Jurnal Seminar

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH
Int. J. Tourism Res. 10, 111126 (2008)

Published online 2 November 2007 in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/jtr.645
Role Stress, Burnout and Their Effects

on Frontline Hotel Employees
Job Performance: Evidence
from Northern Cyprus
Osman M. Karatepe* and Orhan Uludag
School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Eastern Mediterranean University, Gazimagusa, Turkish
Republic of Northern Cyprus via Mersin 10, Turkey
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
Based on data obtained from frontline hotel

employees in Northern Cyprus, this study
investigated the effects of role stress and
burnout on job performance. It was found
that role ambiguity decreased job
performance while role conict enhanced
job performance. The results indicated that
diminished personal accomplishment
exerted a signicant negative inuence on
job performance whereas the rest of the
burnout dimensions did not. The results
further showed that both role conict and
ambiguity exacerbated emotional
exhaustion and depersonalisation. Role
ambiguity was found to have a signicant
positive relationship with diminished
personal accomplishment whereas role
conict was not. Copyright 2007 John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Received 1 May 2006; Revised 20 June 2007; Accepted 17 July

2007
Keywords: role stress; burnout; frontline

employees; job performance; Northern
Cyprus.
*Correspondence to: O. M. Karatepe, School of Tourism

and Hospitality Management, Eastern Mediterranean
University, Gazimagusa, Turkish Republic of Northern
Cyprus via Mersin 10, Turkey.
E-mail: osman.karatepe@emu.edu.tr
n todays global competitive environment,

hotel organisations realise that they have to
focus on delivering exceptional service
quality and creating customer satisfaction in
order to acquire and retain a pool of protable
loyal customers for their survival and success.
Indeed, frontline hotel employees are the most
important links in this process (Karatepe et al.,
2006). Hotel organisations, however, are faced
with the challenging task of nding effective
ways to ensure that the attitudes and behaviours of frontline employees are congruent
with the expectations of the management and
customers (Hartline and Ferrell, 1996). Under
these circumstances, hotel managers need to
pay attention to the well-being of their frontline employees.
Yet despite well-intentions of management,
frontline hotel employees are confronted with
a number of problems that stem from inadequate training and development opportunities, low pay, excessive workloads, and
unsocial work hours (Babin and Boles, 1998;
Karatepe and Sokmen, 2006; Kim et al., 2007).
They are often susceptible to role stress, which
consists of role conict and role ambiguity
(Hartline and Ferrell, 1996; Karatepe and
Sokmen, 2006). Role conict occurs when individuals have incompatible job demands from
various parties such as customers, co-workers,
and managers and nd that they are incapable
of satisfying all job demands at the same time;
and role ambiguity occurs when individuals
do not have clear information about the
Copyright 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
112
expectations of their roles in the job or the
organisation (Churchill et al., 1976).
In addition, frontline hotel employees experience burnout (Ledgerwood et al., 1998),
which is characterised by emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and diminished personal accomplishment (Maslach and Jackson,
1981). Maslach and Jackson (1981, p. 99) dene
burnout as a syndrome of emotional exhaustion and cynicism that occurs frequently
among individuals who do people-work of
some kind. Emotional exhaustion is the initiator of the burnout syndrome (Gaines and
Jermier, 1983; Cordes and Dougherty, 1993)
and is related to depletion of emotional
resources. Under these circumstances, individuals cannot give of themselves at a psychological level (Gaines and Jermier, 1983). Another
aspect of burnout is depersonalisation, which
is dened as the development of negative,
cynical attitudes and feelings about ones
clients (Maslach and Jackson, 1981, p. 99).
Diminished personal accomplishment is the
third aspect of the burnout syndrome and is
related to a tendency to evaluate oneself negatively (Maslach and Jackson, 1981).
Against this backdrop, the current study
develops and tests a research model that
investigates the effects of role conict and
ambiguity and emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, and diminished personal accomplishment on an organisationally valued job
outcome: job performance. This study also
examines the relationships of role stressors
with the three dimensions of burnout. The
aforementioned relationships are tested using
data collected from frontline hotel employees
in Northern Cyprus as the study setting.
This empirical study makes several contributions to the tourism and hospitality literature in the following ways. First, empirical
evidence regarding the relationships of the
three components of burnout with employees
job performance in the extant literature is not
abundant (Bakker et al., 2004; Wright and
Hobfoll, 2004). This is also valid in the tourism
and hospitality literature. Second, empirical
evidence pertaining to the relationships of role
stressors with burnout dimensions in the
tourism and hospitality literature is meager.
Finally, the ndings of this study may prove
useful to hotel managers for business practice.
O. M. Karatepe and O. Uludag

