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Punctuation
Full stop
The punctuation mark full stop (.) is used to close sentences. A new sentence that follows a full stop has
a capital letter.
Honesty is the best policy.
Sweet are the uses of adversity.
A friend in need is a friend indeed.
Full stops are also used in writing abbreviations. This is becoming less common in British English.
Examples are: oz. for ounce (s), Prof. for professor, i.e. for in other words and e.g. for for example.
Question marks
Question marks (?) are used to close direct questions. A new sentence that follows a question mark has a
capital letter.
What are you doing?
Did you get my letter?
Why do we try to reach the stars?
Note that we do not use question marks after indirect questions.
He asked me if I had received his letter.
I asked her what time it was.
Exclamation marks
The exclamation mark (!) is placed at the end of an utterance which is an exclamation or which merely
expresses strong emotion.
What a lovely painting it is! (exclamation)
How beautifully she sings! (exclamation)
You must leave at once! (strong emotion)
I cant believe this! (strong emotion)
Comma
Commas reflect pauses in speech.
A listing comma is used to separate items in a series or list. In British English, the last two items in a list
are not usually separated by a comma unless these are long.
The Three Musketeers were Athos, Porthos and Aramis.
I went to China, Japan, Malaysia and Singapore.
A joining comma is used to join two complete sentences into a single sentence. It is usually followed by
a connecting word like and, or, but, while or yet.
We can go swimming, or we could stay here.
I decided to come home earlier than I had planned, and the others spent the evening at the local
disco.
A gapping comma is used to show that certain words have been omitted instead of repeated.
Jane decided to order the home-made steak pie and Alice, the duck special. (The omitted words
are decided to order.)
When subordinate clauses begin sentences, they are often separated by commas.
After I left school, I went to London.
If words or expressions interrupt the normal progression of a sentence, we usually separate them off by
commas.
John, however, did not turn up.
We were, believe it or not, in love with each other.
We use commas to mark off a noun or phrase in apposition.
Milton, the great English poet, was blind.
Paul, the apostle, was beheaded during the reign of Nero.
Commas are used to mark off a participial phrase from the rest of the sentence.
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Driven by rain, we took shelter under a tree.

Caesar, having conquered his enemies, returned to Rome.
A non-defining relative clause is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
Sailors, who are generally superstitious, say it is unlucky to embark on a Friday.
Colon
The punctuation mark colon (:) is almost always used after a complete sentence. Its function is to
indicate that what follows is an explanation or elaboration of what precedes.
We decided not to go on holiday: we had too little money.
Mother may have to go into hospital: she has got kidney trouble.
I decided to buy some clothes: I had nothing to wear.
She decided to stay at home: it was raining.
A colon is used when famous sayings are quoted.
In the words of Murphy's Law: 'Anything that can go wrong will go wrong.'
Solomon says: 'Of the making of books there is no end.'
A colon can introduce a list.
We need three kinds of support: economic, moral and political.
These are the things we have to take with us: a flask of tea, some biscuits, sandwiches and fruit.
The poets I like best are: Milton, Wordsworth, Shelly and Keats.
A colon is never preceded by a white space, and it is never followed by a dash or a hyphen.
In British English, it is unusual for a capital letter to follow a colon (except at the beginning of a
quotation). However, this can happen if a colon is followed by several complete sentences.
In American English, colons are more often followed by capital letters.
Semicolon
Semicolons (;) are sometimes used instead of full stops, in cases where sentences are grammatically
independent but the meaning is closely connected.
Some people work best in the mornings; others do better in the evenings.
Womens conversation is cooperative; mens is competitive.
The Hobbit was published in 1937; the first volume of The Lord of the Rings followed in 1954.
Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; writing an exact man.
Some are born great; some achieve greatness; some have greatness thrust upon them.
Commas are not usually possible in cases like these.
Hyphen
Hyphens (-) are the short lines that we put between words.
ex-husband
blue-green
Uses
1. Two-word compound adjectives are hyphenated when the second word ends in -ed or -ing.
green-hued
blue-eyed
broken-hearted
Other two-word adjectives which contain the sense of 'between' are also often hyphenated.
Indo-Pak relations
Anglo-French connections
blue-green (between blue and green)
The New York-Paris flight.
Longer phrases used as adjectives before nouns are also often hyphenated.
an out-of-work singer
2. Two-word compound nouns are hyphenated when the first word is stressed.

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running-shoes
bus-driver
paper-shop
3. The prefixes co-, non- and ex- are sometimes separated from what follows by hyphens.
co-operation
non-alignment
ex-husband
Notes
Nowadays there is a growing tendency to avoid hyphens. Most common short compounds are now
written as single words with no separation between them.
weekend
takeover
Less common or larger compounds are written as completely separate words.
living room
Dash
Dashes () are common in informal writing. They can be used in the same way as colons, semi-colons
or brackets.
There are three things I can never remember names, faces and I have forgotten the other.
A pair of dashes is used to separate a strong interruption to the sentence.
My mother who rarely gets angry really lost her temper.
Apostrophes
We use apostrophes () for three main reasons.
Missing letters
It is used in writing a contraction to show the place of the omitted letters.
cant (= cannot)
its (= it is)
Id (= I would/had)
whos (= who is/has)
Possessives
We use apostrophes in writing most possessives.
the girls father
three miles walk
two weeks work
my parents wedding
Possessive determiners and pronouns do not have apostrophes.
This is yours. (NOT yours.)
Whose is that coat? (NOT Whos )
Special plurals
Apostrophes are used in the plurals of letters, and often of numbers and abbreviations.
Mind your ps and qs.
It was in the early 1960s.
Quotation marks
Quotation marks ( ) are also called inverted commas in British English.
Quotation marks are chiefly used to set off direct speech.
Can I help you? she asked.
Pope says, The proper study of mankind is man.
We often use quotation marks round words when we give them special meanings.
A textbook can be a wall between teacher and class.
People disagree about how to use the word disinterested.
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American and British English

Differences in grammar
These two varieties of English are very similar that most American and British speakers can understand
each other without great difficulty. There are, however, a few differences of grammar, vocabulary and
spelling. The following guide is meant to point out the principal differences between American English
(AE) and British English (BE).
Differences in Grammar

Use of the Present Perfect

The British use the present perfect to talk about a past action which has an effect on the present
moment. In American English both simple past and present perfect are possible in such situations.
I have lost my pen. Can you borrow me yours? (BE)
I lost my pen. OR I have lost my pen. (AE)
He has gone home. (BE)
He went home. OR He has gone home. (AE)
Other differences include the use of already, just and yet. The British use the present perfect with these
adverbs of indefinite time. In American English simple past and present perfect are both possible.
He has just gone home. (BE)
He just went home. OR He has just gone home. (AE)
I have already seen this movie. (BE)
I have already seen this movie. OR I already saw this movie. (AE)
She hasn't come yet. (BE)
She hasn't come yet. OR She didn't come yet. (AE)

Possession
The British normally use have got to show possession. In American English have (in the structure do
you have) and have got are both possible.
Have you got a car? (BE)
Do you have a car? OR Have you got a car? (AE)

Use of the verb Get

In British English the past participle of get is got. In American English the past participle of get is
gotten, except when have got means have.
He has got a prize. (BE)
He has gotten a prize. (AE)
I have got two sisters. (BE)
I have got two sisters. (=I have two sisters.)(AE)

Will/Shall
In British English it is fairly common to use shall with the first person to talk about the future.
Americans rarely use shall.
I shall/will never forget this favour. (BE)
I will never forget this favour. (AE)
In offers the British use shall. Americans use should.
Shall I help you with the homework? (BE)
Should I help you with the homework? (AE)

Need
In British English needn't and don't need to are both possible. Americans normally use don't need to.
You needn't reserve seats. OR You don't need to reserve seats. (BE)
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You don't need to reserve seats. (AE)

Differences in grammar - II
Use of the Subjunctive
In American English it is particularly common to use subjunctive after words like essential, vital,
important, suggest, insist, demand, recommend, ask, advice etc. (Subjunctive is a special kind of present
tense which has no -s in the third person singular. It is commonly used in that clauses after words which
express the idea that something is important or desirable.) In British English the subjunctive is formal
and unusual. British people normally use should + Infinitive or ordinary present and past tenses.
It is essential that every child get an opportunity to learn. (AE)
It is essential that every child gets an opportunity to learn. (BE)
It is important that he be told. (AE)
It is important that he should be told. (BE)
She suggested that I see a doctor. (AE)
She suggested that I should see a doctor. (BE)
She insisted that I go with her. (AE)
She insisted that I should go with her. (BE)

