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INTRODUCTION
1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1.
may be machined directly in the engine block, or a hard metal (drawn steel) sleeve may
be pressed into the softer metal block. Sleeves may be dry sleeves, which do not contact
the liquid in the water jacket, or wet sleeves, which form part of the water jacket. In a few
engines, the cylinder walls are given a knurled surface to help hold a lubricant film on the
walls. In some very rare cases, the cross section of the cylinder is not round.
(g) Carburetor: Venturi flow device which meters the proper amount of fuel into the air
flow by means of a pressure differential. For many decades it was the basic fuel metering
system on all automobile (and other) engines. It is still used on low-cost small engines
like lawn mowers, but is uncommon on new automobiles.
(h) Fuel injector: A pressurized nozzle that sprays fuel into the incoming air on SI
engines or into the cylinder on CI engines. On SI engines, fuel injectors are located at the
intake valve ports on multipoint port injector systems and upstream at the intake manifold
inlet on throttle body injector systems. In a few SI engines, injectors spray directly into
the combustion chamber.
(i) Exhaust manifold: Piping system which carries exhaust gases away from the engine
cylinders, usually made of cast iron.
(j) Intake manifold: Piping system which delivers incoming air to the cylinders usually
made of cast metal, plastic, or composite material. In most SI engines, fuel is added to the
air in the intake manifold system either by fuel injectors or with a carburetor. Some intake
manifolds are heated to enhance fuel evaporation. The individual pipe to a single cylinder
is called a runner.
(k) Piston: The cylindrical-shaped mass that reciprocates back and forth in the cylinder,
transmitting the pressure forces in the combustion chamber to the rotating crankshaft. The
top of the piston is called the crown and the sides are called the skirt. The face on the
crown makes up one wall of the combustion chamber and may be a flat or highly
contoured surface. Some pistons contain an indented bowl in the crown, which makes up
a large percent of the clearance volume. Pistons are made of cast iron, steel, or aluminum.
Iron and steel pistons can have sharper corners because of their higher strength. They also
have lower thermal expansion, which allows for tighter tolerances and less crevice
volume. Aluminum pistons are lighter and have less mass inertia. Sometimes synthetic or
composite materials are used for the body of the piston, with only the crown made of
metal. Some pistons have a ceramic coating on the face.
(l) Head: The piece which closes the end of the cylinders, usually containing part of the
clearance volume of the combustion chamber. The head is usually cast iron or aluminum,
and bolts to the engine block. In some less common engines, the head is one piece with
the block. The head contains the spark plugs in SI engines and the fuel injectors in CI
engines and some SI engines. Most modern engines have the valves in the head, and
many have the camshaft(s) positioned there also (overhead valves and overhead cam).
(m) Fuel pump: On newer cars the fuel pump is usually installed in the fuel tank. Older
cars have the fuel pump attached to the engine or on the frame rail between the tank and
the engine. If the pump is in the tank or on the frame rail then it is electric and is run by
your cars battery. Fuel pumps mounted to the engine use the motion of the engine to
pump the fuel, most often being driven by the camshaft, but sometimes the crankshaft.
(n) Fuel filter: Clean fuel is critical to engine life and performance. Fuel injectors and
carburetors have tiny openings which clog easily so filtering the fuel is a necessity. Filters
can be before or after the fuel pump, sometimes both. They are most often made from a
paper element, but can be stainless steel or synthetic material and are designed to be
disposable in most cases. Some performance fuel filters will have a washable mesh,
which eliminated the need for replacement.
(o) Fuel injectors: Instead of a carburetor to mix the fuel and air, a computer controls
when the fuel injectors open to let fuel into the engine. This has resulted in lower
emissions and better fuel economy. The fuel injector is basically a tiny electric valve
which opens and closes with an electric signal. By injecting the fuel close to the cylinder
head the fuel stays atomized (in tiny particles) so it will burn better when ignited by the
spark plug. In general, spark ignition engines consists of a spark plug essentially, but a
compression ignition engine do not need a spark plug at all.
(p) Spark plug: A spark plug is a device for delivering electric current from an ignition
system to the combustion chamber of a spark-ignition engine to ignite the compressed
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fuel/air mixture by an electric spark, while containing combustion pressure within the
engine. A spark plug has a metal threaded shell, electrically isolated from a
central electrode by a porcelain insulator. The central electrode, which may contain
a resistor, is connected by a heavily insulated wire to the output terminal of an ignition
coil or magneto. The spark plug's metal shell is screwed into the engine's cylinder
head and thus electrically grounded.
(q) Lubricating system: The lubricating system addresses the need to properly lubricate
an engine when its running. Properly lubricating an engine not only reduces friction
between moving parts but is also the main method by which heat is removed from
pistons, bearings, and shafts. Failing to properly lubricate an engine will result in engine
failure. The lubricating pump forces the motor oil through the passages in the engine to
properly distribute oil to different engine components. In a common oiling system, oil is
drawn out of the oil sump through a wire mesh strainer that removes some of the larger
pieces of debris from the oil. The flow made by the oil pump allows the oil to be
distributed around the engine. In this system, oil flows through an oil filter and
sometimes an oil cooler, before going through the engines oil passages and being
dispersed to lubricate pistons, rings, springs, valve stems, and more.
