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Buddhism
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Buddhism
Outline
Buddhism
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v
t
e [1]
Buddhism is a nontheistic religion[2] that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices largely based on
teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly known as the Buddha, meaning "the awakened one".
According to Buddhist tradition, the Buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent sometime
between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. He is recognized by Buddhists as an awakened or enlightened teacher who
shared his insights to help sentient beings end their suffering through the elimination of ignorance and craving by
way of understanding and the seeing of Dependent Origination and the Four Noble Truths, with the ultimate goal of
Buddhism
Buddhism
The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhrtha Gautama was born in a community that was on the
periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE.[8] It
was either a small republic, in which case his father was an elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father
was an oligarch.
According to the Theravada Tripitaka scripturesWikipedia:Avoid
weasel words (from Pali, meaning "three baskets"), Gautama was born
in Lumbini in modern-day Nepal, around the year 563 BCE, and raised
in Kapilavastu.[9][10]
According to this narrative, shortly after the birth of young prince
Gautama, an astrologer named Asita visited the young prince's
fatherKing uddhodanaand prophesied that Siddhartha would
either become a great king or renounce the material world to become a
holy man, depending on whether he saw what life was like outside the
palace walls.
Gautama first went to study with famous religious teachers of the day,
and mastered the meditative attainments they taught. But he found that
they did not provide a permanent end to suffering, so he continued his
quest. He next attempted an extreme asceticism, which was a religious
pursuit common among the Shramanas, a religious culture distinct
from the Vedic one. Gautama underwent prolonged fasting,
breath-holding, and exposure to pain. He almost starved himself to
death in the process. He realized that he had taken this kind of practice
Dhamek Stupa in Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India,
to its limit, and had not put an end to suffering. So in a pivotal moment
built by King Ashoka, where the Buddha gave his
he accepted milk and rice from a village girl and changed his approach.
first sermon
He devoted himself to anapanasati meditation, through which he
discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way (Skt.
madhyam-pratipad): a path of moderation between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.
Buddhism
followers and instituted a monastic order. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his life teaching the path of
awakening he had discovered, traveling throughout the northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent,[11][12] and died
at the age of 80 (483 BCE) in Kushinagar, India. The south branch of the original fig tree available only in
Anuradhapura Sri Lanka is known as Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi.
Buddhist concepts
Main article: Buddhist terms and concepts
Buddhism
Rebirth
Main article: Rebirth (Buddhism)
Rebirth refers to a process whereby beings go through a succession of
lifetimes as one of many possible forms of sentient life, each running
from conception[19] to death. Buddhism rejects the concepts of a
permanent self or an unchanging, eternal soul, as it is called in
Hinduism and Christianity. According to Buddhism there ultimately is
no such thing as a self independent from the rest of the universe (the
doctrine of anatta). Buddhists also refer to themselves as the believers
Gautama's cremation site, Ramabhar Stupa in
Uttar Pradesh, India
of the anatta doctrineNairatmyavadin or Anattavadin. Rebirth in
subsequent existences must be understood as the continuation of a
dynamic, ever-changing process of "dependent arising" ("prattyasamutpda") determined by the laws of cause and
effect (karma) rather than that of one being, transmigrating or incarnating from one existence to the next.
Each rebirth takes place within one of five realms according to Theravadins, or six according to other schools.[20][21]
1. Naraka beings: those who live in one of many Narakas (Hells);
2. Preta: sometimes sharing some space with humans, but invisible to most people; an important variety is the
hungry ghost;[22]
3. Animals: sharing space with humans, but considered another type of life;
4. Human beings: one of the realms of rebirth in which attaining Nirvana is possible;
5. Asuras: variously translated as lowly deities, demons, titans, antigods; not recognized by Theravda
(Mahavihara) tradition as a separate realm;[23]
6. Devas including Brahmas: variously translated as gods, deities, spirits, angels, or left untranslated.
The above are further subdivided into 31 planes of existence.[24] Rebirths in some of the higher heavens, known as
the uddhvsa Worlds or Pure Abodes, can be attained only by skilled Buddhist practitioners known as angmis
(non-returners). Rebirths in the arupa-dhatu (formless realms) can be attained by only those who can meditate on the
arpajhnas, the highest object of meditation.