Collective Nouns
Collective nouns like jury, team, family, government etc., can take both singular and plural verbs in
British English. In American English they normally take a singular verb.
The committee meets/meet tomorrow. (BE)
The committee meets tomorrow. (AE)
The team is/are going to lose. (BE)
The team is going to lose. (AE)

Auxiliary verb + do
In British English it is common to use do as a substitute verb after an auxiliary verb. Americans do not
normally use do after an auxiliary verb.
May I have a look at your papers? You may (do) (BE)
You may. (AE)
You were supposed to have finished your homework before you went to bed.
I have (done). (BE)
I have. (AE)

As if/ like
In American English it is common to use like instead of as if/ as though. This is not correct in British
English.
He talks as if he knew everything. (BE)
He talks like/as if he knew everything. (AE)
In American English it is also common to use were instead of was in unreal comparisons.
He talks as if he was rich. (BE)
He talks as if he were rich. (AE)

The indefinite pronoun One

Americans normally use he/she, him/her, his/her to refer back to one. In British English one is used
throughout the sentence.
One must love one's country. (BE)
One must love his/her country. (AE)

Mid position adverbs

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Airplane
Apartment
English Writing
Area code
Attorney, lawyer
Busy
Cab/taxi
Can
Candy
Check/bill
Cookie, cracker
Corn
Crib
Crazy
Diaper
Dumb, stupid
Elevator
Eraser
Fall, autumn
Faucet, tap
First floor, second floor
Flashlight
French fries
Garbage, trash
Garbage can, trashcan
Gas, gasoline
Highway, freeway
Hood
Intersection
Mad
Mail
Mean
Movie, film
Pants, trousers
Pavement
Pitcher
Potato chips
Purse
Raise
Railroad
Rest room
Schedule, timetable
Sneakers
Stand in line
Stingy
Store, shop
Subway
Truck
Trunk
Stand in line
Two weeks

British English
Aeroplane
Flat/ apartment
Dialling code
Barrister, solicitor
Engaged (phone)
Taxi
Tin
Sweets
Bill
Biscuit
Maize
Cot
Mad
Nappy
Stupid
Lift
Rubber, eraser
Autumn
Tap
Ground floor, first floor
Torch
Chips
Rubbish
Dustbin, rubbish bin
Petrol
Main road, motorway
Bonnet
Crossroads
Angry
Post
Nasty
Film
Trousers
Road surface
Jug
Crisps
Handbag
Rise (salary)
Railway
Public toilet
Timetable
Trainers (sports shoes)
Queue
Mean
Shop
Underground
Van, lorry
Boot (of a car)
Queue
Fortnight, two weeks

Hasham Raza

In American English mid position

adverbs are placed before auxiliary
verbs and other verbs. In British
English they are placed after auxiliary
verbs and before other verbs.
He has probably arrived now.
(BE)
He probably
has arrived now. (AE)
I am seldom late for work.
(BE)
I seldom am
late for work. (AE)

Differences in
vocabulary
When it comes to vocabulary,
American English differ significantly
from British English. Sometimes the
same word has different meaning.
There are also different words with the
same meaning. A few examples are
given below.

Differences in
vocabulary - II
Real
In informal American English, real is
often used instead of really before
adjectives and adverbs.
That was real nice.
She sings real well.
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Sure
Sure is often used to mean certainly in an informal style. This is common in American English.
Can I borrow your bicycle? Sure.
Slow
Slow is used as an adverb in road signs, and informally after go and some other verbs especially in
American English.
Examples are: go slow, drive slow.
Any more
In British English, any more is usually written as two separate words. In American English, it is often
written as one word anymore when it refers to time (= any longer). It usually comes in end position.
She doesnt work in New York anymore.
Around and about
In British English, around and about are both used to refer to movements or positions that are not very
clear or definite: here and there, in lots of places, in different parts of, somewhere in and similar
ideas.
The children were running around/about everywhere. (GB)
Where is John? He must be somewhere around/about. (GB)
In American English, about is not used with this meaning. Americans normally use around.
The children were running around everywhere. (US)
Where is John? He must be somewhere around. (US)
Note that in American English, about is mostly used to mean approximately.
There were about fifty people there.

Differences in vocabulary - III

Illnesses
The names of illnesses are usually uncountable in standard British English. The can be used informally
before the names of some common illnesses such as the measles, the flu; others have no article.
The words for some minor ailments are countable: e.g. a cold, a sore throat, a headache. However,
toothache, earache, stomach-ache and backache are more often uncountable in British English. In
American English, these words are generally countable.
Love isnt as bad as toothache. (GB)
Love isnt as bad as a toothache. (US)
I have got backache. (GB)
I have got a backache. (US)
Place names
In British English, the is unusual in the titles of the principal public buildings and organisations of a
town.
Oxford University (NOT the Oxford University)
Hull Station (NOT the Hull Station)
Salisbury Cathedral
Birmingham Airport
Bristol Zoo
Manchester City Council
In American English, the is more often used in such cases.
The San Diego Zoo
The Detroit City Council
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Holiday and holidays

In British English, the plural holidays is often used for the big holiday of the year. In other cases,
British people normally use the singular holiday.
Where are you going for your summer holidays?
Next Monday is a public holiday.
Americans normally use the word vacation. In British English, vacation is mainly used for the periods
when universities are not teaching. Holiday is used in American English for a day of publicly observed
celebration whether or not people work on it.
Ill and sick
Ill is often used to mean unwell in British English. In American English, ill is unusual except in a
formal style. Ill is most common in predicative position.
Peter didnt come because he was ill.
In attributive position many British people prefer to use sick. Sick is also the normal informal American
word for unwell.
He spent years looking after his sick father.
He is sick.

Differences in vocabulary - IV
Drown
In British English, both active and passive forms of drown can be used to talk about accidental
drowning.
He (was) drowned while trying to swim across a river.
In American English, only active forms are used to talk about accidental drowning.
He drowned while trying to swim across a river.
Awake and awaken
The verbs awake and awaken are irregular in British English, but can be regular in American English.
Awake awoke awoken (GB/US)
Awake awaked awaked (US)
Awaken is regular in both British and American English.
Awaken awakened awakened (GB/US)
Bath and bathe
In British English, the verb bath is used to mean wash oneself in a bath tub.
Children have to be made to bath regularly.
The verb bath is not normally used in American English. In an informal style, we usually say have a
bath (GB) or take a bath (British and American).
I am feeling hot; I think I should take a bath. (US/GB)
I think I should have a bath. (GB)
Bathe
In British English, bathe can mean swim for pleasure. In American English, bathe is commonly used
to mean take a bath.
It is your turn to bath the baby. (GB)
It is your turn to bathe the baby. (US)
I always bathe before I go to bed. (US)

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Differences in usage
Abbreviations
We usually write abbreviations without full stops in modern British English. Full stops (US periods)
are normal in American English.
Mr (US Mr.) = Mister
Dr (US Dr.) = Doctor
Ltd (US Ltd.) = Limited (company)
Kg (US kg.) = kilogram
All and all of
Before a noun with a determiner (e.g. the, this, my), all and all of are both possible in British English.
American English usually has all of.
She has eaten all (of) the cake. (GB)
She has eaten all of the cake. (US)
All (of) my friends like riding. (GB)
All of my friends like riding. (US)
Expressions with prepositions and particles
Different from/than (US)
Different from/to (GB)
Check something (out) (US)
Check something (GB)
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Do something over/again (US)

Do something again (GB)
Live on X street (US)
Live in X street (GB)
On a team (US)
In a team (GB)
Monday through/to Friday (US)
Monday to Friday (GB)
Informal use of like
In an informal style, like is often used instead of as if/though, especially in American English. This is
not considered correct in a formal style.
It seems like it is going to rain.
He sat there smiling like it was his birthday.
On
In American English, it is common to leave out on before the days of the week.
I am seeing her Sunday morning. (US)
British people say at the weekend; Americans say on the weekend.
What did you do at the weekend? (GB)
What did you do on the weekend? (US)
In and for
In American English, in can be used, like for, to talk about periods up to the present. (British English
only for).
I havent seen her in years. (US)

Differences in usage
Both and both of
Before a noun with a determiner (e.g. the, this, my), both and both of are both possible in British
English. In American English, both of is usual.
Both (of) my parents like riding. (GB)
Both of my parents like riding. (US)
In after negatives and superlatives
After negatives and superlatives, in can be used to talk about duration. This is especially common in
American English.
I havent seen him for/in months.
It was the worst storm for/in ten years.
In British English, in is not normally used with this meaning.
I havent seen him for months. (GB)
Shant
In British English, I shant is sometimes used in refusals. This is very unusual in American English.
I dont care what you say, I wont/ shant do it. (GB)
I dont care what you say, I wont do it. (US)
Shall
Questions with shall I/we are used (especially in British English) to ask for instructions or decisions, to
offer services and to make suggestions. This is not common in American English.
Shall I open the window?
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Shall we go out for a meal?