(r) Cooling system: A typical 4 cylinder vehicle cruising along the highway at around 50
miles per hour, will produce 4000 controlled explosions per minute inside the engine as
the spark plugs ignite the fuel in each cylinder to propel the vehicle down the road.
Obviously, these explosions produce an enormous amount of heat and, if not controlled,
will destroy an engine. Controlling these high temperatures is the job of the cooling
system. There are two types of cooling systems found on motor vehicles: Liquid cooled
and Air cooled systems.
1.2.
Literature Review
Hiwasea et.al [1] studied experimentally Multidimensional Modeling of Direct
Injection Diesel Engine with Spl Multiple Stage Fuel Injections. they found that At
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motored condition, the maximum average cylinder pressure and temperature occur at
360o of crank angle and that corresponds to 57 bar and 1050 K respectively, while in case
of continuous injection it corresponds to 51 bar and 940 K respectively at the end of fuel
injection and the combustion is initiated just 3o ignition delay after fuel injection due to
auto ignition process delay leads to peak values of 135 bar and 2422 K respectively at 5o
ATDC. The pressure and temperature at 700o crank angle are 3.5 bar and 750 K
respectively. In multiple fuel injections, just after first stage of 25% fuel injection the
pressure and temperatures are found out to be 29 bar and 800 K respectively, while after
second stage of 75% fuel injection it corresponds to 51 bar and 940 K respectively and
the combustion is initiated just 3 ignition delay after fuel injection due to auto ignition
process delay leads to peak value of 120 bar and 2276 K respectively at 8 aTDC, which
is slightly lower than that predicted for the continuous injection case. It can be concluded
from study that the combustion with split multiple stage fuel injection exhibits strong
effects on combustion and provides controlled pressure and temperature inside the
combustion chamber. It is also observed that a multiple injections with 25% fuel in the
first pulse and 75% in second pulse can significantly reduce the NOx formation by 45%
compared to the continuous fuel injection combustion. This is because of the fact that in
case of continuous fuel injection the charge is highly inhomogeneous due to insufficient
time for thorough mixing that resulted in higher combustion temperature, while in case of
multiple injection, the charge gets more homogeneous because of early injection in split
form which enhances the mixing intensity till second stage fuel injection and the
combustion temperature reduces drastically, which is the most responsible factor for NOx
formation.
Sarsi Kiran Prabhala1, K. Sunil Ratna Kumar et.al [2] worked on DESIGN
AND WEIGHT s produce power by converting chemical energy of the fuel into heat
energy. This produces the useful mechanical work by converting the heat energy. In the
process of converting this thermal energy into mechanical work, which is performed by
increase in pressure which generates forces to move piston connected to crank shaft by
piton connecting rod. The fuel combustion occurs inside the cylinder so this process is
called internal combustion. The piston engine is known as internal combustion heat
engine. It supplies air fuel mixture in to the cylinder where it gets compressed and later
burnt resulting the power. The internal combustion engine are reciprocating type engines
which are either spark ignition (SI) where the spark ignition engine are called as petrol
engines or compression ignition (CI), where the compression engine are called as diesel
engines. In a conventional SI engine, fuel and air are mixed together in the intake system,
inducted through the intake valve into the cylinder where mixing with residual gas takes
place, and then compressed during the compression stroke. Under normal operating
conditions, combustion is initiated towards the end of compression stroke at the spark
plug by an electric discharge. Following inflammation, a turbulent flame develops,
propagates through the premixed air-fuel mixture (and burned gas mixture from the
previous cycle) until it reaches combustion chamber walls, then it extinguishes.
Combustion event must be properly located relative to the TDC to obtain max power or
torque. Combined duration of the flame development and propagation process is typically
between 30 and 90 CA degrees. If the start of combustion process is progressively
advanced before TDC, compression stroke work transfer (from piston to cylinder gases)
increases. If the end of combustion process is progressively delayed by retarding the
spark timing, peak cylinder pressure occurs later in the expansion stroke and is reduced in
magnitude. These changes reduce the expansion stroke work transfer from cylinder gases
to the piston. The optimum timing which gives maximum brake torque (called maximum
brake torque or MBT timing) occurs when magnitude of these two opposing trends just
offset each other.
S.Sunil Kumar Reddy, Dr. V. Pandurangadu, S.P.Akbar Hussain et.al [3] had
worked on Effect of Turbo charging On Volumetric Efficiency in an Insulated Di Diesel
Engine For Improved Performance. They found that the increase in the intake boost
pressure improves the brake thermal efficiency of the engine. For the compensation of
drop in volumetric efficiency of the insulated engine 4% intake boost pressure is required
for turbocharging. Though the higher temperatures are available in the combustion
chamber due to insulation, the increase in exhaust gas temperature is marginal. This is
attributed to the higher latent heat of vaporization of alcohol. As the alcohol contains
oxygen and more air is available in the turbocharging for combustion, the ignition delay
is reduced. Due to the complete combustion of alcohol at higher temperatures the smoke
emissions are also marginal. The higher temperature in the combustion chamber
decreases the ignition delay and aids combustion but drops the volumetric efficiency. The
degree of degradation of volumetric efficiency depends on the temperatures in the
combustion chamber and it further increases the frictional horsepower due to thinning of
lubricant.
reduce pollution. They work a single cylinder 5HP diesel engine is used to investigate the
performance characteristics. The main objective of this work is to study the effect of the
fuel injection pressure on performance and pollution of the single cylinder diesel engine
at different intake manifold inclinations. They found that in cylinder flow structure is
greatly influenced by the intake manifold inclination. It is found that at 600 intakes
manifold inclination, at 180bar gives the maximum brake thermal efficiency. This work
improves both performance and fuel economy. By varying the manifold inclination we
get better performance than normal one. By increasing fuel injection pressure, pollution
levels reduce due to complete combustion of fuel. They finally got that emissions are
reduced at 200 bar with engine at 600 manifold inclinations at 180 bars has given
efficient performance and less pollution. Different manifold inclinations compared to
other pressures.