According to East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism, there is an intermediate state (Tibetan "Bardo") between one life
and the next. The orthodox Theravada position rejects this; however there are passages in the Samyutta Nikaya of the
Pali Canon (the collection of texts on which the Theravada tradition is based), that seem to lend support to the idea
that the Buddha taught of an intermediate stage between one life and the next.[25][26]
Buddhism
The first truth explains the nature of dukkha. Dukkha is commonly translated as suffering, anxiety,
unsatisfactoriness, unease, etc., and it is said to have the following three aspects:
The obvious suffering of physical and mental illness, growing old, and dying.
The anxiety or stress of trying to hold onto things that are constantly changing.
A subtle dissatisfaction pervading all forms of life, due to the fact that all forms of life are changing, impermanent
and without any inner core or substance. On this level, the term indicates a lack of satisfaction, a sense that things
never measure up to our expectations or standards.[29]
The second truth is that the origin of dukkha can be known. Within the context of the four noble truths, the origin of
dukkha is commonly explained as craving (Pali: tanha) conditioned by ignorance (Pali: avijja). On a deeper level,
the root cause of dukkha is identified as ignorance (Pali: avijja) of the true nature of things. The third noble truth is
that the complete cessation of dukkha is possible, and the fourth noble truth identifies a path to this cessation.[30]
Noble Eightfold Path
Main articles: Noble Eightfold Path and Buddhist Paths to liberation
The Noble Eightfold Paththe fourth of the Buddha's Noble
Truthsconsists of a set of eight interconnected factors or conditions,
that when developed together, lead to the cessation of dukkha.[31]
These eight factors are: Right View (or Right Understanding), Right
Intention (or Right Thought), Right Speech, Right Action, Right
Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.
Ajahn Sucitto describes the path as "a mandala of interconnected
factors that support and moderate each other."[31] The eight factors of
the path are not to be understood as stages, in which each stage is
completed before moving on to the next. Rather, they are understood as
eight significant dimensions of one's behaviourmental, spoken, and
bodilythat operate in dependence on one another; taken together,
they define a complete path, or way of living.[32]
The eight factors of the path are commonly presented within three
divisions (or higher trainings) as shown below:
Division
Eightfold factor
Sanskrit, Pali
Description
Wisdom
(Sanskrit: praj,
Pli: pa)
1. Right view
samyag di,
samm ditthi
2. Right intention
samyag
Intention of renunciation, freedom and harmlessness
sakalpa,
samm sankappa
Ethical conduct
(Sanskrit: la,
Pli: sla)
3. Right speech
samyag vc,
samm vca
4. Right action
samyag karman,
samm
kammanta
5. Right livelihood
samyag jvana,
samm jva
A non-harmful livelihood
Buddhism
Concentration
(Sanskrit and Pli:
samdhi)
7
6. Right effort
samyag
vyyma,
samm vyma
7. Right mindfulness
samyag smti,
samm sati
Awareness to see things for what they are with clear consciousness;
being aware of the present reality within oneself, without any craving or
aversion
8. Right
concentration
samyag samdhi, Correct meditation or concentration, explained as the first four jhnas
samm samdhi
Middle Way
Main article: Middle Way
An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the Middle Way (or Middle Path), which is said to have been
discovered by Gautama Buddha prior to his enlightenment. The Middle Way has several definitions:
1. The practice of non-extremism: a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and
self-mortification;
2. The middle ground between certain metaphysical views (for example, that things ultimately either do or do not
exist);[36]
3. An explanation of Nirvana (perfect enlightenment), a state wherein it becomes clear that all dualities apparent in
the world are delusory;
4. Another term for emptiness, the ultimate nature of all phenomena (in the Mahayana branch), a lack of inherent
existence, which avoids the extremes of permanence and nihilism or inherent existence and nothingness.