Will
We often use will in threats and promises. Shall is also possible in British English, especially after I and
we. In American English, shall is not used in threats and promises.
I will/shall give you a teddy bear for your birthday. (GB)
I will give you a teddy bear for your birthday. (US)
Have (got) + infinitive
Have (got) + infinitive can be used, like must, to express certainty. This is mainly an American English
structure, but it is now becoming more common in British English.
I dont believe you. You have (got) to be joking. (= You must be joking.)
Would and should
After I and we, should can be used in British English with the same meaning as would.
If we had a map we would/should be able to get out of here. (GB)
If we had a map we would we able to get out of here. (US)
Conditional would is sometimes used in both clauses of an if-sentence. This is common in spoken
American English.
It would be better if they would tell everybody in advance.

American English
Aluminum
Analyze
Catalog(ue)
Center
Check
Color
Defense
Dialog/ dialogue
Favor
Flavor
Honor
Jewelry
Labor
Meter
Pajamas
Paralyze
Practice, practise
Program
Realize
Theater
Tire
Traveler

British English
Aluminium
Analyse
Catalogue
Centre
Cheque
Colour
Defence
Dialogue
Favour
Flavour
Honour
Jewellery
Labour
Metre
Pyjamas
Paralyse
Practise
Programme
Realise/ realize
Theatre
Tyre
Traveller

Differences in
spelling
A number of words end in -our in
British English and -or in
American English. Some words
end in -er in American English
and -re in British English. Many
verbs which end in -ize in
American English can be spelt in
British English with -ize or -ise.
In British English -I is doubled in
an unstressed syllable before a
suffix beginning with a vowel,
while in American English it is
not doubled.
Some of the commonest words
with different spellings are given
below.
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Popular Quotations
Action
Act, act in the living present!
Heart within the God overhead. -- Longfellow
Adversity
Prosperity is a great teacher, adversity is a greater. -- Hazlitt
Aim
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Have a purpose in life and having it, throw into your work such strength of mind and muscle as God has
given you. -- Carlyle
In the long run, men hit only what they aim at. Henry David Thoreau
Anger
When angry, count ten before you speak; if very angry, count a hundred. Jefferson
Beauty
A thing of beauty is a joy for ever. Keats
Books
Next to acquiring good friends, the best acquisition is that of books. Colton
Borrowing
He that goes a borrowing goes a sorrowing. -- Franklin
Brotherhood
The race of mankind would perish did they cease to aid each other. We cannot exist without mutual aid.
-- Sir Walter Scott
Circumstances
Man is not the creature of circumstances. Circumstances are the creatures of men. -- Isaac Disraeli
Contentment
Poor and content is rich and rich enough. -- Shakespeare
Country
That country is the richest which nourishes the greatest number of noble and happy human beings. -John Ruskin
Cowards
The world has no room for cowards. -- RL Stevenson
Defeat
What is defeat? Nothing but education; nothing but the first step to something better. Wendell
Philips

Popular Quotations II
Delay
One today is worth two tomorrows; never leave that till tomorrow which you can do today. Benjamin
Franklin
Democracy
Government of the people, by the people, for the people. Abraham Lincoln
Discipline
Theirs not to make reply
Theirs not to reason why
Theirs but to do and die
Lord Tennyson
If boys and girls do not learn discipline in the school days, money and time spent on their education is a
national waste. Mahatma Gandhi
Duty
I slept and dreamed that life was Beauty;
I woke and found that life was Duty E S Hooper
Evening
The day is done, and the darkness
Falls from the wings of night. HW Longfellow
Expectation
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To travel hopefully is a better thing than to arrive. RL Stevenson

Faith
Never lose faith in yourself; you can do anything in this universe. Never weaken; all power is yours.
Swami Vivekananda
Fear
The only thing we have to fear is fear itself. F D Roosevelt
Friendship
Friendship improves happiness, and abates misery, by doubling our joy and dividing our grief. Joseph
Addison

Popular Quotations 3
Games
Games are an effective anodyne against grief, a cure for boredom, and a distraction from oneself. C E
M Joad
Genius
Genius is one percent inspiration and ninety nine percent perspiration. Tomas Alva Edison
Gentleman
It is almost a definition of a gentleman to say he is one who never inflicts pain. Cardinal Newman
Glory
One crowded hour of glorious life,
Is worth an age without a name Sir Walter Scott
Goal
Arise, awake and stop not till the goal is reached. Swami Vivekananda
Health
The groundwork of all happiness is health. Leigh Hunt
Honour
Mine honour is my life; both grow in one;
Take honour from me, and my life is done. Shakespeare
Hope
All human wisdom is summed up in two words wait and hope. Alexander Dumas
Universal brotherhood
The world is my country, all mankind are my brethren, and to do good is my religion. Thomas Paine
Kindness
Let me be a little kinder
Let me be a little blinder
To the faults of those around me EA Guest

Popular Quotations IV
Liberty
What light is to the eyes, what air to the lungs, what love is to the heart, liberty is to the soul of man.
RG Ingersoll
Love
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We are born to love, not to hate;

We are born to help one another
Not to destroy one another Dr S Radhakrishnan
Man
Man and only man can do the impossible. Goethe
Master
If thou art a master, sometimes be blind; if a servant, sometimes be deaf. Thomas Fuller
Mind
The mind is its own place, and in itself can make a heaven of hell, a hell of heaven. John Milton
Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high
Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake. Rabindranath Tagore
Morning
The morning pouring everywhere
Its Golden glory on the air HW Longfellow
Mother
All that I am, or hope to be, I owe to my angel mother - Abraham Lincoln
Neighbour
Who is my neighbour? Not a man of your race, or your creed, but anyone who happens to be in need is
your neighbour. Dr S Radhakrishnan
Noise
Twentieth century is the age of noise physical noise, mental noise, noise of desire. Aldus Huxley
Non violence
Whosever shall smite thee on the right check, turn to him the other also. Bible
Obedience
Let thy childs first lesson be obedience, and the second will be what thou wilt. Benjamin Franklin
Patriotism
He who loves not his country, can love nothing. Lord Byron

Popular Quotations V
Politeness
Politeness goes far, yet costs nothing. S Smile
Poverty
Poverty the most deadly and prevalent of all diseases. E ONeill
Prayer
In prayer it is better to have a heart without words, than words without heart. John Bunyan
Punctuality
I have always been a quarter of an hour before my time, and it had made a man of me. Lord Nelson
Purity
Purity of personal life is the one indispensable condition for building a sound education. Mahatma
Gandhi
Religion
We have just enough religion to make us hate, but not enough to make us love one another. Jonathan
Swift
Right
Let us have faith that Right makes Might, and in that faith let us to the end dare to do our duty as we
understand it. Abraham Lincoln
Sacrifice
No pain, no palm; no thorns, no throne; no gall, no glory; no cross, no crown William Penn
Slave
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They are slaves who fear to speak for the fallen and the weak. JR Lowell
Soldier
But glory is the soldiers prize,
The soldiers wealth is honour. Robert Burns
Stars
Surely the stars are images of love. Philip James Bailey