Raouf Mobasheri, Zhijun Peng et.al [7] has worked on CFD Investigation of the
Effects of Re-Entrant Combustion Chamber Geometry in a HSDI Diesel Engine. They
had conducted a CFD simulation to analyze the effects of combustion chamber geometry
and pilot injection timing for optimization of engine performance and amount of pollutant
emissions in a high speed direct injection (HSDI) diesel engine. The computed incylinder pressure, soot and NOx were firstly compared with experimental data under
various ITs and good agreement between the predicted and experimental values was
ensured the accuracy of the numerical predictions collected with the present work. To
study the effects of combustion chamber geometry, thirteen different configurations were
selected and analyzed compared to the original piston bowl geometry. The results showed
that for shallower bowls, decreasing the bowl depth shows a higher amount of NOx
emissions and a deep bowl depth combined with a shallow bowl centre depth is
disastrous for fuel economy. It was also found that the narrower width of combustion
chamber has a higher unburned fuel air mixture region, and thus would have higher soot
emissions but with slightly wider combustion chamber the optimum operating point
could be obtained. In addition, a potential has been found to improve the NOx emission
compared to the baseline injection case while the engines specific fuel consumption
emissions remain approximately unchanged and soot formation could be slightly
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few limitations which are there can be a potential heat loss and pressure loss when fluid
flows through large cross- section area of combustion chamber. Sometimes during cold
weather an external device like glow plugs are required for ignition. Maintenance can be
hazardous due to presence of residual fuel or gas during shut down. Sometimes due to
high pressures there can be potential cracks developments in the chamber which can
interrupt the fluid flow thus, can have a significant consequence in the whole process.
CFD flow simulation on pressure as well as surface plot and cut plot animations were
done on can type and jet type combustion chambers. CFD flow simulations can further be
done other parameters like viscosity, force etc. which will be represented in future
research.
Stefan postrzednik, Zbigniew Zmudka et.al [11] had worked on IMPROVING OF IC
ENGINE EFFICIENCY THROUGH DROPPING OF THE CHARGE EXCHANGE
WORK. They found that regular growing of the relative work exchange load on IC
engine causes dropping of the engine efficiency. On the basis of theoretical analysis and
experimental results it has been calculated that the relative charge exchange work can
achieve value up to 40 % at part load of the IC engine. As a consequence of the growing
of the relative load exchange work is the regular and significant drop in the IC engine
efficiency from 55% down to ca. 25%. The main reason of this is the throttling process
occurring in the inlet and outlet channels. It is directly connected with the quantitative
regulation method commonly used IC engines. Here a new concept of theoretical
thermodynamic cycle (also called eco-cycle) of IC engine is presented, in which the
method of diminishing the emission of toxic substances suggests that combustion of lean
air-fuel mixture, multistage fuel injection, recirculation of flue gases, after burning of the
combustible substances, loading of additional water into a cylinder. Using the proposed
solution (eco-cycle) in engines with combustion of lean air-fuel mixture the 3 way
catalyst can be applied. This proposed solution leads to the diminishing of toxic
substance emission and simultaneously to improving the engine efficiency
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(d) F-Head type: This arrangement is a compromise between L-head and I head types.
Combustion chamber in which one valve is in the cylinder head and the other on the
cylinder block are known as F-head combustion chamber.
In diesel engine the combustion chambers are divided based on the injection type used.
There are two types of injection used namely:
(a) Direct injection: Also called as open combustion chamber, in this type of
combustion chamber, the entire volume of the combustion chamber is located at the
main cylinder and the fuel is injected into this volume the main advantage is
minimum heat loss during compression because of lower surface area to volume
ratio and no cold starting problems. The main disadvantage is high fuel injection
pressure and necessity of accurate metering of fuel by the injection system.
(b) Indirect injection: This type of combustion chamber the combustion space is
divided into 2 parts one is the main cylinder and other is the cylinder head. The
main advantage is that the injection pressure required is low. Drawbacks are cold
starting problems because of this we require heater plugs, specific fuel consumption
is high because of loss of pressure.
Different types of Direct Injection combustion chambers are:
Shallow depth chamber: The depth of the cavity in the piston is quite small. This
chamber is adopted for large engines running at low speeds.
Hemispherical chamber: The chamber gives a small squish. The depth to
diameter ratio for this chamber can be varied to given any desired a squish to give
better performance.
Cylinder chamber: It is a form of truncated cone with a base angle of 30 degrees.
The swirl was produced by making the inlet valve for nearly 180 degrees of
circumference .Squish can also be varied by varying the depth.