Buddhism
Nature of existence
Buddhist scholars have produced a number of intellectual theories,
philosophies and world view concepts (see, for example, Abhidharma,
Buddhist philosophy and Reality in Buddhism). Some schools of
Buddhism discourage doctrinal study, and some regard it as essential
practice.
The concept of liberation (nirva)the goal of the Buddhist pathis
closely related to overcoming ignorance (avidy), a fundamental
misunderstanding or mis-perception of the nature of reality. In
awakening to the true nature of the self and all phenomena one
develops dispassion for the objects of clinging, and is liberated from
suffering (dukkha) and the cycle of incessant rebirths (sasra). To
this end, the Buddha recommended viewing things as characterized by
the three marks of existence.
Three Marks of Existence
Buddhism
7. Vedan: usually translated feeling: this is the "hedonic tone", i.e. whether something is pleasant, unpleasant or
neutral;
8. T: literally thirst, but in Buddhism nearly always used to mean craving;
9. Updna: clinging or grasping; the word also means fuel, which feeds the continuing cycle of rebirth;
10. Bhava: literally being (existence) or becoming. (The Theravada explains this as having two meanings: karma,
which produces a new existence, and the existence itself.);[43]
11. Jti: literally birth, but life is understood as starting at conception;[44]
12. Jarmaraa: (old age and death) and also soka, parideva, dukkha, domanassa and upys (sorrow, lamentation,
pain, affliction and despair).
Sentient beings always suffer throughout sasra, until they free themselves from this suffering (dukkha) by
attaining Nirvana. Then the absence of the first Nidnaignoranceleads to the absence of the others.
Buddhism
Emptiness
Main article: nyat
Mahayana Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from Nagarjuna (perhaps c. 150250 CE), arguably
the most influential scholar within the Mahayana tradition. Nagarjuna's primary contribution to Buddhist philosophy
was the systematic exposition of the concept of nyat, or "emptiness", widely attested in the Prajpramit sutras
that emerged in his era. The concept of emptiness brings together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly anatta
and dependent origination, to refute the metaphysics of Sarvastivada and Sautrantika (extinct non-Mahayana
schools). For Nagarjuna, it is not merely sentient beings that are empty of tman; all phenomena (dharmas) are
without any svabhava (literally "own-nature" or "self-nature"), and thus without any underlying essence; they are
"empty" of being independent; thus the heterodox theories of svabhava circulating at the time were refuted on the
basis of the doctrines of early Buddhism. Nagarjuna's school of thought is known as the Mdhyamaka. Some of the
writings attributed to Nagarjuna made explicit references to Mahayana texts, but his philosophy was argued within
the parameters set out by the agamas. He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent
exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the Canon. In the eyes of Nagarjuna the Buddha was not merely a
forerunner, but the very founder of the Mdhyamaka system.[45]
Sarvastivada teachingswhich were criticized by Ngrjunawere reformulated by scholars such as Vasubandhu
and Asanga and were adapted into the Yogacara (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Mdhyamaka school
held that asserting the existence or non-existence of any ultimately real thing was inappropriate, some exponents of
Yogacara asserted that the mind and only the mind is ultimately real (a doctrine known as cittamatra). Not all
Yogacarins asserted that mind was truly existent; Vasubandhu and Asanga in particular did not.[46] These two
schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahayana metaphysics in the
Indo-Tibetan tradition.
Besides emptiness, Mahayana schools often place emphasis on the notions of perfected spiritual insight
(prajpramit) and Buddha-nature (tathgatagarbha). There are conflicting interpretations of the tathgatagarbha
in Mahyna thought. The idea may be traced to Abhidharma, and ultimately to statements of the Buddha in the
Nikyas. In Tibetan Buddhism, according to the Sakya school, tathgatagarbha is the inseparability of the clarity and
emptiness of one's mind. In Nyingma, tathgatagarbha also generally refers to inseparability of the clarity and
emptiness of one's mind. According to the Gelug school, it is the potential for sentient beings to awaken since they
are empty (i.e. dependently originated). According to the Jonang school, it refers to the innate qualities of the mind
that expresses themselves as omniscience etc. when adventitious obscurations are removed. The "Tathgatagarbha
Sutras" are a collection of Mahayana sutras that present a unique model of Buddha-nature. Even though this
collection was generally ignored in India,[47] East Asian Buddhism provides some significance to these texts.
