COMPLEX CLAUSES AND LINKERS

Complex clauses:
A complex clause gives us extra information about a sentence. It is
introduced by a linking word o phrase. These words and phrases
are also knows as 'linkers'. Complex causes can express a range of
meanings depending on the linker that is used.
Types of complex causes:

Contrast: although, though, despite, in spite, in spite of the

fact, despite the fact that.

Purpose: so(that), in order (not) to, so as (not) to, to , so.

Reason: because, as, since

Result: so...that , such...that

When a complex causes begins a sentence, we use a comma

to separate the two clauses.

Linkers of contrast:
We can use the following linkers to express contrast: although,
though, despite, despite the fact that, in spite of, in spite of the fact
that. We use these linkers in the following ways.

although/ though + clauses: Although and though have a

same meaning, but although is more common in formal English.
Ex. Although he was in a bad mood, he came to the party

despite the fact that/ in spite fact that + clauses.

Ex. Despite he was in a bad mood, he came to the party

despite/ in spite of + noun/ pronoun or gerund.

Ex. Despite being in a bad mood, he came to the party / Despite
his bad mood

Linkers of purpose:
We can use the following linkers to talk about the purpose of an
action: in order(not) to, so as(not) to, so, to. We use the linkers in the
following ways:

to/ in order(not) to/ so as(not) to + infinitive. The all

have the same meaning, but you can't use TO in
negative.

Ex. He came in the room very quietly so as not to/in order not to wake
me up.

so/ so that + clause. These have the same meaning. we

often omit the word THAT in formal or spoken English.
We often use these linkers with can/ cant'/could/ will/
will not/ wouldn't.
Ex. He came in the room very quietly so that he didnt wake me
up.

Linkers of reason:
We can use the following linkers to talk about the reason for action or
event: as, because, because of, since. We use these linkers in the
following ways:

as/because/ since + clause

Ex. We left quickly because/as/since we were in a hurry

because of + noun/ noun phrase.

Ex. We left quickly because of the traffic

Linkers of result:
We can use the following linkers to talk about the result or effect of
something: so...that, such...that. We use these linkers in the following
ways.

so + adverb + that clause.

Ex. It was so cold that we had to leave.

so + adverb + that clause.

Ex. The weather was so bad that we had to leave.

such + adjective +noun + that clause.

Ex. It was such a good book that everybody wanted to read it.

EXERCISES
1. COMBINE EACH OF THE FOLLOWING PAIRS OF SENTENCES
USING TO + INFINITIVE (use so as and in order to
where necessary)
a. I am buying paint. I want to paint my hall door.
b. He tied a knot in his handkerchief. He hoped that this would remind
him to take the train.
c. He left his rifle outside. He didnt want to frighten his wife.
d. They got up very early. They wanted to get to the top of the hill
before sunrise.
e. He rang the bell. He wanted to tell us that dinner was ready.
f. He was playing very softly. He didnt want to disturb anyone.
g. He sent his children to their aunts house. He wanted to have some
peace.
h. He didnt tell her he was going up in the spacecraft. He didnt want
to alarm her.
2. JOIN THE FOLLOWING PAIRS OF SENTENCES USING THE
EXPRESSION OF PURPOSE INDICATED IN BRACKETS.
a. The column was built in 1902. It was meant to commemorate
Boadicea. (to)
b. Modern airplanes are specially designed. They help people to travel
in comfort. (so that)

c. Cromwell founded a modern army. He wanted to defeat the

Royalists.
d. John Evelyn wrote his Diary in 1666. The aim was that future
generations should know about the Great Fire. (so that)
e. Ill open the door. Then you can see whats inside. (for to)
f. The British had a large navy. The purpose was to control their
Empire. (so that)
g. They bought some champagne. They wanted to celebrate the end
of the course. (in order to)
h. He booked a ticket for the performance. He didnt want to stand in
a queue. (so as)
i. He sent them to university. He wanted them to have a good
education. (so that)
j. Ive left her a note. I want her to know where to meet us. (so that)
3. COMPLETE THESE SENTENCES, INDICATING THE FUNCTIONS
OF THE OBJECTS NAMED.
a. He wanted to sell me a special
knife..(cut carpets)
b. I tried to show the little girl that walls are not
.. (draw on)
c. Can I help you? yes, I want one of those things
.. (staple paper).
d. In England houses are ..(live in), but
in Spain theyre sometimes only ..
(eat and sleep)
e. Every office should have a machine
.. (make copies)
4.COMPLETE THE SENTENCES WITH ALTHOUGH OR IN SPITE OF
a. all my careful plans, a lot of things went wrong.
b. I had planned everything carefully, a lot of things
went wrong.
c. I love music I cant play any musical instrument.
d. being very tired, we carried on walking.
e. The heating was full on, this, the house was still
cold.
f. Ken decided to give up his job I advised him not to.
2.REWRITE THESE SENTENCES WITHOUT CHANGING THE
MEANING.
a. Although hes got an English name, he is in fact German (despite).