Toroidal chamber: It has such a shape so as to provide a powerful squish along
with the air movement within the toroidal chamber. Mask needed for inlet valve is
very small so as to provide the powerful squish.
Different types of Indirect Injection combustion chambers are:
Swirl chamber: Chamber in which swirl is generated.
Pre-combustion chamber: Chamber in which combustion swirl is induced.
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region. It means that the exhaust valve should be near the sparkling plug. It would also
avoid surface ignition.
Because of the hot surface it presents, the exhaust valve should be kept small, but to
compensate for this high lift should be employed.
Short combustion time is the prime consideration in all SI combustion chamber designs.
This is achieved by creating the highest flame front velocity through the creation of
correct amount of turbulence. Proper turbulence may be created by suitable positioning
the inlet valve and design of inlet passage and streamlining of combustion chamber.
The other method of producing turbulence is by squish. Turbulence created by squish
is better as it does not adversely affect the volumetric efficiency.
The shape of the chamber should be such that the greatest mass of the charge burns as
soon as possible after the ignition (consistent with a smooth application of force) with
progressive reduction in the mass of charge burnt towards the end of combustion.
To ensure high thermal efficiency and satisfactory initial combustion conditions the
heat flow should be minimum in the zone around the sparkling plug. For minimum heat
flow the surface-volume ratio should be least. A hemispherical shape provides
minimum surface volume ratio. A low surface-volume ratio also gives less air pollution.
In the end gas region surface-volume ratio should be large so that there should be good
cooling in the detonation zone. In other words quench space should be formed in the
end gas region.
In other word to be able to extend the mixture range as far as possible on the weak side
and more especially on reduced load, it is essential that the sparkling plug shall be
positioned that it will be scoured of any residual exhaust products by the incoming
charges.
The exhaust valve head should be well cooled by a high velocity water stream around it
as it is the hottest region of the combustion chamber.
There should be sufficient cooling of the sparkling plug by high velocity water stream
around it to avoid pre-ignition effects at the large throttle openings. A slight pocketing
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detonation but detonation or rough working should not occur under all running
conditions.
CHAPTER 2
IC ENGINE COMBUSTION CHAMBER
ANALYSIS
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also. Such phenomena results in high combustion pressures due to uneven distribution
ignition flames resulting in detonation.
(b) Volumetric efficiency: It is the ratio of the actual volume of the charge drawn in
during the suction stroke to the swept volume of the piston. The amount of air taken
inside the cylinder is dependent on the volumetric efficiency of an engine and hence puts
a limit on the amount of fuel which can be efficiently burned and the power output. The
value of volumetric efficiency of a normal engine lies between 70 to 80 percent, but for
engines with forced induction it may be more than 100 percent. Naturally aspirated
engines can have volumetric efficiencies of more than 100% by using properly designed
induction piping, utilizing resonance in the induction pipe (by selecting the induction
pipe length according to the rotation speed at which maximum VE is desired) as well as
the inertia of the air mass in the induction piping. Using inertia effects requires high air
speeds in the induction system, which is normally accompanied by high flow losses. By
careful design and streamlining of the inlet port and valves, much of the losses can be
reduced to an acceptable level. Resonance and inertia effects are normally only used in
high speed sports engines, for example as found in many modern motorcycles.
(c) Power and mechanical efficiency: The amount of work an engine exerts is measured
in foot * pounds of torque. The amount of power that an engine can do is measured in
horsepower or watts.
1 horsepower = (550 FT * LB) / Sec = 746 Watts = 2,545 BTU / Hour
To convert torque into horsepower: (Torque * RPM) / 5,252
*NOTE* Horsepower will always equal torque at 5,252 rpm, torque will always be
greater than horsepower under 5,252 rpm, and horsepower will always be greater than
torque over 5,252 rpm.
There are many different ways to find the efficiency of an engine, and many different
parts of an engine that you can rate the efficiency.
Thermal efficiency is the percentage of energy taken from the combustion which is
actually converted to mechanical work. In a typical low compression engine, the thermal
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efficiency is only about 26%. In a highly modified engine, such as a race engine, the
thermal efficiency is about 34%.
Mechanical efficiency is the percentage of energy that the engine puts out after
subtracting mechanical losses such as friction, compared to what the engine would put
out with no power loss. Most engines are about 94% mechanically efficient.
This means that for a stock engine, only 20% of the power in fuel combustion is
effective.
(d) Specific fuel consumption: Specific fuel consumption, abbreviated SFC, compares
the ratio of the fuel used by an engine to a certain force such as the amount of power the
engine produces. It allows engines of all different sizes to be compared to see which is
the most fuel efficient. It allows manufacturers to see which engine will use the least fuel
while still producing a high amount of power.
There are different types of SFC: TSFC, thrust specific fuel consumption, and BSFC,
brake specific fuel consumption, are two of the most common. TSFC looks at the fuel
consumption of an engine with respect to the thrust output, or power, of the engine.
Airplane engines, for example, can be compared to see which will produce the most
thrust while using the least amount of fuel.
TSFC is expressed in the amount of fuel needed to provide a certain thrust over a period
of time. This formula is written as pounds of fuel per hour of thrust. There are
disadvantages to this formula, however. The most fuel efficient engine may not always be
the best choice. A more lightweight engine may cut down on the need for more fuel to
power it, and thus be a better choice even if a heavier engine has a lower TSFC.