10
Buddhism
11
Liberation
Nirvana
Main article: Nirvana (Buddhism)
Nirvana (Sanskrit; Pali: "Nibbana") means "cessation", "extinction" (of
craving and ignorance and therefore suffering and the cycle of
involuntary rebirths (sasra)), "extinguished", "quieted", "calmed"; it
is also known as "Awakening" or "Enlightenment" in the West. The
term for anybody who has achieved nirvana, including the Buddha, is
arahant.
delusion:
An important development in the Mahayana [was] that it came to separate nirvana from bodhi ('awakening' to
the truth, Enlightenment), and to put a lower value on the former (Gombrich, 1992d). Originally nirvana and
bodhi refer to the same thing; they merely use different metaphors for the experience. But the Mahayana
tradition separated them and considered that nirvana referred only to the extinction of craving (passion and
hatred), with the resultant escape from the cycle of rebirth. This interpretation ignores the third fire, delusion:
the extinction of delusion is of course in the early texts identical with what can be positively expressed as
gnosis, Enlightenment.
Richard F. Gombrich,How Buddhism Began
Therefore, according to Mahayana Buddhism, the arahant has attained only nirvana, thus still being subject to
delusion, while the bodhisattva not only achieves nirvana but full liberation from delusion as well. He thus attains
bodhi and becomes a buddha. In Theravada Buddhism, bodhi and nirvana carry the same meaning as in the early
texts, that of being freed from greed, hate and delusion.
The term parinirvana is also encountered in Buddhism, and this generally refers to the complete nirvana attained by
the arahant at the moment of death, when the physical body expires.
Buddhism
12
Buddhas
Main article: Buddhahood
According to Buddhist traditions a Buddha is a fully awakened being who has completely purified his mind of the
three poisons of desire, aversion and ignorance. A Buddha is no longer bound by Samsara and has ended the
suffering which unawakened people experience in life.
Buddhists do not consider Siddhartha Gautama to have been the only Buddha. The Pali Canon refers to many
previous ones (see List of the 28 Buddhas), while the Mahayana tradition additionally has many Buddhas of
celestial, rather than historical, origin (see Amitabha or Vairocana as examples, for lists of many thousands Buddha
names see Taish Shinsh Daizky numbers 439448). A common Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist belief is that
the next Buddha will be one named Maitreya (Pali: Metteyya).
According to Theravada
In Theravada doctrine, a person may awaken from the "sleep of
ignorance" by directly realizing the true nature of reality; such people
are called arahants and occasionally buddhas. After numerous
lifetimes of spiritual striving, they have reached the end of the cycle of
rebirth, no longer reincarnating as human, animal, ghost, or other
being. The commentaries to the Pali Canon classify these awakened
beings into three types:
Sammasambuddha, usually just called the Buddha, who discovers
the truth by himself and teaches the path to awakening to others
Buddhism
13
According to Mahayana
In the Mahayana, the Buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human,
but as the earthly projection of a beginningless and endless,
omnipresent being (see Dharmakaya) beyond the range and reach of
thought. Moreover, in certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma
and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are seen as the
eternal Buddha himself.
The Buddha's death is seen as an illusion, he is living on in other
planes of existence, and monks are therefore permitted to offer "new
truths" based on his input. Mahayana also differs from Theravada in its
concept of nyat (that ultimately nothing has existence), and in its
belief in bodhisattvas (enlightened people who vow to continue being
reborn until all beings can be enlightened).[51]
Celestial Buddhas are individuals who no longer exist on the material
plane of existence, but who still aid in the enlightenment of all beings.