Popular Quotations VI
Success
Can success change the human mechanism so completely between one dawn and another? Can it make
one feel taller, more alive, handsome, uncommonly gifted and indomitably secure with the certainty that
this is the way life will always be? It can and it does! Moss Hart
A minutes success pays the failure of years. Robert Browning
Experience shows that success is less due to ability than to zeal. The winner is he who gives himself to
his work, body and soul. Charles Buxton
Sun
As a giant strong, a bridegroom gay,
The sun comes through the gates of day. Brome
Thank you
Please and Thank you they are the little courtesies by which we keep the machine of life oiled and
running sweetly. A G Gardiner
Time
Time is the greatest innovator. Francis Bacon
Trust
When a man assumes a public trust, he should consider himself a public property. Thomas Jefferson
Truth
Beauty is truth, truth beauty that is all
Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know John Keats
University
A university should be a place of light, of liberty and of learning. Disraeli
Variety
Variety is the very spice of life that gives it all its flavour. William Cowper
Growth of civilization
God made the country and man made the town. William Cowper
War
War is a horrible thing, and constantly more horrible and dreadful. Unless it is ended, it will certainly
end human society. HG Wells
Work
Blessed is he who has found his work; let him ask no other blessedness. Thomas Carlyle
Worries
A poor life this is full of care,
We have no time to stand and stare. W H Davies
Writing
Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man. Francis Bacon

Figures of Speech
A figure of Speech is a word or expression used to give particular emphasis to an idea or sentiment.
Some figures of speech, such as simile, metaphor, personification and apostrophe are based on
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resemblance. Some are based on contrast (antithesis, epigram) while some others, such as climax and
anticlimax, are based on the construction of plot.

Simile
In simile, a comparison is made between two distinctly different objects which have at least one point in
common. The simile is usually introduced by such words as like, so or as.
The righteous shall flourish as the palm tree.
O my Love is like a red, red rose.
O my Love is like a melodie.
Life is as tedious as a twice-told tale.
Her eyes were like diamonds.
Note that a comparison of two things of the same kind is not a simile.
Some common similes of everyday speech are given below:
As proud as a peacock
As bold as brass
As clear as crystal
As good as gold
As old as the hills
As cool as cucumber

Metaphor
Metaphor is an implied simile. Here a word or expression that in literal usage denotes one thing is
applied to a distinctly different kind of thing for the purpose of suggesting a likeness between the two.
Unlike the simile, the metaphor does not state that one thing is like another or acts as another, but it
takes that for granted and proceeds as if the two things were one.
Life is a dream.
Variety is the spice of life.
Revenge is a kind of wild justice.
Note that every simile can be compressed into a metaphor and every metaphor can be expanded into a
simile. When we say, "Her eyes were like diamonds" we use a simile, but when we say, "Her eyes were
diamonds" we use a metaphor.
O my Love's like a red, red rose. (Simile)
O my Love's is a red, red rose. (Metaphor)
He fought like a lion. (Simile)
He was a lion in the fight. (Metaphor)
Not only nouns, but other parts of speech may also be used metaphorically. In the following example,
the verb is used metaphorically.
How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank. (Merchant of Venice by Shakespeare)
In a mixed metaphor an object is identified with two or more different things in the same sentence.
When used inadvertedly, the effect can be ludicrous.
I smell a rat, I see it floating in the air, but I will nip it in the bud.

Personification
In personification, either an inanimate object or an abstract idea is spoken of as though it were endowed
with life and intelligence.
Necessity is the mother of invention.
Pride goeth forth on horseback, grand and gay.
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Sky lowered and muttering thunder, some sad drops

Wept at completing of the mortal sin. (Paradise Lost by Milton)

Apostrophe
An apostrophe is a direct and explicit address either to an absent person or to an abstract or nonhuman
entity. Many odes are such an address to a listener who is not literally able to listen. John Keats' 'Ode on
a Grecian Urn' is an apostrophe addressed to an Urn and Samuel Coleridge's, "Reflections of Love' is an
apostrophe addressed to an absent woman.
Many apostrophes imply a personification of the nonhuman object that is addressed. If such an address
is to a god or other supernatural being to assist the poet in the composition, it is called an invocation.
Here is how John Milton invokes divine guidance at the opening of Paradise Lost.
And chiefly Thou, O spirit, that dost prefer
Before all temples th' upright heart and pure,
Instruct me
An apostrophe is a special form of personification.
Roll on, thou deep and dark Blue Ocean, roll!
O solitude! Where are the charms
That sages have seen in thy face?
O death! Where is thy sting?
O grave! Where is thy victory?

Hyperbole
The figure of speech called hyperbole is the extravagant exaggeration of fact or of possibility according
to which a person or thing is depicted as being better or worse or larger or smaller that is actually the
case. It may be used either for serious or ironic or comic effect.
Here is the smell of blood still; all the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand.
Why, man, if the river were dry, I am able to fill it with my tears.
Loved Ophelia; forty thousand brothers
Could not with all their quantity of love
Make up the sum. (Hamlet by Shakespeare)

Understatement
The contrary figure is understatement, which deliberately represents something as very much less in
magnitude or importance than it really is, or is ordinarily considered to be. The effect is usually ironic.
An example is given below.
Last week I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much it altered her person for the
worse. (A Tale of a Tub by Jonathan Swift)

Antithesis
In antithesis, the same sentence contains a striking opposition or contrast of words or sentiments.
Antithesis is employed to secure emphasis.
Man proposes, God disposes.
Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.
Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice.
Speech is silver, but silence is Golden.
Many are called, few are chosen.

Oxymoron
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Oxymoron is a special form of antithesis. It conjoins two terms that in ordinary usage are contraries.
She accepted it as the kind cruelty of the surgeon's knife.
So innocent arch, so cunningly simple.
Phrases like 'pleasing pains', 'I burn and freeze' and 'loving hate' are all examples of oxymoron.

Epigram
An epigram is a brief pointed saying. It introduces ideas which excite surprise and arrest attention.
Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.
A man can't be careful in the choice of his enemies.
He makes no friend, who never made a foe.
The proper study of mankind is man.
The fool doth think he is wise, but the wise man knows himself to be a fool.
In the midst of the life we are in death.

Irony
Irony is a figure of speech in which the real meaning is exactly the opposite of that which is literally
conveyed.
Here under leave of Brutus and the rest
(For Brutus is a honourable man:
So are they all, all honourable men)
Come I to speak in Caesar's funeral.
He was my friend, faithful and just to me;
But Brutus says he was ambitious,
And Brutus is a honourable man.

Pun
Pun is a play on words that are either identical in sound or very similar in sound, but are sharply diverse
in meaning.
Is life worth living? - It depends upon the liver.
An ambassador is an honest man who lies abroad for the good of his country.

Metonymy
In metonymy an object is designated by the name of something which is generally associated with it.
The bench, for the judges
The Crown, for the King or Queen
The laurel, for success

Climax
In climax, a series of ideas are arranged in the order of increasing importance.
Simple, erect, severe, austere, sublime
What a piece of work is man! How noble in reason, how infinite in faculties! In action, how like
an angel! In apprehension, how like a God!

Anticlimax
Anticlimax is the opposite of climax - a sudden descent from higher to lower. It is chiefly used for the
purpose of satire or ridicule.
Here thou, great Anna! Whom three realms obey,
Dost sometimes counsel take - and sometimes tea.

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Others
Precis writing tips
The summary or prcis of a passage has to be expressed in the fewest and clearest words possible. In a
summary you should mention only important points and leave out all unnecessary details.
What is a good precis?
A summary or prcis is the shortened form of a passage. A good summary should be complete in itself. It
should be able to convey the ideas expressed in the original passage so that a reader who does not have
enough time to read the original one should have no trouble getting the message.
A summary should be brief, clear and precise. It should be brief, but it shouldnt be a number of
disjointed simple sentences. A good summary should give ideas, facts or points in the order in which it
appears in the original. Note that it is best to write summaries in the same tense as the original.
The original passage may contain pieces of conversation. When you summarize it, all the sentences
given in the direct speech should be changed into indirect. The summary should be in the writers own
words. As far as possible, avoid using the vocabulary used in the original. Also note that a summary
shall not contain points not mentioned in the original.
How to summarize a given passage?
Read the given passage thoroughly and try to understand what it means. If you dont understand the
passage after reading it once, read it twice or thrice. Try to find out what the passage is really about. And
then provide a title for it.
Underline important points in the passage. Prepare a sketch or outline summary, containing all the points
which you have marked in the passage. Compare the outline with the original passage. If you have left
out some points, add them. If the outline contains some unnecessary details, strike them out.
Prepare your summary with the help of your notes. Dont refer to the original. Finally, read what you
have written. Correct all spelling or grammatical errors if any.
Some important points
If the passage is in poetry, express its ideas in prose. Write the prcis in simple language. Avoid lengthy
sentences containing many clauses. Dont use phrases such as the writer says, I think or in my
opinion.