BSFC is used to calculate and compare how fuel efficient a reciprocating engine is. The
reciprocating engine is a type of engine that uses pistons to create the motion that powers
the engine. The most common type is an internal combustion engine, found in most
vehicles today.
The formula for measuring BSFC is the fuel rate over power. The fuel rate is expressed as
the fuel consumption of the engine in grams per second and power is expressed as the
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amount of power the engine produces written in watts. The final answer for calculating
BSFC is typically expressed in grams per kilowatt-hour.
While specific fuel consumption has its advantages, it has its disadvantages as well.
While it allows engines of all sizes to be compared, resulting in a chart that shows the
most efficient engine, it can also leave out other important factors. The engine design,
what it will be used for, and where it will be used all affect the engine's performance and
specific fuel consumption can only make an educated guess at which engine will perform
the best.
(e) Exhaust and smoke emission: Exhaust gas or flue gas is emitted as a result of the
combustion of fuels such as natural gas, gasoline/petrol, diesel fuel, fuel oil or coal. It is
discharged into the atmosphere through an exhaust pipe, flue gas stack or propelling
nozzle. In spark-ignition engines the gases resulting from combustion of the fuel and air
mixture are called exhaust gases. This exhaust smoke is basically consist of nitrogen
(N2), water vapor (H2O), and carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO) from
incomplete combustion, hydrocarbons (HC), from unburnt fuel, nitrogen oxides (NOx)
from excessive combustion temperatures, ozone (O3), and particulate matter (mostly
soot). They also contain a very infinitesimal amount of Lead (Pb) and Sulphur Dioxide
(SO2) Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) is important to the functioning of the catalytic
converter of an internal combustion engine. It may be measured by an exhaust gas
temperature gauge. EGT is also a measure of engine health. Since, after combustion,
there a is large amount of loss of energy in the form of heat energy going out through the
exhaust gases of the combustion chamber, so in order to reduce this loss the exhaust
gases are recirculate and also turbocharger is used to recover the exhaust losses by
boosting the intake pressure.
(f) Turbulence: If the explosive charge (mixture of air and fuel) is quiescent prior to
ignition, combustion will not be efficient. For the DESIGN of high speed engines, it is
necessary to mix air and fuel thoroughly. Through mixing leads to efficient combustion.
The mixing of fuel with air is known as turbulence which may be caused by the velocity
of the gases through the inlet valve and by the shape of cylinder head.
(g) Scavenging of Engine: Scavenging is the process of pushing exhausted gas-charge
out of the cylinder and drawing in a fresh draught of air or fuel-air mixture for the next
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cycle. This process is essential in having a smooth running internal combustion engine. If
scavenging is incomplete, the following stroke will mix with a mix of exhaust fumes
rather than clean air. This may be inadequate for proper combustion which leads to poor
running condition. Scavenging is equally important for both two-stroke and four-stroke
engine. However, it is more difficult to achieve in two-stroke engines. It is also equally
important for both petrol and diesel engines. To increase the scavenging potential, the
entire path from intake to exhaust to tailpipe must be tuned in sync with each other. This
will ensure that the air flow is never interrupted. The acceleration and deceleration of this
exhaust gas is what will hinder the scavenging potential. For example fast flowing
heads and a tunnel ram intake combined with a poorly planned camshaft and exhaust
system will cause the system to slow down and speed up through its journey, thus
reducing its scavenging potential. So, to increase the scavenging potential the air must
maintain a positive linear acceleration curve.
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generally referred to as after burning, will is a greater or less degree continues throughout
the expansion stroke.
temperature of the compressed mixture also speed up the second phase of combustion
increase in compression ratio increases the chances of engine to detonate.
(c) Intake temperature and pressure-Increase in initial temperature and pressure
increases the flame speed.
(d) Engine load-With increase in engine load, the cycle pressures increases. Hence the
flame speed increases poor combustion at low loads and necessity of the mixture
enrichment are among the main disadvantage of SI engines which causes wastages of fuel
and discharge of large amount of products of incomplete combustion like CO and
poisonous products.
(e) Turbulence-Turbulence accelerates chemical action by intimate mixing of fuel and O 2
.hence turbulence allows the ignition advance to be reduced and therefore weak mixtures
can be burnt. The increase of flame speed due to turbulence reduces the combustion time
and hence minimizes the tendency to detonate. Turbulence increases the heat flow to the
cylinder wall and in the limit excessive turbulence way extinguishes the flame. Excessive
turbulence results in the more rapid pressure rise and the high rate of pressure causes the
iron shaft to spring and rest of the engine vibrate with high periodicity, resulting in rough
and vesting running of engine.
(f) Engine size-The number of crank degrees required for frame travel will be about the
same irrespective of engine size provide the engines are similar.
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The fuel-air charge is meant to be ignited by the spark plug only, and at a precise point in
the piston's stroke. Knock occurs when the peak of the combustion process no longer
occurs at the optimum moment for the four-stroke cycle. The shock wave creates the
characteristic metallic "pinging" sound, and cylinder pressure increases dramatically.
Effects of engine knocking range from inconsequential to completely destructive.