Nirvana came to refer only to the extinction of greed and
hate,Wikipedia:Disputed statement implying that delusion was still
The Great Statue of Buddha Amitabha in
present in one who attained Nirvana. Bodhi became a higher
Kamakura, Japan
attainment that eradicates delusion entirely.[] Thus, the Arahant attains
Nirvana but not Bodhi, thus still being subject to delusion, while the
Buddha attains Bodhi.Wikipedia:Disputed statement
The method of self-exertion or "self-power"without reliance on an external force or beingstands in contrast to
another major form of Buddhism, Pure Land, which is characterised by utmost trust in the salvific "other-power" of
Amitabha Buddha. Pure Land Buddhism is a very widespread and perhaps the most faith-orientated manifestation of
Buddhism and centres upon the conviction that faith in Amitabha Buddha and the chanting of homage to his name
liberates one at death into the Blissful ( ), Pure Land ( ) of Amitabha Buddha. This Buddhic realm is
variously construed as a foretaste of Nirvana, or as essentially Nirvana itself. The great vow of Amitabha Buddha to
rescue all beings from samsaric suffering is viewed within Pure Land Buddhism as universally efficacious, if only
one has faith in the power of that vow or chants his name.
Buddha eras
Buddhists believe Gautama Buddha was the first to achieve enlightenment in this Buddha era and is therefore
credited with the establishment of Buddhism. A Buddha era is the stretch of history during which people remember
and practice the teachings of the earliest known Buddha. This Buddha era will end when all the knowledge, evidence
and teachings of Gautama Buddha have vanished. This belief therefore maintains that many Buddha eras have
started and ended throughout the course of human existence. The Gautama Buddha, then, is the Buddha of this era,
who taught directly or indirectly to all other Buddhas in it (see types of Buddhas).
In addition, Mahayana Buddhists believe there are innumerable other Buddhas in other universes.[52] A Theravada
commentary says that Buddhas arise one at a time in this world element, and not at all in others.[53] The
understandings of this matter reflect widely differing interpretations of basic terms, such as "world realm", between
the various schools of Buddhism.
The idea of the decline and gradual disappearance of the teaching has been influential in East Asian Buddhism. Pure
Land Buddhism holds that it has declined to the point where few are capable of following the path, so it may be best
to rely on the power of the Amitabha Buddha.
Buddhism
14
Bodhisattvas
Main article: Bodhisattva
Bodhisattva means "enlightenment being", and generally refers to one
who is on the path to buddhahood. Traditionally, a bodhisattva is
anyone who, motivated by great compassion, has generated bodhicitta,
which is a spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all
sentient beings.[54] Theravada Buddhism primarily uses the term in
relation to Gautama Buddha's previous existences, but has traditionally
acknowledged and respected the bodhisattva path as well.
According to Jan Nattier, the term Mahyna ("Great Vehicle") was
originally even an honorary synonym for Bodhisattvayna, or the
"Bodhisattva Vehicle."[55] The Aashasrik Prajpramit Stra,
an early and important Mahyna text, contains a simple and brief
definition for the term bodhisattva, and this definition is the
following:[56][57][58]
Because he has enlightenment
bodhisattva-mahsattva is so called.
as
his
aim,
a
A statue of Prajpramit personified, Java,
Indonesia
Buddhism
15
Practice
Devotion
Main article: Buddhist devotion
Devotion is an important part of the practice of most Buddhists.[60] Devotional practices include bowing, offerings,
pilgrimage, and chanting. In Pure Land Buddhism, devotion to the Buddha Amitabha is the main practice. In
Nichiren Buddhism, devotion to the Lotus Sutra is the main practice.