How to write dates?

In British English, dates are written in the order day, month and year. Note that the names of months
always begin with capital letters.
Examples are given below.
15 August 1990
28 March 2000
Sometimes, the last two letters of the number word (st, nd, rd or th) are added to the date.
15th August 1990
28th March 2000
A comma is normally inserted between the month and the year when the date comes inside a sentence.
I was born on 26th May, 1979.
In American English, it is common to write the month first and to put a comma before the year.
Americans write August 15, 1990.
The date may be written entirely in figures. Different formats are possible.
30.3.2005
19/2/2002
30-2-1999
All Figure Dates
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All figure dates are written differently in British and American English. British people put the day first
while Americans begin with the month. So for example, 10.3.2005 means 10 March 2005 in Britain and
October 3, 2005 in America.
The names of decades are often written like this: the 1980s.
To distinguish between dates before and after the birth of Christ, we use the abbreviations BC and AD.
BC follows the date; AD can come before or after the date.

The use of capital letters

Capital letters are used:
1. at the beginning of a sentence
My name is Manju.
Honesty is the best policy.
2. at the beginning of each line of poetry
3. at the beginning of the names of days, months and public holidays. But note that the names
of seasons usually begin with small letters.
Examples are: Monday, May, Easter, spring, autumn
We met on a wet Sunday.
I was born in January.
If winter comes, can spring be far behind? (NOT Winter).
4. at the beginning of the names of people and places including stars, planets, mountains and rivers
Examples are: Mars, Jupiter, South Africa, The Niles, John etc.
5. for people's titles
Examples are: Dr Johnson, Mr John and Professor Louis
Meet Mr John.
Can I talk to Dr Smith?
I have an interview with Professor Alice.
6. at the beginning of the nouns and adjectives referring to nationalities, languages, ethnic groups and
religions
He is Jewish.
She is German.
I speak Hindi.
7. at the beginning of the first word (and often other nouns, verbs, adverbs and adjectives) in the titles of
books, plays, pictures and magazines
Call of the Wild or Call of the wild
Much ado about nothing or Much Ado About Nothing
New Scientist

Contractions
Contractions are forms like don't and I'm. They represent the pronunciation of informal speech. They
are common and correct in informal writing too.
Contracted forms are given in brackets.
I am (I'm)
I have (I've)
I will (I'll)
I had/would (I'd)
You are (You're)
You have (You've)
You will (You'll)
You had/would (You'd)
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He is/ has (He's)

He will (He'll)
He had/would (He'd)
She is/has (She's)
She will (She'll)
She had/would (She'd)
It is/ has (It's)
We are (We're)
We have (We've)
We will (We'll)
We had/would (We'd)
They are (They're)
They have (They've)
They will (They'll)
They had/would (They'd)
There is/has (There's)
There will (There'll)
There had/would (There'd)
Are not (Aren't)
Cannot (Can't)
Could not (Couldn't)
Dare not (Daren't)
Did not (Didn't)
Does not (Doesn't)
Do not (Don't)
Had not (Hadn't)
Has not (Hasn't)
Have not (Haven't)
Is not (Isn't)
Might not (Mightn't)
Must not (Mustn't)
Need not (Needn't)
Ought not (Oughtn't)
Shall not (Shan't)
Should not (Shouldn't)
Used not (Usedn't)
Was not (Wasn't)
Were not (Weren't)
Will not (Won't)
Would not (Wouldn't)

Notes
1. In non-standard English, ain't is used as a contraction of am not, are not, is not, have not and has
not.
He ain't going to come. (= He is not going to come.)
Don't talk to me like that - you ain't my master. (= You are not my master.)
I ain't got anything to read. (= I have not got anything to read.)
2. Daren't, shan't and usedn't are not often used in American English.
3. Am not is not normally contracted in questions. We use aren't.
I am late, aren't I? (NOT ... amn't I)
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Some useful spelling rules

1. When we add the suffix -ful to a word ending in -ll, the second -l is usually dropped.
Skill + ful = skilful
Will + full = willful
2. Words ending in silent -e drop the -e before a suffix beginning with a vowel (e.g. -ing, -ed,
-er).
Drive + er = driver
Love + ed = loved
Live + ing = living
Hope + ing = hoping
3. Words ending in silent -e retain the -e before a suffix beginning with a consonant (e.g. -ful, -ness,
-ment, -ly).
Hope + ful = hopeful
Engage + ment = engagement
There are, however, a few exceptions to this rule.
True + ly = truly, (not truely)
Whole + ly = wholly
Due + ly = duly
Awe + ful = awful
4. When we add the suffixes -able and -ous to words ending in -ce and -ge, the -e is kept.
Change + able = changeable
Notice + able = noticeable
Courage + ous = courageous
5. Words ending in -ee do not drop the final -e before a suffix.
See + ing = seeing
Agree + ment = agreement
6. Words ending in -ie change the -ie to -y when the suffix, -ing is added to it.
Die + ing = dying
Tie+ ing = tying
Lie + ing = lying
7. A word ending in a consonant + y, change the -y to -I when a suffix, other than -ing, is added to it.
Happy + ness = happiness
Beauty + ful = beautiful
Carry + ed + carried
8. When we add the suffix - ing to a word ending in a consonant + y, the -y is retained.
Carry + ing = carrying
Marry + ing = marrying
9. A one - syllable word ending in a vowel + consonant will double the consonant before a suffix
beginning with a vowel.
Run + ing = running
Rob + er = robber
Cut + ing = cutting
Beg + ed = begged
Sad + est = saddest
10. A one - syllable word ending in two consonants or two vowels + one consonant will not double the
consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel.
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Fear + ing = fearing

Wish + ed = wished

Notes
Syllable is a unit of pronunciation having one vowel sound. A word may contain one or more syllables.
Put, for instance, has only one vowel sound and hence only one syllable. Butter has two syllables.
Suffix is an addition to the end of a word. Examples are: -ness in happiness, -ly in slowly, -ment in
engagement and -ing in crying.
Prefix is an addition to the beginning of a word. Examples are: a in abed, aboard and awake, be in
beside and become.

Paragraph writing
The smallest unit of prose composition is the paragraph. A paragraph may be defined as a group of
sentences relating to a single topic, or developing a central idea.
A paragraph may be long or short - sometimes as long as a page or more, and sometimes as short as a
sentence or two. But students are advised to avoid these extremes and to see that a paragraph is just as
long or as short as is necessary for the development of the particular point it deals with. Variation in the
length of paragraphs is necessary and desirable. A short paragraph after a long one will afford variety
and relief to the eye as well as to the mind.
Some useful tips
Unity of thought
Just as a sentence deals with one thought, a paragraph should deal with only one central idea.
Order
The unity of thought cannot be achieved unless there is a logical order in which the idea is allowed to
develop.
Coherence
To achieve the effect of unbroken continuity of thought, certain conjunctions and words are found
useful. Hence, so, therefore, but, or, and, then etc are some of the words which, if rightly used, will
connect sentences up and make the paragraph a well-knit organic whole. If ideas have to be contrasted
or alternatives presented, expressions like on the other hand, on the contrary, nevertheless, but, still,
yet will be useful.
Read the paragraph given below. It is taken from What is Courage by Sir William Slim.
Now these two types of courage, physical and moral are very distinct. I have known many men
who had marked physical courage but lacked moral courage. Some of them were in high places
but they failed to be great in themselves because they lacked it. On the other hand, I have seen
men who undoubtedly possessed moral courage very cautious about taking physical risks, but I
have never met a man with moral courage who wouldnt, when it was really necessary, face
bodily danger. Moral courage is a higher and rarer virtue than physical courage.
The first sentence is the key sentence in the paragraph. It introduces the central topic distinction
between physical and moral courage. The contrast is elaborated in the body of the paragraph. Note the
use of but and on the other hand, and the repetition of the words physical and moral in order to make
the contrast vivid. The last sentence rounds off the paragraph by asserting the superiority of moral
courage over physical courage.
Variety
This is another important characteristic of a good paragraph. The sentence patterns used in the paragraph
must be varied. There should be long and short sentences, simple and complex, direct and involved,
straight forward and inverted.
Read the short paragraph given below.