Knocking, in an internal-combustion engine, sharp sounds caused by premature
combustion of part of the compressed air-fuel mixture in the cylinder. In a properly
functioning engine, the charge burns with the flame front progressing smoothly from the
point of ignition across the combustion chamber. However, at high compression ratios,
depending on the composition of the fuel, some of the charge may spontaneously ignite
ahead of the flame front and burn in an uncontrolled manner, producing intense highfrequency pressure waves. These pressure waves force parts of the engine to vibrate,
which produces an audible knock. Knocking can cause overheating of the spark-plug
points, erosion of the combustion chamber surface, and rough, inefficient operation. It
can be avoided by adjusting certain variables of engine design and operation, such
as compression ratio and burning time; but the most common method is to burn gasoline
of higher octane number.
2.3.1. Various effect of engine variables on knock or detonations are as follow(a) A low temperature
(b) A low density
(c) A long ignition delay
(d) A non-reactive composition
Thus the various engine variables affecting detonation can be classified under four
factors, namely, the temperature factors, density factors, time factors and composition
factors:
(a) Temperature factors- increasing the temperature of the unburned mixture by a factor
in design or operation will increase the possibility of knock in the SI engine because all
combustion reaction leading to lower delay periods and grater formation of chemical
species are accelerated by an increase in temperature loss. the temperature of the
unburned mixture is increased by all the following factors:
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i) Raising the compression ratio- Increasing the compression ratio increases both the
temperature and pressure (density of the unburned mixture).Increase in temperature
reduces the delay period of the end gas. Increases in temperature as well as increase in
pressure both lead to greater collisions of molecules resulting in greater formation of
chemical species responsible for knocking. Hence in tendency to knock increases. For a
given engine setting and fuel there will be a critical compression ratio above which knock
occurs. This compression ratio is called the highest useful compression ratio. Materials
with high heat conductivity coefficients such as aluminum alloys are desirable for high
compression cylinder heads since a cool combustion chamber wall is essential for high
compression without knock. However hot spot may develop because of poor circulation
of the coolant or improper distribution of the metal.
ii) Supercharging-It also increases both temperature and density.
iii) Raising the inlet temperature-Delay period decreases, velocity of flame travel
increases.
iv) Raising the coolant temperature-delay period decreases.
v) Increasing the load (opening the throttle)-An increase in the load increases the
temperature of the cylinder and combustion chamber walls thereby raising mixture and
end gas temperatures. Also the pressure of the charge is increased. Hence, the tendency to
knock increases.
vi) Raising the temperature of the cylinder and combustion chamber walls- The
temperature o the end gas depends on the design of combustion chamber. Sparking plug
and exhaust valve are two hottest parts in the combustion chamber and hence end gas
should not be compressed against these.
vii) Advancing the spark timing-When the spark is advanced, burning gas is
compressed by the rising piston and therefore both temperatures and pressure (density)
are increased. Thus tendency to knock increases with advanced spark timing and
decreases with retarded spark timings, By retarding the spark timings the peak pressures
are reached farther down on the power stroke and are thus of lower magnitude. If in a
given engine the fuel quality is changed and knock takes place, retarding the ignition may
eliminate the knock, but it will also reduce the engine power.
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(b) Density factors-Increase the density of the unburned mixture by any of the following
methods will increase the possibility of knock in the engine.
i) Increase the compression ratio.
ii) Opening the throttle (increase the load)
iii) Supercharging the engine
iv) An increase in the inlet pressure increases the overall pressure during cycle. The high
pressure in the end gas decreases the delay period which increases the tendency of the
charge detonate. However n increase in the inlet pressure increases the flame velocity,
which would reduce the tendency to detonate, but the first effect always predominates.
Therefore, with increased pressure tendency to detonate always increases.
v) Advancing the spark timings.
(c) Time factors-Increasing the time of exposure of the unburned mixture to autoignition conditions by any of the following factors will increase the possibility of knock
in SI engines.
i) Increasing frame travel distance- (combustion chamber design, spark plug position,
engine size).the possibility of knock is increased by increasing the distance the flame has
to travel in order to traverse the combustion chamber.
Combustion chamber shape- In general, the more compact the combustion chamber,
the better will be its anti-knock characteristics, since the flame travel and combustion
time will be shorter. Further if the combustion chamber is highly turbulent, the
combustion rate is high and consequently combustion time is reduced; this further
reduces the tendency to knock.
Location of spark plug A plug which is centrally located in the combustion
chamber has minimum tendency to knock as the flame travel is minimum. The flame
travel can be reduced by using two or more spark plugs.
Location of exhaust valve-The exhaust valve should be located close to the spark
plug so that it is not in the end gas region; otherwise there will be a tendency to knock.
Engine size-The delay period is not very much affected by the size of the cylinder.
However flame requires a longer time to travel across the combustion chamber of the
large engine. The large engines therefore have a greater knocking tendency than
smaller engines. The SI engine is therefore; generally limited to 100 mm bore.
ii) Decreasing the turbulence of mixture- decreasing the turbulence of the mixture
decreases the flame speed and hence increases the tendency to knock. Turbulence
depends on the design of combustion chamber and one engine speed.
29
iii) Decreasing the speed of the engine-A decrease in the engine speed decreases the
turbulence of the mixture resulting in reduced flame speed. Also lower the engine speed,
longer is the absolute time for the flame to traverse the cylinder which increases the time
available for per flame reaction. Hence the tendency to knock is increased at lower
speeds.