Yoga
Buddhism traditionally incorporates states of meditative absorption
(Pali: jhna; Skt: dhyna).[61] The most ancient sustained expression of
yogic ideas is found in the early sermons of the Buddha.[62] One key
innovative teaching of the Buddha was that meditative absorption must
be combined with liberating cognition.[63] The difference between the
Buddha's teaching and the yoga presented in early Brahminic texts is
striking. Meditative states alone are not an end, for according to the
Buddha, even the highest meditative state is not liberating. Instead of
attaining a complete cessation of thought, some sort of mental activity
must take place: a liberating cognition, based on the practice of
mindful awareness.[64]
Meditation was an aspect of the practice of the yogis in the centuries
preceding the Buddha. The Buddha built upon the yogis' concern with
introspection and developed their meditative techniques, but rejected
their theories of liberation.[65] In Buddhism, mindfulness and clear
Statue of the Buddha in meditation position, Haw
awareness are to be developed at all times; in pre-Buddhist yogic
Phra Kaew, Vientiane, Laos
practices there is no such injunction. A yogi in the Brahmanical
tradition is not to practice while defecating, for example, while a Buddhist monastic should do so.[66]
Religious knowledge or "vision" was indicated as a result of practice both within and outside of the Buddhist fold.
According to the Samaaphala Sutta, this sort of vision arose for the Buddhist adept as a result of the perfection of
"meditation" coupled with the perfection of "discipline" (Pali sla; Skt. la). Some of the Buddha's meditative
techniques were shared with other traditions of his day, but the idea that ethics are causally related to the attainment
of "transcendent wisdom" (Pali pa; Skt. praj) was original.
The Buddhist texts are probably the earliest describing meditation techniques.[67] They describe meditative practices
and states that existed before the Buddha as well as those first developed within Buddhism.[68] Two Upanishads
written after the rise of Buddhism do contain full-fledged descriptions of yoga as a means to liberation.[69]
While there is no convincing evidence for meditation in pre-Buddhist early Brahminic texts, Wynne argues that
formless meditation originated in the Brahminic or Shramanic tradition, based on strong parallels between
Upanishadic cosmological statements and the meditative goals of the two teachers of the Buddha as recorded in the
early Buddhist texts.[70] He mentions less likely possibilities as well.[71] Having argued that the cosmological
statements in the Upanishads also reflect a contemplative tradition, he argues that the Nasadiya Sukta contains
evidence for a contemplative tradition, even as early as the late Rig Vedic period.
Buddhism
Refuge in the Three Jewels
Main articles: Refuge (Buddhism) and Three Jewels
Traditionally, the first step in most Buddhist schools requires taking
refuge in the Three Jewels (Sanskrit: tri-ratna, Pli: ti-ratana) as the
foundation of one's religious practice. The practice of taking refuge on
behalf of young or even unborn children is mentioned[72] in the
Majjhima Nikaya, recognized by most scholars as an early text (cf.
Infant baptism). Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in
the lama. In Mahayana, the person who chooses the bodhisattva path
makes a vow or pledge, considered the ultimate expression of
compassion. In Mahayana, too, the Three Jewels are perceived as
possessed of an eternal and unchanging essence and as having an
irreversible effect: "The Three Jewels have the quality of excellence.
Just as real jewels never change their faculty and goodness, whether
praised or reviled, so are the Three Jewels (Refuges), because they
have an eternal and immutable essence. These Three Jewels bring a
fruition that is changeless, for once one has reached Buddhahood, there
is no possibility of falling back to suffering."[73]
The Three Jewels are:
The Buddha. This is a title for those who have attained Nirvana. See
Relic depicting footprint of the Buddha with
also the Tathgata and Gautama Buddha. The Buddha could also be
Dharmachakra and triratna, 1st century CE,
Gandhra.
represented as a concept instead of a specific person: the perfect
wisdom that understands Dharma and sees reality in its true form.
In Mahayana Buddhism, the Buddha can be viewed as the supreme Refuge: "Buddha is the Unique Absolute
Refuge. Buddha is the Imperishable, Eternal, Indestructible and Absolute Refuge."[74]
The Dharma. The teachings or law of nature as expounded by the Gautama Buddha. It can also, especially in
Mahayana, connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality that is inseparable from the Buddha. Further, from some
Mahayana perspectives, the Dharma embodied in the form of a great sutra (Buddhic scripture) can replace the
need for a personal teacher and can be a direct and spontaneous gateway into Truth (Dharma). This is especially
said to be the case with the Lotus Sutra. Dr. Hiroshi Kanno writes of this view of the Lotus Sutra: "it is a
Dharma-gate of sudden enlightenment proper to the Great Vehicle; it is a Dharma-gate whereby one awakens
spontaneously, without resorting to a teacher".[75]
The Sangha. Those who have attained any of the Four stages of enlightenment, or simply the congregation of
monastic practitioners. The monks' order, which began during the lifetime of the Buddha, is among the oldest
organizations on Earth.