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I will stand on the roof of the world. I will climb Tibets highest mountains, sail on its rivers, and
swim in lakes that are not on any map. I will walk in valleys and cross deserts untrodden by
human beings. Mine will be the first footprints there.

Formal and informal speech and writing

Formal speech and writing is sometimes different from informal speech and writing. In English there are
certain words and structures which are mostly used in formal situations. There are also certain words and
structures for informal situations.
Use of Contraction
Contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives are common in informal speech and writing. They are not
normally used in formal situations.
He has gone. (Formal)
He's gone. (Informal)
I am ready. (Formal)
I'm ready. (Informal)
Use of prepositions
Prepositions can come at the end of certain structures in informal language. This is not possible in
formal language.
Which nation does she belong to? (Informal)
To which nation does she belong? (Formal)
Use of relative pronouns
In informal speech, the relative pronoun can be dropped when it is the object of the clause.
The woman who you are talking about is my boss. (Formal)
The woman you are talking about is my boss. (Informal)
The movie which I saw yesterday was really nice. (Formal)
The movie I saw yesterday was really nice. (Informal)
You can usually decide whether a relative pronoun is an object because it is normally followed by
another subject + verb.
Use of determiners
Some determiners are followed by singular verbs in formal language and plural verbs in informal
language.
Neither of the answers is correct. (Formal)
Neither of the answers are correct. (Informal)
Informal use of object forms
In informal English, we use object forms not only as the objects of verbs and prepositions, but also in
most other cases where the words do not come before the verbs as their subjects. Object forms are
common, for example in one-word answers and after be.
Who said that? (It was) him. (Informal)
Whos that? Its me. (Informal)
In a more formal style, we often use subject form + verb.
Who said that? He did.
It is possible to use a subject form after be, but this is extremely formal, and is usually considered overcorrect.
It is I (Very formal)
It is me. (Informal)
It is he. (Very formal)
It is him. (Informal)
Whom in questions
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Whom is not often used in informal English. We prefer to use who as an object, especially in questions.
Who did they arrest?
Who did you go with?
We use whom in a more formal style; and we must use whom after a preposition.
Whom did they arrest? (Formal)
With whom did you go? (Very formal)
Ellipsis
Ellipsis (leaving out words) is more common in informal language.
Compare:
Have you seen Mr John? (Formal)
Seen John? (Informal)
We think that it is possible. (Formal)
We think its possible. (Informal)

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Newspaper headlines: grammar

Newspaper headlines are not always complete sentences. Many headlines consist of noun phrases with
no verb.
MORE POWER CUTS
TERROR ALERT IN CAPITAL
Articles and the verb be are often left out in headlines.
HUSSAIN PAINTING OBSCENE, SAYS MINISTER
OLD MAN SCALES EVEREST
In headlines, simple tenses are often used instead of progressive or perfect forms. The simple present is
used for both present and past events.
FORMER PM PASSES AWAY (= Former PM has passed away.)
BLIND GIRL CLIMBS EVEREST (= Blind girl has climbed Everest.)
The present progressive is used to talk about changes. Be is usually dropped.
EARTH GETTING WARMER, SAY SCIENTISTS (=Earth is getting warmer.)
TRADE FIGURES IMPROVING (=Trade figures are improving.)
Headlines often use infinitives to refer to the future.
PM TO VISIT CANADA
BUSINESS SCHOOLS TO TAKE MORE STUDENTS
For is also used to refer to future movements or plans.
INDIAN TROOPS FOR IRAQ? (= Are Indian soldiers going to be sent to Iraq?)
Auxiliary verbs are usually dropped from passive structures, leaving only past participles.
SIX PEOPLE KILLED IN EXPLOSION (=Six people have been killed in explosion.)
INDIAN HELD FOR MURDER
Note that forms like held, found and attacked are usually past participles with passive meanings, not past
tenses.
Compare:
NUCLEAR DEAL ROW: PM ATTACKED (=PM has been attacked.)
NUCLEAR DEAL ROW: PM ATTACKS OPPOSITION (=PM has attacked his opposition)
A colon (:) is often used to separate the subject of a headline from what is said about it.
POWER CRISIS: GOVERNMENT TO ACT
BUILDING COLLAPSE: DEATH TOLL RISES

Newspaper headlines vocabulary

Short words save space, and so they are very common in headlines. The following is a list of common
headline vocabulary.
Act: take action; do something
POWER CRISIS: GOVERNMENT TO ACT
Aid: (noun) military or financial help
Aid (verb): to help
MORE AID FOR POOR COUNTRIES
UNIONS AID BANK STRIKERS
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Alert: alarm, warning

TERROR ALERT IN THE CAPITAL
Allege: make an accusation
BLIND GIRL ALLEGES UNFAIR TREATMENT
Appear: appear in court accused of a crime
MP TO APPEAR ON DRUGS CHARGES
Axe (verb): abolish, close down
Axe (noun): abolition, closure
POSTAL SERVICES AXED
SMALL SCHOOLS FACE AXE
Back: support
OPPOSITION BACKS PM
Ban: forbid, refuse to allow something
GOVERNMENT BANS SMOKING IN PUBLIC
Bar: refuse
HOTEL BARS FOOTBALL FANS
Bid: attempt
WOMAN MAKES SUICIDE BID
Blast: explosion
Blast: criticize violently
BLAST AT AIRPORT
OPPOSITION BLASTS PM
Blaze: fire
SIX DIE IN TEMPLE BLAZE
Blow: bad news, unfortunate happening
SMITH ILL: BLOW TO WORLD CUP HOPES
Bond: political or business association
INDIA CUTS TRADE BONDS WITH CHINA
Boom: big increase; prosperous period
ECONOMIC BOOM: URBAN RICH TO BENEFIT
Boost: encourage
GOVERNMENT PLANS TO BOOST EXPORTS
Brink: edge of disaster
GLOBAL WARMING: EARTH ON BRINK OF DISASTER
Call for: demand/ appeal for
TRADE UNIONS CALL FOR STRIKE
Campaign: organized effort to achieve social or political result
MP LAUNCHES CAMPAIGN FOR TAX REFORMS
Claim (verb): make a statement that something is true
US SCIENTISTS CLAIM CANCER BREAKTHROUGH
Clamp down on: deal firmly with
POLICE TO CLAMP DOWN ON EVE TEASING
Clash: quarrel, fight
STUDENTS CLASH WITH POLICE

Newspaper headlines vocabulary

Clear: find innocent
MP CLEARED ON DRUG CHARGES
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Con: swindle
TEENEGERS CON WIDOW OUT OF LIFE SAVINGS
Crackdown: firm application of the law
GOVERNMENT PROMISES CRACKDOWN ON INFILTRATORS
Crash: failure
TEN PEOPLE DIE IN PLANE CRASH
Curb: restrict
GOVERNMENT TO CURB ILLICIT LIQUOR TRADE
Cut: reduce
US CUTS AID TO INDIA
Dash: make quick journey
PM IN DASH TO BLAST HOSPITAL
Deadlock: disagreement that cannot be solved
DEADLOCK IN INDO-US NUCLEAR DEAL
Deal: agreement
INDIA SIGNS NUCLEAR DEAL WITH US
Drive: united effort
DRIVE TO SAVE PLANET
Drop (verb): give up; get rid of
Drop (noun): fall
GOVERNMENT TO DROP TERROR REFORMS
DROP IN FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT
Edge: move gradually
WORLD EDGES TOWARDS WAR
Firm: determined not to change
PM FIRM ON TAX REFORMS
Flak: heavy criticism
MINISTER FACES FLAK OVER RACIAL REMARKS
Foil: prevent somebody from succeeding
GUARD FOILS BANK ROBBERY BID
Gag: censor; prevent from speaking
AFRICAN PRESIDENT ACTS TO GAG PRESS
Go: resign; be lost, disappear
PM TO GO?
Go for: be sold for
PICASSO PAINTING GOES FOR $5 MILLION
Go-ahead: approval
NUKE-PLAN GETS GO-AHEAD
Grab: take violently
INDIANS GRAB SHARES IN FOREIGN COMPANIES
Grip: control; hold tightly
COLD WAVE GRIPS COUNTRY