(d) Composition The properties of the fuel and the fuel air ratio are the primary means
for controlling knock, once the compression ratio and the engine dimensions are selected.
i) Octane rating of the fuel- The tendency of an engine to knock is very much affected
by the properties of the fuel used. In general, lower the self-ignition temperature of the
fuel or greater its pre-flame reactivity, the greater the tendency to knock. Octane number
is the measure of resistance to knock. Paraffin series have the maximum and aromatic
series the minimum tendency to knock. The naphthene series comes in between the two.
The following is the general relationship between molecular structure of the puffins and
knocking tendency.
Increasing the length of the carbon chain increases the knocking tendency.
Centralizing the carbon atoms decreasing the knocking tendency.
Adding methyl group (CH3) to the side of the carbon chain in the centre or position to
decreasing the knocking tendency.
In aliphatic hydrocarbon, unsaturated compounds show lower lesser knocking tendency
that the saturated hydrocarbons, with the exceptions of the ethylene, acetylene and
propylene, thus acetylene (CC) knocks much more rapidly than ethane (C-C).
Napthenes and aromatic show the following general relationship between molecular
structure and knocking tendency.
Napthenes have grater knocking tendency than the corresponding aromatics.
With increasing double bond the knocking tendency reduces.
Lengthening of side chains increases the knocking tendency whereas branching of
side chains decreases the knocking tendency.
In general, for most hydrocarbons a more compact molecular structure
is associated
stoichiometric (fuel-air ratio=0.08) ignition lag of the end gas is minimum and the
velocity of flame propagation is maximum. The former effect, however, very much
predominates and the knocking tendency is found to be maximum. (At this point the
power is maximum).By making the mixture leaner or richer (than F/A~0.08)the tendency
to knock is decreased. A too rich mixture is especially effective in decreasing or
eliminating the knock due to longer delay and lower temperature of compression.
iii) Humidity of air-increasing atmospheric humidity decreases the tendency to knock by
decreasing the reaction time. The trends of the most of the above factors upon the
knocking tendency of an engine gives the summary of variables affecting detonation is
the SI engine and shows whether the various factors can be controlled by the operator.
iv) Effect of deposits incomplete combustion of fuel lead to deposit of ash on the walls
of the combustion chamber, which re later on augmented by dirt in air, and by
unscavenged additive products. The proportion of combustion heat which normally flows
through the chamber walls may be largely absorbed by these deposits, and transferred
back to the fresh charge. Also by reducing the clearance volume to deposits increases the
compression ratio. With a given fuel, the tendency to knock will increase withy the time as
the deposits build up and become increasingly effective. In other words the octane
requirement of the engine rises.
Combustion chamber with highly polished surfaces have a greater knocking tendency than
those coated with light carbon deposits which increases the heat absorption characteristics,
but appreciable carbon deposits increase knocking tendency as explained above.
2.3.2
Effects of Detonation
i) Noise and Roughness- Mild noise is seldom audible and is not harmful. When the
intensity of the knock increases a loud pulsating noise is produced due to the development
of a pressure wave which vibrates back and forth across the cylinder. The presence of
vibratory motion causes crankshaft vibrations and the cylinder runs rough.
ii) Mechanical Damage In most cases of knocking a local and a very rapid pressure rise is observed with
subsequent waves of large amplitude. This gives rise to increased rate of wear.
31
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32
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33
) (
low loads and speeds, the injection is advanced allowing same mean effective
pressure to be maintained. This not only increases the efficiency of the engine as
the scavenge pressure is maintained, it also allows for lower quality fuel to be
burnt.
34
Variable valve timing: In this method the exhaust and inlet valves opening and
closing time can be varied, affecting the efficiency of the engine. This method can
increase the efficiency by 4 to 5%.
Cutting off cylinders: In large engines in cruising or going downhill, half of the
cylinders can be cut off thus reducing fuel demand. It cannot be done on small
engines as the engine would become rough.
Turbochargers: A turbocharger is an exhaust gas recovery device that increases
boost air pressure thereby optimizing combustion. It increases efficiency by 7 to
8%.
Direct Fuel Injection: In previous engines, the fuel was mixed with air and
injected, but nowadays fuel is directly injected into the combustion chamber and
mixing takes place according to the profile of the combustion chamber. It increases
efficiency by 11 to 13%.
Twin spark plugs and multiple injectors: As the flame front starts from the spark
plug and proceeds outward, some fuel remains unburnt as ejected before the flame
front can reach it. In a twin spark plug cylinder two flame fronts are created,
causing better combustion.
Using the correct viscosity of lubricating oil, as viscous oil can result in losses due
to friction.
Integrated starter and generator systems: In this system the engine is immediately
stopped when idling and started when the accelerator is pressed.
(d) For Emissions: To Increase engine efficiency some after treatment technologies are
used to control advanced combustion engine exhaust emissions. All engines that enter
the vehicle market must comply with the Environmental Protection Agency's emissions
regulations. Harmful pollutants in these emissions include:
Carbon monoxide
Nitrogen oxides
Unburned hydrocarbons
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
Particulate matter
35
cannot create a share between the Model cells of two established systems. We can
generate a second system that is linked at the Model cell of the first system, but we
cannot add a share after the second system has been created. Likewise, we cannot delete a
link between the Model cells of two systems. The Mesh cell in Fluid Flow analysis
systems or the Mesh component system is used to create a mesh using the Meshing
application. It can also be used to import an existing mesh file.