The next section includes the research model
and a set of hypotheses. This is followed by
discussions of the method and results of the
study. The study concludes with key implications for research and practice.
RESEARCH MODEL AND HYPOTHESES
The conservation of resources (COR) theory
provides a basis to understand the relationships of role stressors with the three components of burnout and the impacts of these
dimensions on various job outcomes (Hobfoll,
1989; Lee and Ashforth, 1996). The basic ingredient of the COR theory is that individuals
seek to obtain, retain, protect and foster
resources (Hobfoll, 1989, 2001). Resources are
dened as those objects, personal characteristics, conditions, or energies that are valued by
the individual or that serve as a means for
attainment of these objects, personal characteristics, conditions, or energies (Hobfoll,
1989, p. 516). According to the theory, burnout
is most likely to occur when the resources of
individuals are threatened with loss, lost, or
when individuals fail to gain resources after a
signicant resource investment (Hobfoll,
2001). The theory further posits that burnout
becomes a reaction to role stress when individuals are incapable of coping with excessive
demands on their resources (Lee and Ashforth,
1996).
The COR theory also provides a basis to
understand the relationships of emotional
exhaustion, depersonalisation and diminished
personal accomplishment with job performance (Wright and Bonett, 1997; Wright and
Hobfoll, 2004). Job performance is dened as
the level of productivity of an individual
employee, relative to his or her peers, on
several job-related behaviors and outcomes
(Babin and Boles, 1998, p. 82). The COR theory
suggests that employees who are emotionally
exhausted lack certain resources needed to
enhance their job performance because these
resources might already have depleted (Wright
and Cropanzano, 1998). According to this
theory, employees may try to minimise the loss
of emotional resources by selecting strategies
that help utilise and conserve their scarce
resources (Wright and Hobfoll, 2004).
However, employees who detach themselves
Int. J. Tourism Res. 10, 111126 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
Role Stress, Burnout and Their Effects on Frontline Hotel Employees Job Performance
113
H3a (+)
H1a (+)
Emotional exhaustion
(EEXHAUST)
H4a (-)
Role conflict
(ROLEC)
H1b (+)
H1c (+)
Depersonalization
(DEP)
H4b (-)
Job performance
(JPERF)
H2a (+)
H4c (-)
Role ambiguity
(ROLEA)
H2b (+)
H2c (+)
Diminished personal
accomplishment
(DPA)
H3b (-)
Control variables
Age
Gender
Education
Organizational tenure
Marital status
The number of childen
Hotel type
Figure 1. Research model.
from their customers and co-workers perform

ineffectively in the organisation. As persuasively discussed by Wright and Bonett (1997),
the COR theory predicts that employees do not
perform well once they hold negative selfevaluations about their job performance.
The research model guiding the present
study is shown in Figure 1. The model contends that both role conict and ambiguity
amplify emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and diminished personal accomplishment. According to the model, the three
components of burnout inuence job performance deleteriously. The model further posits
that role ambiguity decreases job performance
while role conict increases job performance.

The research hypotheses are discussed next.
Outcomes of role conict and
role ambiguity
Individuals who are confronted with role conict and ambiguity experience emotional
personal accomplishment. This is consistent
with the COR theory. There is empirical evidence to support the previously mentioned
relationships. For instance, Lee and Ashforth
(1996), in their meta-analytic study, reported
that role conict and ambiguity were
Int. J. Tourism Res. 10, 111126 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
114
signicantly and positively correlated with
emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation.
They also reported that these role stressors had
signicant negative correlations with personal
accomplishment. Hsieh and Hsieh (2003)
found evidence in the manufacturing and
service sectors of Taiwan that the previously
mentioned role stressors had signicant positive effects on employees emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation. They further
indicated that role ambiguity was signicantly
and positively associated with diminished personal accomplishment whereas role conict
was not. Recently, Piko (2006) also reported
similar ndings regarding the impact of role
conict on the three dimensions of burnout for
a sample of health care employees.
Thus, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H1: Role conict is positively related to frontline employees (a) emotional exhaustion,
(b) depersonalisation and (c) diminished
personal accomplishment.
H2: Role ambiguity is positively related to
frontline employees (a) emotional exhaustion (b) depersonalisation and (c) diminished personal accomplishment.
Although a number of empirical studies
have investigated the impact of role conict on
job performance, the individual studies have
reported mixed results regarding this relationship. For example, Brown and Peterson (1993),
in their meta-analytic study, failed to nd a
signicant relationship between role conict
and salesperson performance. MacKenzie et al.
(1998) showed that salespeople reported lower
job (in-role) performance when they were confronted with role conict. On the other hand,
various empirical studies demonstrated a positive relationship between role conict and job
performance (Behrman and Perreault, 1984;
Ross and Boles, 1994; Babin and Boles, 1996;
Babakus et al., 1999). This nding can be attributed to the fact that role conict is one of the
unavoidable aspects of boundary-spanning
positions, and frontline employees may have
learnt how to cope with difculties emanating
from role conict. Therefore, this study posits
that role conict increases frontline hotel
employees job performance.
A careful examination of the extant literature
indicates that the ndings regarding the effect

