delay (DGD)
81
DTPMD = DPMD L
84
Unknown output
(random coupling
between all the
polarizations present)
Pol. input
Unknown output
Unpol. input
Unknown output
Pol. input
Pol. output
conventional
polarizationpreserving
86
Polarization-preserving fibers
The fiber birefringence is enhanced in single-mode
polarization-preserving (polarization-maintaining) fibers,
which are designed to maintain the polarization of the
launched wave.
Polarization is preserved because the two possible
waves have significantly different propagation
characteristics. This keeps them from exchanging
energy as they propagate through the fiber.
Polarization-preserving fibers are constructed by
designing asymmetries into the fiber. Examples include
fibers with elliptical cores (which cause waves polarized
along the major and minor axes of the ellipse to have
different effective refractive indices) and fibers that
contain nonsymmetrical stress-producing parts.
87
Polarization-preserving fibers
Elliptical-core fiber
bow-tie fiber
89
90
91
92