Newspaper headlines vocabulary

Gun down: shoot
POLICE GUN DOWN TERRORISTS.
Hail: welcome; praise
PM HAILS PEACE PLAN
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Halt: stop
AUTOMOBILE PLANT TO HALT PRODUCTION
Haul: amount stolen in robbery, or seized by police or customs
MAJOR ARMS HAUL IN CAPITAL
Head for: move towards
ECONOMY HEADING FOR DISASTER, EXPERTS WARN
Hike: rise in costs, prices etc.
INTEREST HIKE WILL HIT REAL ESTATE MARKET
Hit: affect badly
HEAVY RAINS HIT TRANSPORT
Hit out at: attack with words
PM HITS OUT AT CRITICS
Hitch: problem that causes delay
LAST-MINUTE HITCH DELAYS SATELLITE LAUNCH
Hold: arrest; keep under arrest
POLICE HOLD TERROR SUSPECT
Key: important
KEY WITNESS IN THE POACHING CASE VANISHES
Landslide: victory by a large majority in election
LANDSLIDE FOR DEMOCRATS
Lash: criticize violently
OPPOSITION LASHES GOVERNMENT REFORMS
Lead: clue (in police enquiry)
LEAD IN RESORT MURDER CASE
Leak: unofficial publication of secret information
PM FURIOUS OVER TAX PLAN LEAKS
Leap: big increase
LEAP IN FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT
Life: imprisonment for life
LIFE FOR SERIAL MURDERER
Loom: threaten to happen
VAT ON FOOD: NEW ROW LOOMS

Newspaper headlines vocabulary

Mar: spoil
VIOLENCE MARS CUP FINAL
Mission: delegation (official group sent to a conference etc)
UN MISSION ARRIVES TODAY
Mob: angry crowd
Mob: organized crime/Mafia
INFANT DIES: MOBS ATTACK HOSPITAL
MOB LEADERS HELD
Move: step towards a particular result (often political)
MOVE TO BOOST TRADE LINKS WITH CHINA
Nail: force somebody to admit the truth
CRIME BRANCH NAILS THE ACCUSED
Odds: chances, probability
MAYOR RE-ELECTED AGAINST THE ODDS
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Opt (for) : choose

WALES OPTS FOR INDEPENDENCE
Oust: drive out, replace
DEMOCRATS OUSTED IN UNION ELECTIONS
Over: about; on the subject of, because of
ROW OVER VAT ON FOOD
Pact: agreement
DEFENCE PACT GETS CABINET NOD
Peak: high point
INFLATION HITS NEW PEAK
Peg: hold (prices etc) at present level
BANKS PEG INTEREST RATES
Plea: call for help
BIG RESPONSE TO PLEA FOR FLOOD AID
Press: the newspapers
BID TO GAG PRESS OVER DEFENCE SPENDING
Press for: ask for urgently
OPPOSITION PRESS FOR ENQUIRY ON DEFENCE SCAM
Pull out: withdraw
PAKISTAN PULLS OUT OF PEACE TALKS WITH INDIA
Push for: ask for, encourage
SCHOOLS PUSH FOR MORE CASH
Quit: resign, leave
OPPOSITION LEADER QUITS
Raid: enter and search
POLICE RAID DUCHESSS FLAT

Newspaper headlines vocabulary

Rampage: riot
HOOLIGANS RAMPAGE THROUGH STREETS
Rap: criticize
DOCTORS RAP HEALTH MINISTRY PLANS
Riddle: mystery
MISSING TEENAGER RIDDLE: TWO MEN HELD
Rift: division, disagreement
LABOUR RIFT OVER DEFENCE POLICY
Rock: shock, shake
BANK SEX SCANDAL ROCKS THE CITY
JAPAN ROCKED BY QUAKE
Row: noisy disagreement, quarrel
NEW ROW OVER WAGE CUTS
Rule out: reject the possibility of
PM RULES OUT MIDTERM ELECTION
Sack: dismissal from job
STRIKING DOCTORS FACE SACK
Scare: public alarm, alarming rumour
BIRD FLU SCARE IN MIDDLE EAST
Scrap: throw out as useless
GOVERNMENT SCRAPS DEFENCE DEAL WITH ISRAEL
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Seize: take especially in police and customs searches

SMUGGLED ARMS SEIZED AT AIRPORT
Set to: ready to; about to
PROPERTY PRIZES SET TO RISE
Slam: criticize violently
OPPOSITION SLAMS DEFENCE POLICY
Slash: cut, reduce drastically
GOVERNMENT TO SLASH HEALTH EXPENDITURE
Slump: fall (economic)
EXPORTERS FEAR NEW SLUMP
Spark: cause to start
REFEREES DECISION SPARKS RIOT
Spree: wild spending expenditure
BUS DRIVER SPENDS MILLIONS IN CREDIT-CARD SPREE
Stake: financial interest
GERMANS BUY STAKE IN BRITISH AIRWAYS
Storm out of: leave angrily
TRADE UNION LEADERS STORM OUT OF MEETING WITH MINISTER
Toll: number killed
QUAKE TOLL MAY RISE
Urge: encourage
ENVIRONMENTALISTS URGE GOVERNMENTS TO ACT ON POLLUTION
Vow: promise
EXILED PRESIDENT VOWS TO RETURN

Italicization rules
Italicize the following (or underline if writing by hand or using a typewriter):
The titles of books, plays, book-length poems, magazines, and newspapers:
War and Peace
TIME magazine
The Call of the Wild
National Geographic
The Times of India
The titles of movies and radio and television programs:
Finding Nemo
War of the Worlds
Law & Order
Car Talk
Tom and Jerry
Big Brother
The titles of works of art, including paintings, sculptures, and major musical compositions:
Mona Lisa (painting)
The Thinker (sculpture)
Swan Lake (ballet)
Porgy and Bess (opera)
Do not italicize musical compositions named by number or key: Symphony No. 4; Quartet in E minor.
Words, letters, and numbers used as such:

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How do you spell please?

Does your name end with a c or a k?
The 6 looked like a 0.
Foreign words and phrases that have not been assimilated into English:
Alex's Weltanschauung was gloomy.
Alice made a tarte au citron for dessert.
Words and phrases that are being emphasized:
Paris was the place to be in the '20s.
The names of ships, aircraft, and space vehicles:
The Titanic
USS Maine
The Spirit of St. Louis
Space shuttle Challenger

Letter writing
An effective letter must be clearly organized and carefully thought out. The following tips should make
your task easier.

Address and date

Put your address at the top on the right. Put the smallest item first: house number, then street, then town.
Post code and telephone number come last. Dont put your name with the address.
Put the date directly under the address. A common way to write the date is to put the number of the day,
followed by the month and year (e.g. 22 December 2007). In formal letters and business letters, put the
name and address of the person you are writing to on the left side of the page, starting on the same level
as the date or slightly below.
Different styles are common in formal letters on paper which has the address ready-printed at the top of
the page. For example, the date may be put on the left, and the address of the person written to may
come at the end of the letter.
In American usage, dates are written differently (month before day).

Salutation
Begin the letter on the left. In informal letters, it is common to address people by their first names: (e.g.
Dear Alice). In more formal letters, titles and surnames can be used to address people: (e.g. Dear Ms
Sullivan). Use Dear Sir(s), Dear Sir/Madam or Dear Madam to address people whose name you dont
know. Some people use the first name and surname (Dear Penny Hopkins) when writing to strangers or
people they do not know well. Do not use a title like Mr together with a first name.
In American usage, Gentlemen is used instead of Dear Sirs. After the opening salutation, Americans may
put a colon, especially in business letters (Dear Mr Parker:), or a comma.