of role ambiguity on job performance have
been more consistent. Specically, a number of
empirical studies (e.g., Ross and Boles, 1994;
MacKenzie et al., 1998; Babakus et al., 1999) and
a meta-analytic study (Brown and Peterson,
1993) demonstrate that employees having a
lack of information about their job-related
duties and responsibilities display decreased
performance in the workplace.
Accordingly, the following hypotheses are
proposed:
H3a: Role conict is positively related to frontline employees job performance.
H3b: Role ambiguity is negatively related to
frontline employees job performance.
Outcomes of emotional exhaustion,
depersonalisation and diminished personal
accomplishment
Consistent with the COR theory, when
employees are prone to high levels of emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and diminished personal accomplishment, their job performance starts to erode. This is evident
because employees no longer possess adequate
resources to cope with difculties that stem
from the three components of burnout.
Although there are limited empirical studies
pertaining to the aforementioned relationships, the ndings across the individual
studies are largely mixed. For example, Wright
and Bonett (1997) found that emotional
exhaustion was signicantly and negatively
associated with subsequent work performance
whereas depersonalisation and diminished
personal accomplishment were not. Recently,
Wright and Hobfoll (2004) reported similar
results concerning the relationships of the
burnout dimensions with job performance.
More recently, Advani et al. (2005) found that
emotional exhaustion increased the job performance of Indian software professionals
whereas depersonalisation and diminished
personal accomplishment were not signicantly related to their job performance. Obviously, the aforementioned ndings require a
further testing of the relationships of burnout
components with job performance.
Accordingly, the following hypotheses are
proposed:
Int. J. Tourism Res. 10, 111126 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
H4a: Emotional exhaustion is negatively
related to frontline employees job
performance.
H4b: Depersonalization is negatively related
to frontline employees job performance.
H4c: Diminished personal accomplishment
is negatively related to frontline employees job performance.
THE NORTHERN CYPRUS CONTEXT
Cyprus is one of the largest islands in the
Mediterranean Sea, which covers an area of
about 3500 square miles (Kilic and Okumus,
2005). As a result of the partition of the island
in 1974, the Turkish Cypriots have been living
in the north while the Greek Cypriots have
been living in the south (Okumus et al., 2005).
The Turkish Cypriots declared the independence of the Turkish Republic of Northern
Cyprus in 1983, which is recognised internationally only by Turkey (Altinay, 2000). Northern Cyprus, having a population of 211 000 is
a small island destination (Kilic and Okumus,
2005). Despite its sensitivity to the political
uncertainty, tourism industry is regarded as
the lifeblood of the edgling Northern Cyprus
economy.
There are a number of problems in the
Northern Cyprus tourism and hospitality
industry that emanate from transportation
difculties, scarce qualied staff, inadequate
infrastructure, lack of top management commitment to service quality, seasonality and low
occupancy rates, poor service quality, pollution, inadequate supplementary facilities and
services, and high prices (Akis and Warner,
1994; Altinay et al., 2002; Yavas et al., 2004; Kilic
and Okumus, 2005; Altinay and Bowen, 2006).
In addition, employees working in Northern
Cyprus hotels are confronted with various
problems including long work hours, inadequate pay, lack of training, empowerment, and
rewards, role stress, workfamily conict,
excessive job demands, irregular and inexible
work schedules, and limited weekend time off
(Scott, 1997; Karatepe et al., 2003; Yavas et al.,
2004; Kilic and Okumus, 2005; Karatepe and
Kilic, 2007). The aforementioned problems
demonstrate that most of the Northern Cyprus
hotels are devoid of contemporary human
resource managerial practices.
115
METHODOLOGY
Sample
Data for this study were collected from a
judgemental sample of Turkish Cypriot frontline employees in Northern Cyprus hotels.
Judd et al. (1991) dene judgemental sampling
as picking cases that are judged to be typical
of the population in which we are interested,
assuming that errors of judgement in the selection will tend to counterbalance one another
(p. 136). Using the judgemental sampling procedure, the sample of this empirical study
included frontline employees in three-, fourand ve-star hotels in Northern Cyprus. There
are several reasons for selecting frontline
employees. First, frontline employees have frequent interaction with customers and are
expected to deal with a number of customers
requests. Second, as indicated before, they are
prone to heightened role stress and burnout.
Hotel types in the research location consisted of independently/family-owned and
-operated hotels and chain hotels. 83.3% of
the participating hotel companies in the
research location were independently/familyowned and -operated hotels, while 16.7%
were chain hotels.
The research team contacted the managements of 28 three-, 8 four- and 6 ve-star hotels
in order to learn the total number of frontline
employees and receive permission for data
collection. The research team learnt that there
were 943 frontline employees working in the
previously mentioned hotels at the time of the
study. However, the research team was not
able to receive permission from the managements of three three-star hotels and three fourstar hotels for data collection. Allowing for
hotels that did not participate, the number of
frontline employees in the research location
was 872, each of whom personally received a
copy of a questionnaire. It should be noted that
all frontline employees in the study sample
(e.g. food servers, front desk agents and
concierges) had frequent contact with customers and spent most of their time directly
with customers to deal with their needs and
requests. A detailed explanation on the questionnaire was provided, and all participants
were assured of the condentiality and
Int. J. Tourism Res. 10, 111126 (2008)
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116
anonymity of their responses. Participants
were requested to ll out the questionnaires in
a self-administered manner. Among the 872
questionnaires distributed, 677 were retrieved
by the cut-off date for data collection, yielding
a response rate of 77.6%.
Measurement
The relevant writings in the extant literature
were canvassed in order to operationalise the
constructs depicted in Figure 1.
Role conict and role ambiguity. Role conict and
role ambiguity were measured using eight and
six items from Rizzo et al. (1970) respectively.
There are some concerns regarding the validity of the role conict and role ambiguity scales
developed by Rizzo et al. (1970) (McGee et al.,
1989). However, these scales have received
considerable empirical attention in the extant
literature (Jackson and Schuler, 1985; Brown
and Peterson, 1993), and there is empirical
support for the validity of these scales (Smith
et al., 1993). Responses to the items in role conict and role ambiguity were elicited on vepoint scales ranging from 5 = strongly agree
to 1 = strongly disagree.
Burnout. As mentioned in the preceding parts,
burnout consists of emotional exhaustion,
accomplishment. Emotional exhaustion was
measured using eight items, depersonalisation
was measured via ve items and diminished
personal accomplishment was operationalised
using eight items from Maslach and Jackson
(1981). Responses to the items in emotional
personal accomplishment were elicited on
ve-point scales ranging from 5 = strongly
agree to 1 = strongly disagree.
Job performance. Five items from Babin and
Boles (1998) were adapted to operationalise job
performance. Although the use of self-report
measure may result in inated results,
Churchill et al. (1985) cogently discuss that
measuring job performance using a self-report
measure does not necessarily lead to systematic bias. There are also a number of empirical
studies that have used self-report measures in