According to the scriptures, Gautama Buddha presented himself as a model. The Dharma offers a refuge by
providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of Nirvana. The Sangha is considered to
provide a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of
the Buddha's teachings is attainable.
16
Buddhism
17
Buddhist ethics
Main article: la
la (Sanskrit) or sla (Pli) is usually translated into English as
"virtuous behavior", "morality", "ethics" or "precept". It is an action
committed through the body, speech, or mind, and involves an
intentional effort. It is one of the three practices (sila, samadhi, and
panya) and the second pramit. It refers to moral purity of thought,
word, and deed. The four conditions of la are chastity, calmness,
quiet, and extinguishment.
la is the foundation of Samadhi/Bhvana (Meditative cultivation) or
mind cultivation. Keeping the precepts promotes not only the peace of
mind of the cultivator, which is internal, but also peace in the
community, which is external. According to the Law of Karma,
keeping the precepts are meritorious and it acts as causes that would
bring about peaceful and happy effects. Keeping these precepts keeps
the cultivator from rebirth in the four woeful realms of existence.
la refers to overall principles of ethical behavior. There are several
levels of sila, which correspond to "basic morality" (five precepts),
"basic morality with asceticism" (eight precepts), "novice monkhood"
(ten precepts) and "monkhood" (Vinaya or Patimokkha). Lay people
generally undertake to live by the five precepts, which are common to
all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose to undertake the
eight precepts, which add basic asceticism.
The five precepts are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy, without worries, and can
meditate well:
1. To refrain from taking life (non-violence towards sentient life forms), or ahims;
2.
3.
4.
5.
To refrain from taking that which is not given (not committing theft);
To refrain from sensual (including sexual) misconduct;
To refrain from lying (speaking truth always);
To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness (specifically, drugs and alcohol).
The precepts are not formulated as imperatives, but as training rules that laypeople undertake voluntarily to facilitate
practice.[76] In Buddhist thought, the cultivation of dana and ethical conduct themselves refine consciousness to such
a level that rebirth in one of the lower heavens is likely, even if there is no further Buddhist practice. There is
nothing improper or un-Buddhist about limiting one's aims to this level of attainment.[77]
In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and becomes a precept of celibacy.
The three additional precepts are:
6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time (eat only from sunrise to noon);
7. To refrain from dancing and playing music, wearing jewelry and cosmetics, attending shows and other
performances;
8. To refrain from using high or luxurious seats and bedding.
The complete list of ten precepts may be observed by laypeople for short periods. For the complete list, the seventh
precept is partitioned into two, and a tenth added:
6. To refrain from taking food at an unseasonable time, that is after the mid-day meal;
7. To refrain from dancing, music, singing and unseemly shows;
Buddhism
18
8. To refrain from the use of garlands, perfumes, ointments, and from things that tend to beautify and adorn
(the person);
9. To refrain from (using) high and luxurious seats (and beds);
10. To refrain from accepting gold and silver;
Monastic life
Vinaya is the specific moral code for monks and nuns. It includes the
Patimokkha, a set of 227 rules for monks in the Theravadin recension.
The precise content of the vinayapitaka (scriptures on Vinaya) differs
slightly according to different schools, and different schools or
subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to
Vinaya. Novice-monks use the ten precepts, which are the basic
precepts for monastics.