Body of the letter

After Dear X, put a comma or nothing at all. In American English, a comma is preferred in personal
letters, and a colon in business letters. Leave an empty line after Dear X and start again on the left, or
start again on the next line, a few spaces from the left. Do the same for each paragraph. Letters to
strangers often begin with an explanation of the reason for writing.

Subscription or Leave-taking
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Letters which begin Dear Sir or Dear Madam usually finish Yours faithfully. Formal letters which begin
with the persons name (e.g. Dear Susan Fernandez) usually finish Yours sincerely. Informal letters may
finish, for example, Yours, See you, or Love. Note that Love is not usually used by one man to another. In
formal letters, many people put a closing formula before Yours , especially when writing to people
they know: Common expressions are With best wishes and With kind regards. In American usage, Yours
faithfully is not used. Common endings are Sincerely, Sincerely yours or Yours truly followed by a
comma.
Signature
Sign with your first name (informal) or full name (formal). Dont write any title (Mr/Ms/Dr/etc). In a
formal typewritten letter, add your full typewritten name after your handwritten signature. Friendly
business letters are often signed with the first name only above the fully typewritten name.
Americans are often addressed and sign their names with the first name in full, followed by the initial of
a middle name (Allan J Parker).
In informal letters, afterthoughts that are added after the signature are usually introduced by P S (Latin
post scriptum).

Addressing the envelope

When you address the envelope, follow the style you used in the letter. If you typed the letter, type the
address on the envelope. The style should match. If you wrote the letter by hand, write the envelope by
hand. Be sure your writing is legible. Here are a few more guidelines:
On the envelope, put the first name before the surname. People usually write a title (Mr, Mrs etc) before
the name. You can write the first name in full (Mrs Susan Fernandez) or you can write one or more
initials (Mrs S Fernandez). British people now usually write addresses, titles, initials, dates and opening
and closing formula without commas or full stops. American usage is different. In American English,
commas are sometimes used at the ends of lines in addresses; full stops may be used at the ends of
addresses.
Center the recipient's name and address in the lower middle quadrant. Don't use Mr, Mrs, or Ms when
you write your own name on the return address. Use only standard abbreviations for streets, states, and
countries. To insure speedy delivery or return, include the zip code in both the recipient's address and
your return address.

Example of a formal letter and envelope

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Example of an informal letter and envelope

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Essay writing
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An essay is a short piece of writing that generally shows the author's view on a particular subject. There
are many different kinds of essays, including narrative, descriptive, and persuasive. Here are some tips
for writing essays.
Introduction
Every essay or paper is made up of three parts: introduction, body and conclusion. The introduction is
the first paragraph of the essay or paper. It often begins with a general statement about the topic and
ends with a more specific statement of the main idea of your essay. The purpose of the introduction is to
let the reader know what the topic is. It should inform the reader about your point of view and arouse the
reader's curiosity so that he or she will want to read your essay.
The body
The introduction is followed by the body of the essay. It consists of a number of paragraphs in which
you develop your ideas in detail. Limit each paragraph to one main idea. Prove your points continually
by using specific examples and quotations. Use transition words to ensure a smooth flow of ideas from
paragraph to paragraph.
Conclusion
The conclusion is the last paragraph of the paper. Its purpose is to summarize your main points, leaving
out specific examples. It should restate the main idea of the essay.
Revise the First Draft
Once you have prepared the first draft, revise it. This involves rethinking your ideas, refining your
arguments, reorganizing paragraphs, and rewording sentences. You may need to develop your ideas in
more detail, give more evidence to support your claims, or delete material that is unnecessary. Read your
essay out loud. This sometimes makes it easier to identify writing that is awkward or unclear. Have
somebody else read the paper and tell you if there's anything that's unclear or confusing.
Proofread the Final Draft
Look for careless errors such as misspelled words, incorrect punctuation and capitalization. Errors are
harder to spot on a computer screen than on paper. If you type your essay on a computer, print out a
copy to proofread. Remember, spell checkers and grammar checkers don't always catch errors, so it is
best not to rely on them too much.

Tips for writing essays

1. Use simple language. Avoid the use of bombastic and archaic words and terminology.
2. Avoid the use of lengthy sentences consisting of many clauses. Let your sentences be short and pithy.
However, for the sake of variety and emphasis, a long complex sentence can be added here and there. It
will add to the beauty and total effect of the essay.
3. Give relevant facts and avoid circumlocution, repetitions and digressions. However, some elements of
illustrative matter are fine, provided that they fit tightly into the frame-work of the essay.
4. The essay should be neatly divided into paragraphs. Each paragraph should arise naturally out of the
earlier one and give a distinct idea which is generally an advancement of the ideas expressed earlier.
Give proper attention to the introductory and concluding paragraphs.
5. Let the language be your own though you may make some use of proverbs, quotations and poetical
tags, if necessary.

Numbers
The figure zero is usually called nought in British English and zero in American English. When we say
numbers one figure at a time, 0 is often called oh (like the letter O).
My account number is two four oh one four three seven. (= 2401437)
In measurements of temperature zero is called zero in both British and American English. Zero is
followed by a plural noun.
Zero degrees Celsius is thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit.
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Zero scores in team games like football or rugby are called nil. In tennis and similar games, the word
love is used to mean zero.
And the score at half time is: Brazil two, Italy nil.
Forty-love; Roger to serve.
Telephone numbers
We say each figure separately. When the same figure comes twice, British people usually say double.
Two four oh, double one three seven (=2401137)
Two four zero, one one three seven (US)

Roman numbers
Roman numbers are becoming less common in modern English. They are, however, still used in a few
cases for example the names of kings and queens, page numbers in the introductions to some books,
and occasionally the names of centuries.
It was built in the time of Henry V.
For details, see page vii.
The Roman numbers normally used are as follows:
1 I i
2 II ii
3 III iii
4 IV iv
5 V v
6 VI vi
7 VII vii
8 VIII viii
9 IX ix
10 X x
11 XI xi
12 XII xii
13 XIII xiii
14 XIV xiv
19 XIX xix
20 XX xx
21 XX1 xxi
30 XXX xxx
40 XL xl
50 L l
60 LX lx
90 XC xc
100 C c
500 D
1000 M

Cardinal and ordinal numbers

After a noun we usually use a cardinal number instead of an ordinal number. This structure is common
in titles.
The fourth book Book Four
The third act Act Three
He is in class nine. OR He is in the ninth class.
However, the names of kings and queens are said with ordinal numbers.
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Louis XIV: Louis the Fourteenth

Elizabeth II: Elizabeth the Second
Ordinal numbers up to twelfth are written in words, except in dates. Cardinal numbers up to twelve are
written in words, except when telling the time.
Cardinal and ordinal numbers above twelve and twelfth are written in either words or figures as seems in
each case the more convenient.
And; punctuation
British people always use and before the tens in a number. In American English, and can be dropped.
Four hundred and fifty 450 (GB/US)
Four hundred fifty 450 (US)
Two thousand, three hundred and forty two (2,342)
In writing we generally use commas to divide large numbers into groups of three figures, by separating
off the thousands and the millions. Note that we do not use commas in dates.
56,542
4,312
4, 564, 453
The year 1979

Fractions and decimals

We say simple fractions like this:
1/7 one seventh
3/7 three sevenths
2/5 two fifths
12/16 twelve sixteenths
3/4 hour three quarters of an hour
7/10 mile seven tenths of a mile
More complex fractions can be expressed by using the word over.
258/609 two hundred and fifty eight over six hundred and nine
We write and say decimals like this:
4.75 four point seven five (NOT four point seventy five)
0.265 nought point two six five (US zero point two six five)

Numbers: differences between American and British usage

British money
Three are 100 pence in a pound. Sums of money are named as follows:
1 p one penny or a penny
5 p five pence
American money
There are 100 cents in a dollar. Sums of money are named very much as in British English. Some coins
have special names. One-cent coins are called pennies; five-cent coins are called nickels; ten-cent coins
are dimes; a twenty-five cent coin is a quarter.
Floors
The ground floor of a British house is the first floor of an American house; the British first floor is the
American second floor.
Billion
In American English, a billion is a thousand million. This is now generally true in British English, but a
British billion used to be a million.

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