order to operationalise job performance (e.g.
Babin and Boles, 1998; Babakus et al., 1999).
Each of the job performance items used a vepoint scale ranging from 5 = strongly agree to
1 = strongly disagree.
The questionnaire was originally prepared
in English and then translated into Turkish via
the back-translation method (McGorry, 2000).
The survey instrument was tested with a pilot
sample of 30 frontline employees in the
research location. The results of the pilot study
revealed that frontline employees did not have
any difculty in understanding the items.
Consequently, no changes were made in the
survey instrument.
Age, gender, education, organisational tenure, marital status, the number of children and
hotel type were statistically controlled in this
study. Age and education were measured
using ve-point scales. Organisational tenure
was measured using a six-point scale. The
number of children was measured using a
four-point scale. Gender was coded as a binary
variable (0 = male and 1 = female). Marital
status was recorded as a binary variable (0 =
single or divorced and 1 = married). Hotel type
was also coded as a binary variable (0 = chain
hotel and 1 = independently/family-owned
and -operated hotel).
All measures were subjected to conrmatory
factor analysis to provide support for the
issues of dimensionality, convergent and discriminant validity (Anderson and Gerbing,
1988). The research hypotheses were tested
using LISREL 8.30 through path analysis
(Joreskog and Sorbom, 1996).
RESULTS
Sample
The majority of the respondents were male
(57.3%). Most of the respondents (50.7%) were
between the ages of 1827, 30.6% were aged
between 28 and 37, and the rest were older
than 37. Approximately one-third (31.9%) of
the respondents had secondary and high
school education. 56.2% of the respondents
had university education. The rest had primary school education. Twenty-nine percent of
the respondents had tenures of less than one
year and almost half of the respondents
Int. J. Tourism Res. 10, 111126 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
(47.9%) had tenures of one to ve years. The
rest had tenures of above ve years. 40.2% of
the respondents were married whereas the rest
were single or divorced. Almost two-thirds
(65%) of the respondents had no children,
34.6% of the respondents had one to four children and the rest had more than four children.
Measurement results
All items were subjected to a series of conrmatory factor analyses for a rigorous psychometric assessment (Joreskog and Sorbom,
1996). The initial results of the conrmatory
factor analysis provided low model t statistics. Therefore, several items were deleted
because of low standardised loadings (<0.50)
or correlation measurement errors. Specically,
two items from role conict and one item each
from role ambiguity and diminished personal
accomplishment were removed from further
analysis. The nal results of the conrmatory
factor analysis demonstrated a moderate t of
the six-factor model to the data on the basis of
a number of t statistics (e.g., 2 = 2500.60, d.f.
= 579; Goodness of Fit Index = 0.83; Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = 0.83; Root Mean Square
Residual (RMR) = 0.059). As Table 1 indicates,
the magnitudes of the standardised loadings
ranged from 0.51 to 0.86, and all t-values were
signicant (>2.00). The previously mentioned
results provided support for the issue of convergent validity (Anderson and Gerbing,
1988). As shown in Table 1, all coefcient
alphas were found to be greater than the cutoff level of 0.70 (Nunnally, 1978).
To assess discriminant validity, a series of
pairwise conrmatory factor analyses was
employed. A two-dimensional model for each
pair of study constructs was rst developed,
and then items representing each factor were
forced into a single factor solution. The results
of various t statistics were better for a twofactor model. The results conrm that each set
of items represents a single underlying construct, and thus provide evidence of discriminant validity (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988).
Composite scores for each measure were