(c) Setup: The Setup cell is used to launch the appropriate application for that system.
We can define the loads, boundary conditions, and otherwise can configure our analysis
in the application. The data from the application will then be incorporated in the project
in ANSYS Workbench, including connections between systems.
(d) Solution: From the Solution cell, we can access the Solution branch of our
application, and we can share solution data with other downstream systems (for instance,
we can specify the solution from one analysis as input conditions to another analysis). If
we have an analysis running as a remote process, we will see the Solution cell in a
pending state until the remote process completes.
(e) Result: The Results cell indicates the availability and status of the analysis results
(commonly referred to as post-processing). From the Results cell, we cannot share data
with any other system.
37
CHAPTER 3
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
38
3.1. Geometry:
We used geometry decomposition process in our work. Before understanding
how the geometry is decomposed into different sub volumes, we have to understand the
process of decomposition in Design Modeler. The various engine parameters can only be
assigned after installing ICE. Since we do not have access to ICE in ANSYS, so we opted
for installing IC tutorial II.msh.gz. Details of various geometry input parameters are
Different engine parameters are given table 1.In our studies we used IC engines having
parameters like connecting rod of length 200mm, crank radius 20mm, engine speed of
39
1800 rpm , minimum lift of 0.2 mm . By using geometry decomposition we have created
a geometry having 5 faces namely 1 inlet face, 1 outlet face, 4 cylinder faces ,we have
used 2 types of valves namely InValve and ExValve . We have also used symmetry face
option with 3 faces. Figure 7 shows the final geometry of the combustion chamber.
3.2. Meshing:
The approaches for meshing the chamber region are given below.
i) Chamber Meshing: The chamber head-upper faces are selected as the input. Element
type is set to Element Size. Element Size is equal to Reference Size, which is set in the IC
Mesh Parameters dialog box. Behavior for this body part it is set to hard.
ii) Valve meshing: Body Sizing of valve is done under Mesh. Geometry shows the
number of bodies selected (ch-upper, ch-lower, ch-invalve1body, ch-exvalve1body).
Type is set to Element Size. Element Size is equal to Reference Size, which is set in the
IC Mesh Parameters dialog box. Behavior for this body part it is set to soft.
iii) Interface Between Piston And Chamber meshing: Face Sizing is the sizing method
used for this part. When we click on Face Sizing under Mesh in the Outline, we can see
the details. Geometry of the upper face of piston body is selected as the input. Type is set
to Element Size. Element Size is equal to Reference Size, which is set in the IC Mesh
Parameters dialog box. Behavior for this body part it is set to hard.
ii) Inlet boundary conditions: In the inlet boundary condition, we put turbulent intensity
5% and hydraulic diameter 0.03 m. total temperature of the system is maintained at
300K.
iii) Outlet boundary conditions: In the outlet boundary condition, we put turbulent
intensity 8% and hydraulic diameter 0.03 m. total temperature of the system is
maintained at 300K.
3.4Result Discussion
i) Actual Valve timing: The actual valve timing diagram is shown in the figure At 0
crank angle (CA) the piston is at top dead center (TDC) after compression. So, at 0 CA
both intake and exhaust valves are closed as shown in Figure.In x-axis we plot crank
angle in degrees and in y-axis we plot valve lift in mm.. Here the green coloured curve
represents inlet valve lift and the black coloured curve represents exhaust valve lift. From
the graph we see that the exhaust valve remains closed up to around 140 degree of crank
angle rotation, then it starts lifting up and reaches its peak round 250 degrees of crank
angle rotation and after that it starts declining and closes at around 350 degrees. Similarly
for the inlet valve it remains closed up to around 350 degrees of crank angle rotation and
then starts lifting up and reaches the peak position at around 450 degrees of crank angle
rotation, then it closes at around 575 degrees of crank angle rotation.
ii) Variation of velocity with different crank angle: We study the velocity variation of
the air fuel mixture inside the combustion chamber of a four stroke engine with respect to
crank angle rotation; and hereby we concentrate on the variations that occur in the first
two strokes i.e. suction and compression. The air and fuel mixture enters the combustion
chamber via the inlet manifold through the inlet valve. This is called the suction stroke.
During this stroke the piston moves from TDC to BDC and the exhaust valve remains
closed in ideal engine cycles during this time. But in actual engines due to valve
41
overlapping both the valves remain open together for better performance of the engine.
But increase in this valve overlap period causes the disadvantage that a small amount of
fresh charge directly exits through the exhaust valve thus reducing the volumetric
efficiency and increasing the unburnt hydrocarbon emissions. The crank angle rotation
occurs from 0 to 180 during the suction stroke. After the maximum intake of air fuel
mixture into the combustion chamber, the inlet valve is closed and this air fuel mixture is
compressed by the piston moving from BDC to TDC, thereby increasing the pressure and
temperature of the combustible mixture to a maximum value sufficient for combustion to
occur. In this stroke the crank angle moves through 180 to 360, completing one rotation
of the crankshaft.
42