b. In spite of her injured foot, she managed to get into the village.
(although)
c. I decided to accept the job although, the salary was low (in spite
of).
d. We went to visit her although she was very unpleasant (despite).
e. In spite of not having eaten for 24 hours, we werent hungry (even
though).
5.USE THE WORDS IN BRACKETS TO MAKE A SENTENCE WITH
THOUGH AT THE END.
a. Shes very nice, (dont like / husband). I

b. Its quite war, (a bit windy). It

...
c. We didnt like the food, (ate). We

d. Edna sings very badly, (play / piano / well enough). She

.
6.REWRITE THESE SENTENCES USING THE WORDS GIVEN IN
BRACKETS.
a. It was raining so I didnt water the plants (since)
b. There were no buses, so we had to take a taxi (because)
c. It was getting dark, we decided to stop until the following day
(since)
d. Ill have to buy a map, I dont know the area (as)
e. The manager is out, his assistant signs the letters (since)
f. They gave it to me because it was valueless (because of)
g. She was nicknamed the mermaid because she could swim so
well (because of)
h. The meat was cooked, I took it out of the oven (as)
i. Ive given your old jacket away. It was too tight for you (because)
j. Paris is well known around the world, it is so beautiful (because of)
7.CHOOSE THE CORRECT ANSWERS.
a. As / As a result it was such a beautiful day, we decided to have a
picnic.
b. It was his birthday because / so he decided to buy him a present.

c. As a result / Since all the seats on the train were taken, we had to
stand.
d. The banks were closed and as a result / because we couldnt get
any money.
e. I didnt find the book very interesting and so / as I didnt finish it.
f. We couldnt drive across the bridge as a result / because it was
closed.
g. She had the best qualifications and she as / therefore got the job.
8.INSERT A CORRECT CONNECTOR IN THE BLANK SPACES.
a. . Manchester had not won a match that season,
they were not expected to win the following season either.
b. . we had plenty of time, we didnt do half the
things we had planned to.
c. Im not going to stop work now. Ill keep going . I
finish.
d. Peter is an excellent student, . John seldom
opens a book.
e. . our train was late, we still made it to our
destination on time.
f. . she is much older than I am, she looks younger.
g. . I was walking around the supermarket, I saw a
friend.
h. I was able to walk slowly .the heavy burden.
i. My friend likes the town . I like the country.
j. We drove slowly .the icy roads.
k. Robert had .awful holiday that he wanted to
come home early.
l. We hurried .be late for the appointment.
m. Ill take my credit card with me . I decide to buy
something when Im out.
n. These tests are given in the book .you can check
your progress.

o. We went to a restaurant .celebrate my birthday.

p. .having a well-paid job, she never has any
money.
q. We had a rainy winter, ., the rice harvest was
excellent.
r. Im furious with him .he didnt come to my party.
s. .he asked me, I told him the whole story.
t. .people complained that in the end they took the
program off.
u. There was .dust that we couldnt see what was
happening.
v. .we had no money for a bus, we had to walk
home.
w. They made him redundant.his age.
x. He was tired.he went to bed early.
y. He had changed a lot, . , I didnt recognize him.
9. REWRITE THESE SENTENCES USING THE WORDS GIVEN IN
BRACKETS.
a. Although the rain was falling heavily, they continued with the
football match. (in spite of)
b. Grandma cannot hear what you say because she is very deaf. (so)
c. The girl was so tall that I found it difficult to dance with her. (such)
d. Many rivers have burst their banks because there has been a
heavy rainfall. (because of)

e. The driver instructor took Dan onto the main road: he wanted him
to get experience in high speed driving. (so that)

f. We couldnt go to the concert because the tickets were too

expensive. (since)
g. In spite of the difficulty of the questions, he answered them all.
(although)
h. He forgets to turn on the light every time he leaves. (whenever)
i. Ive told you this story because I dont want you to forget the old
days. (so that)
j. He is a very energetic man. He never looks tired. (such)
k. As there were a lot of people, they had to open all the doors. (so
many)
l. Although we had revised everything a hundred times, everything
went wrong. (despite)

m. He left home early. He was afraid of missing the plane. (so as)
n. Some people enjoy city life. Others prefer the quiet of the country.
(whereas)
o. Everybody stayed near the fire. The day was very cold. (because
of)