obtained by averaging scores across items representing that measure. Table 2 shows the correlations among the study variables. All
control variables excluding gender and organCopyright 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
117
isational tenure had signicant positive correlations with the study variables. The results
indicate that older, better-educated and
married employees have more emotional
exhaustion and depersonalisation. This is also
valid for those who work in independently/
family-owned and -operated hotels. The
results show that better-educated employees
experience higher role conict and diminished
personal accomplishment. The results further
indicate that older employees have less personal accomplishment while the ones with
more children have higher depersonalisation.
As the results in Table 2 illustrate, married
employees and the ones working in independently/family-owned and -operated hotels are
confronted with higher role ambiguity.
Of the control variables, age, gender, organisational tenure and hotel type also had signicant negative correlations with the study variables. Specically, employees with longer
tenure are susceptible to less role ambiguity,
emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and
diminished personal accomplishment. The
results reveal that female employees experience less role conict and older employees and
the ones in independently/family-owned
and -operated hotels display an ineffective
performance.
Test of research hypotheses
The correlation matrix depicted in Table 2 was
used as input to test the hypotheses using
LISREL 8.30 through path analysis (Joreskog
and Sorbom, 1996). The results indicate that
the model ts the data well (e.g. 2 = 6.45, d.f.
= 1; CFI = 1.00; RMR = 0.013). As shown in
Table 3, the variances explained in role conict,
role ambiguity, emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, diminished personal accomplishment, and job performance were 6, 4, 35, 27, 29
and 30% respectively.
Of the 11 hypotheses, 8 were supported.
Table 3 shows that role conict is signicantly
and positively related to emotional exhaustion
and depersonalisation. H1a and H1b are therefore supported. There is, however, no signicant relationship between role conict and
diminished personal accomplishment. H1c
is therefore not supported. In addition, the
results demonstrate that role ambiguity is
Int. J. Tourism Res. 10, 111126 (2008)
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118
Table 1. Scale items, reliabilities and conrmatory factor analysis results (n = 677)
Scale items
Role conict
I receive an assignment without adequate
resources and materials to execute it.
I receive an assignment without the manpower
to complete it.
I do things that are apt to be accepted by one
person and not accepted by others.
I work with two or more groups who operate
differently.
I receive incompatible requests from two or
more people.
I have to do things that should be done differently.
Role ambiguity
I have clear, planned goals and objectives for my job.*
I know exactly what is expected of me.*
I know what my responsibilities are.*
I feel certain about how much authority I have.*
I know I have divided my time properly.*
I feel emotionally drained from my work.
I feel used up at the end of the workday.
I feel fatigued when I get up in the morning and
have to face another day on the job.
Working with people all day is really a strain for me.
I feel burned out from my work.
I feel frustrated by my job.
I feel I am working too hard on my job.
I feel like I am at the end of my rope.
Depersonalisation
I feel I treat some customers as if they were
impersonal objects.
I have become more callous towards people
since I took this job.
I worry that this job is hardening me emotionally.
I do not really care what happens to some customers.
I feel customers blame me for some of their problems.
Standardised loadings
t-values Alpha
0.80
0.65
17.42
0.66
17.68
0.76
21.35
0.51
12.99
0.69
18.69
0.55
14.13
0.61
0.68
0.80
0.65
0.54
15.98
18.37
22.82
17.40
13.94
0.66
0.59
0.70
18.83
16.41
20.45
0.83
0.86
0.84
0.57
0.76
25.85
27.79
26.60
15.85
22.94
0.79
23.88
0.84
26.05
0.84
0.66
0.53
26.36
18.67
14.18
0.78
0.90
0.85
Diminished personal accomplishment

I deal effectively with the problems of my customers.*
I feel I am positively inuencing other peoples lives
through my work.*
I feel very energetic.
I can easily create a relaxed atmosphere with my customers.*
I feel exhilarated after working closely with my customers.*
I have accomplished many worthwhile things in this job.*
In my work, I deal with emotional problems very calmly.*
0.52
0.55
13.60
14.53
0.82
0.70
0.66
0.74
0.64
0.59
19.35
18.25
21.19
18.12
15.76
Job performance
I am a top performer.
I am in the top 10% of frontline employees here.
I get along better with customers than do others.
I know more about services delivered to customers than others.
I know what my customers expect better than others.
0.59
0.62
0.73
0.64
0.61
15.13
16.13
19.85
16.77
15.84
0.77
Each item is measured on ve-point scales. All loadings are signicant at the 0.01 or better.
* These items were reverse scored.
Int. J. Tourism Res. 10, 111126 (2008)

DOI: 10.1002/jtr
1.75
0.94
0.43
0.50
0.044
2.74
1.05
0.008
1.000
0.016
1.000
0.080* 0.005
0.098* 0.016
0.093* 0.012
0.075
0.004
0.122** 0.194**
0.042
0.040
0.063
0.318**
0.010
0.241**
0.025
0.155**
2.02
0.90
0.014
0.40
0.49
0.069
1.42
0.62
0.005
1.000
0.248**
1.000
0.378**
0.606** 1.000
0.054
0.029
0.035
0.066
0.005
0.025
0.077*
0.122** 0.047
0.111**
0.090*
0.062
0.098*
0.131** 0.092*
0.135**
0.049
0.023
0.55
0.50
0.111**
1.000
0.006
0.089*
0.154**
0.171**
0.023
1.000
0.289**
0.234**
0.486**
1.000
0.753**
0.430**
10
3.21
0.78
2.01
0.67
2.72
0.97
0.248** 0.318** 0.010
1.000
0.110**
0.435**
0.377**
0.122**
2.64
0.99
0.034
1.000
0.321**
11
13
2.16
0.67
3.79
0.69
0.363** 1.000
1.000
12
Composite scores for each measure were obtained by averaging scores across items representing that measure. The scores range from 1 to 5. Age and education were
measured using ve-point scales. Organisational tenure was measured using a six-point scale. The number of children was measured using a four-point scale. Higher
scores indicated older age, more educated, longer tenure and more children. Gender was coded as a binary variable (0 = male and 1 = female). Marital status was
coded as a binary variable (0 = single or divorced and 1 = married). Hotel type was also coded as a binary variable (0 = chain hotel and 1 = independently/familyowned and -operated hotel).
* Correlations are signicant at the 0.05 level.
** Correlations are signicant at the 0.01 level. Corrrelations without any asterisks are insignicant.
Mean
Standard deviation
Age
1.000
Gender
0.090*
Education
0.048
Organisational tenure
0.527**
Marital status
0.457**
The number of children 0.558**
Hotel type
0.046
Role conict
0.045
Role ambiguity
0.027
0.111**
Depersonalisation
0.114**
Diminished personal
0.090*
accomplishment
13 Job performance
0.127**
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Variables
Table 2. Correlations, means, and standard deviations of composite measures of model constructs and control variables
119
Int. J. Tourism Res. 10, 111126 (2008)

DOI: 10.1002/jtr
120
signicantly and positively related to emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and
diminished personal accomplishment, providing empirical support for H2a, H2b and H2c.
As predicted, role conict has a signicant positive impact on job performance while role
ambiguity exerts a signicant negative effect
on job performance. H3a and H3b are therefore
supported.
Contrary to our predictions, the results
demonstrate that emotional exhaustion is signicantly and positively related to job performance. H4a therefore receives no empirical
support. The relationship between depersonalisation and job performance is negative but not
signicant. H4b is therefore not supported.
Consistent with our predictions, diminished
personal accomplishment has a signicant
negative effect on job performance. H4c is
therefore supported.
As depicted in Table 3, several control variables were found to be signicantly associated
with the study variables. Specically, gender is
negatively related to role conict. This nding
may be attributed to the fact that female
employees might have been disciplined using
various tools such as counseling and coaching
while male employees might have been disciplined through verbal and written reprimands
(cf. Schul and Wren, 1992). According to the
results of the path analysis, education is positively related to role conict. This nding indicates that better-educated employees might
have had great condence in their skills and
abilities and thus might have not asked
for clearer guidance regarding incompatible
demands from multiple sources. In addition,
organisational tenure is negatively related to
role ambiguity while marital status is positively associated with role ambiguity. The
nding regarding the relationship between
tenure and role ambiguity suggests that
employees with longer tenure might have
obtained more information concerning their
job-related duties and responsibilities and thus
might have experienced lower role ambiguity.
The results in Table 3 indicate that age and
education have positive relationships with
emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and
diminished personal accomplishment while
organisational tenure is negatively associated
with the three dimensions of burnout. These

ndings suggest that older and bettereducated employees might have been fed up
with managing customers requests and complaints while employees with longer tenure
might have learnt how to handle the difculties emanating from emotional exhaustion,
accomplishment.
The results reveal that age is negatively associated with job performance while the number
of children has a positive association with
job performance. The negative relationship
between age and job performance might be
attributed to the fact that older employees
might have displayed lower job performance
because of a number of problems associated
with heavy workloads and unsocial work
hours. In addition, employees in independently/family-owned and -operated hotels
have high levels of role ambiguity, emotional
exhaustion, and depersonalisation and display
lower performance in the workplace. This is
not surprising because employees in frontline
service jobs are highly stressed and may not be
capable of carrying out job-related duties and
responsibilities effectively because of the lack
of training, development and mentoring programmes, and well-prepared job descriptions
in such hotels relative to those in chain hotels.
DISCUSSION
As discussed before, frontline hotel employees
are highly stressed and experience burnout
(Ledgerwood et al., 1998; Karatepe and
Sokmen, 2006). Little, however, is known
about the relationships of role stress and
burnout on an organisationally valued job
outcome: job performance. This is also true for
the effect of role stress on burnout. With this
recognition, building on and extending prior
research and lling in voids in the tourism and
hospitality literature, this study developed and
tested a research model that investigated the
effects of role stress and burnout on job performance by using a sample of frontline hotel
employees in Northern Cyprus as the study
setting.
The results were largely supportive of the
research hypotheses. Specically, two major
job demands, role conict and ambiguity, were
found to exacerbate frontline employees
Int. J. Tourism Res. 10, 111126 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
121
Table 3. Model test results

Control variables
and hypotheses
(I) Impact on ROLEC
Control variables
Age ROLEC
Gender ROLEC
Education ROLEC
Organizational tenure ROLEC
Marital status ROLEC
The number of children ROLEC
Hotel type ROLEC
Standardised parameter
estimates
t-values
Supported/not supported
0.05
0.13
0.20
0.06
0.02
0.00
0.02
0.93
3.50*
5.19*
1.31
0.39
0.04
0.42
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.14
0.14
0.01
0.09
0.64
0.74
1.09
3.03*
2.82*
0.10
2.34*
0.18
0.00
0.23
0.18
0.02
0.01
0.13
4.37*
0.14
7.34*
4.89*
0.62
0.25
4.31*
0.37
0.20
11.68*
6.48*
0.16
0.06
0.16
0.18
0.08
0.03
0.16
3.49*
1.67
4.83*
4.59*
1.76
0.67
4.91*
0.34
0.14
9.97*
4.29*
R2 = 0.06
(II) Impact on ROLEA
Control variables
Age ROLEA
Gender ROLEA
Education ROLEA
Organisational tenure ROLEA
Marital status ROLEA
The number of children ROLEA
Hotel type ROLEA
R2 = 0.04
(III) Impact on EEXHAUST
Control variables
Age EEXHAUST
Gender EEXHAUST
Education EEXHAUST
Organisational tenure EEXHAUST
Marital status EEXHAUST
The number of children EEXHAUST
Hotel type EEXHAUST
Hypotheses
ROLEC EEXHAUST
ROLEA EEXHAUST
Supported
Supported
R2 = 0.35
(IV) Impact on DEP
Control variables
Age DEP
Gender DEP
Education DEP
Organisational tenure DEP
Marital status DEP
The number of children DEP
Hotel type DEP
Hypotheses
ROLEC DEP
ROLEA DEP
Supported
Supported
R2 = 0.27
(V) Impact on DPA
Control variables
Int. J. Tourism Res. 10, 111126 (2008)

DOI: 10.1002/jtr
122
Table 3. (Continued)
Control variables
and hypotheses
Standardised parameter
estimates
t-values
Supported/not supported
0.20
0.05
0.11
0.19
0.03
0.02
0.02
4.60*
1.49
3.31*
4.78*
0.80
0.40
0.52
0.05
0.47
1.48
14.12*
Not supported
Supported
0.16
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.14
0.09
3.44*
0.31
0.26
0.57
1.21
3.16*
2.67*
0.27
0.21
0.15
0.06
0.31
7.15*
5.54*
2.62*
1.22
7.59*
Supported
Supported
Not supported
Not supported
Supported
Age DPA
Gender DPA
Education DPA
Organisational tenure DPA
Marital status DPA
The number of children DPA
Hotel type DPA
Hypotheses
ROLEC DPA
ROLEA DPA
R2 = 0.29
(VI) Impact on JPERF
Control variables
Age JPERF
Gender JPERF
Education JPERF
Organisational tenure JPERF
Marital status JPERF
The number of children JPERF
Hotel type JPERF
Hypotheses
ROLEC JPERF
ROLEA JPERF
EEXHAUST JPERF
DEP JPERF
DPA JPERF
R2 = 0.30
Age and education were measured using ve-point scales. Organisational tenure was measured using a six-point scale.
The number of children was measured using a four-point scale. Higher scores indicated older age, more educated, longer
tenure and more children. Gender was coded as a binary variable (0 = male and 1 = female). Marital status was coded as
a binary variable (0 = single or divorced and 1 = married). Hotel type was also coded as a binary variable (0 = chain hotel
and 1 = independently/family-owned and -operated hotel).
ROLEC, role conict; ROLEA, role ambiguity; EEXHAUST, emotional exhaustion; DEP, Depersonalisation; DPA, diminished personal accomplishment; JPERF, job performance.
* The t-values demonstrate a statistically signicant relationship at the 0.05 level or better. The other t-values without any
asterisks are insignicant.
emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation.

The results reported here are consonant with
those of Babakus et al. (1999), Hsieh and Hsieh
(2003) and Lee and Ashforth (1996). The results
indicating that the impact of role conict on
emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation
appeared to be stronger than that of role ambiguity lend credence to previous empirical
studies (Babakus et al., 1999; Hsieh and Hsieh,
2003). Such ndings elucidate that frontline
hotel employees experience emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation because they lose
their valued resources (e.g. time and energy)

by trying to cope with various problems that
emanate from role conict and ambiguity.
The result demonstrating that role ambiguity was signicantly and positively related to
diminished personal accomplishment is consistent with that of Hsieh and Hsieh (2003).
According to this nding, frontline employees
who are devoid of specic information
concerning their job-related duties and
responsibilities display reduced personal
accomplishment. In contrast, the results did
Int. J. Tourism Res. 10, 111126 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
not lend any empirical support to the relationship between role conict and diminished personal accomplishment. As discussed earlier,
role conict is one of the unavoidable aspects
of frontline service jobs. Under these circumstances, frontline employees might not have
had negative self-evaluations when they had
received incompatible demands from multiple
sources such as customers and managers. The
aforementioned result is also congruent with
that of Hsieh and Hsieh (2003).
Consistent with our predictions, it was
found that role conict increased frontline
employees job performance while role ambiguity had a detrimental impact on their performance in the workplace. The ndings
reported here corroborate those of prior empirical studies (Ross and Boles, 1994; Babin and
Boles, 1996). Two conclusions surface from
these ndings. First, because of the nature of
their boundary-spanning roles, frontline
employees are confronted with heightened
role conict. Therefore, they might have learnt
how to overcome difculties arising from role
conict and might have displayed higher job
performance (Ross and Boles, 1994). Second,
frontline employees having inadequate information pertaining to their job-related duties
and responsibilities cannot perform effectively
in the workplace.
In addition, the result demonstrating that
diminished personal accomplishment exerted
a signicant negative effect on job performance
is not concordant with that of Wright and
Bonett (1997). This nding suggests that frontline employees performance in the workplace
starts to erode as a result of resource loss and
reduced personal accomplishment. The results
did not provide any empirical support for the
signicant negative impact of depersonalisation on job performance. The absence of such
a signicant nding is also evident in prior
research (Wright and Bonett, 1997; Wright and
Hobfoll, 2004). Surprisingly, it was found that
emotional exhaustion amplied frontline
employees job performance. This intriguing
nding is consistent with that of Advani et al.
(2005). One tenable explanation for this nding
can be made. The sample of this study consisted of frontline employees such as front
desk agents, concierges and food servers
who were tipped by hotel guests. Therefore,
123
emotional exhaustion might have made them

focus more on their job-related activities such
as serving guests in a courteous manner and
showing empathy and concern, and dealing
with their complaints effectively (cf. Van Dyne
et al., 2002).
Age, gender, education, organisational
tenure, marital status, the number of children
and hotel type were treated as control variables in this study to avoid statistical confounds. The results revealed that none of the
control variables confounded the hypothesised
relationships.
Managerial implications
Several useful implications for hotel managers
emerge from the study ndings. First, Maslach
(2005) states: Burnout is not a problem of
people but of the social environment in which
they work (p. 99). Therefore, it is important to
make specic changes in working conditions
of hotel organisations. In apparent recognition
of this, managers need to employ mentors who
are likely to deal with a number of problems
that stem from role stress and burnout as experienced by frontline employees. Such mentors
may hold meetings with department managers
(perhaps on a monthly basis) to discuss
various problematic cases and come up with
effective solutions from which both the organisation and the employee will benet.
Second, most of the hotel organisations in
Northern Cyprus are devoid of contemporary
human
resource
managerial
practices
(Karatepe and Kilic, 2007). Thus, managers are
supposed to prepare appropriate job descriptions for frontline service positions/revise the
existing ones and clearly communicate their
expectations to their frontline employees
through continuous training programmes.
Such efforts may potentially decrease frontline
employees role stress in the workplace.
Finally, there is evidence that individual
characteristics such as self-efcacy and intrinsic motivation diminish employees burnout
(Low et al., 2001; Perrew et al., 2002). With this
realisation, managers should establish appropriate selection criteria and offer career
opportunities in order to be able to attract
self-efcacious and/or intrinsically motivated employees to their organisations.
Int. J. Tourism Res. 10, 111126 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
124
Consequently, burnout can be reduced once
such individuals are employed in hotel
organisations.
Limitations and directions for
future research
The aforementioned results and their implications should be considered with several limitations. First, the current study used only one
service setting in order to investigate the relationships shown in the research model. Thus,
it would be useful if future studies could investigate hypothesised relationships in various
tourism and hospitality service settings such as
travel agencies and airlines.
Second, all variables were measured using
self-report data. This approach is prone to
common method variance (Doty and Glick,
1998). Future studies should use multiple
sources to avoid such a potential problem. For
example, frontline employees job performance can be measured using their supervisors assessment.
In closing, incorporating emotional dissonance and supervisor support as the predictors
of burnout and job performance into the
research model would shed further light on
our understanding of the previously mentioned relationships.
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH

Int. J. Tourism Res. 10, 111126 (2008)

Role Stress, Burnout and Their Effects

Based on data obtained from frontline hotel

Received 1 May 2006; Revised 20 June 2007; Accepted 17 July

Keywords: role stress; burnout; frontline

*Correspondence to: O. M. Karatepe, School of Tourism

n todays global competitive environment,

O. M. Karatepe and O. Uludag

Figure 1. Research model.

from their customers and co-workers perform

while role conict increases job performance.

O. M. Karatepe and O. Uludag

O. M. Karatepe and O. Uludag

O. M. Karatepe and O. Uludag

Diminished personal accomplishment

Copyright 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Int. J. Tourism Res. 10, 111126 (2008)

Copyright 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

0.248** 0.318** 0.010

Int. J. Tourism Res. 10, 111126 (2008)

O. M. Karatepe and O. Uludag

Table 3. Model test results

Int. J. Tourism Res. 10, 111126 (2008)

O. M. Karatepe and O. Uludag

emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation.

their valued resources (e.g. time and energy)

emotional exhaustion might have made them

O. M. Karatepe and O. Uludag

MacKenzie SB, Podsakoff PM, Ahearne M. 1998.

Copyright 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

O. M. Karatepe and O. Uludag

Int. J. Tourism Res. 10, 111126 (2008)

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0.248 0.318 0.010