Regarding the monastic rules, the Buddha constantly reminds his
Buddhist monks performing a ceremony in
hearers that it is the spirit that counts. On the other hand, the rules
Hangzhou, China
themselves are designed to assure a satisfying life, and provide a
perfect springboard for the higher attainments. Monastics are instructed by the Buddha to live as "islands unto
themselves". In this sense, living life as the vinaya prescribes it is, as one scholar puts it: "more than merely a means
to an end: it is very nearly the end in itself."[78]
In Eastern Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana Brahmajala Sutra
(not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for Bodhisattvas, where, for example, the eating of meat is
frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged (see vegetarianism in Buddhism). In Japan, this has almost
completely displaced the monastic vinaya, and allows clergy to marry.
Meditation
Main article: Buddhist meditation
Buddhist meditation is fundamentally concerned with two themes:
transforming the mind and using it to explore itself and other
phenomena.[79] According to Theravada Buddhism the Buddha taught
two types of meditation, samatha meditation (Sanskrit: amatha) and
vipassan meditation (Sanskrit: vipayan). In Chinese Buddhism,
these exist (translated chih kuan), but Chn (Zen) meditation is more
popular.[80] According to Peter Harvey, whenever Buddhism has been
healthy, not only monks, nuns, and married lamas, but also more
committed lay people have practiced meditation.[81] According to
Buddhist monks praying in Thailand
Routledge's Encyclopedia of Buddhism, in contrast, throughout most
of Buddhist history before modern times, serious meditation by lay
people has been unusual.[82] The evidence of the early texts suggests that at the time of the Buddha, many male and
female lay practitioners did practice meditation, some even to the point of proficiency in all eight jhnas (see the
next section regarding these).[83]
Buddhism
19
Buddhism
20
Initially, praj is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading, studying,
and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is
applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. Notably,
one could in theory attain Nirvana at any point of practice, whether deep in meditation, listening to a sermon,
conducting the business of one's daily life, or any other activity.
Zen
Main article: Zen
Zen Buddhism (), pronounced Chn in Chinese, seon in Korean or
zen in Japanese (derived from the Sanskrit term dhyna, meaning
"meditation") is a form of Buddhism that became popular in China,
Korea and Japan and that lays special emphasis on meditation.[84] Zen
places less emphasis on scriptures than some other forms of Buddhism
and prefers to focus on direct spiritual breakthroughs to truth.
Zen Buddhism is divided into two main schools: Rinzai ( ) and
St ( ), the former greatly favouring the use in meditation on
the koan ( , a meditative riddle or puzzle) as a device for spiritual
break-through, and the latter (while certainly employing koans)
focusing more on shikantaza or "just sitting".[85]
Zen Buddhist teaching is often full of paradox, in order to loosen the grip of the ego and to facilitate the penetration
into the realm of the True Self or Formless Self, which is equated with the Buddha himself.[86] According to Zen
master Kosho Uchiyama, when thoughts and fixation on the little "I" are transcended, an Awakening to a universal,
non-dual Self occurs: "When we let go of thoughts and wake up to the reality of life that is working beyond them, we
discover the Self that is living universal non-dual life (before the separation into two) that pervades all living
creatures and all existence."[87] Thinking and thought must therefore not be allowed to confine and bind one.[88]
Vajrayana and Tantra
Though based upon Mahayana, Tibeto-Mongolian Buddhism is one of the schools that practice Vajrayana or
"Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayna, Tantrayna, Tantric Buddhism, or esoteric Buddhism). It
accepts all the basic concepts of Mahyna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual and physical techniques
designed to enhance Buddhist practice. Tantric Buddhism is largely concerned with ritual and meditative
practices.[89] One component of the Vajrayna is harnessing psycho-physical energy through ritual, visualization,
physical exercises, and meditation as a means of developing the mind. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a
practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years. In the Tibetan tradition, these
practices can include sexual yoga, though only for some very advanced practitioners.[90]
Buddhism
21
History
Main article: History of Buddhism
Philosophical roots
Historically, the roots of Buddhism lie in the religious thought of
ancient India during the second half of the first millennium BCE.[91]
That was a period of social and religious turmoil, as there was
significant discontent with the sacrifices and rituals of Vedic
Brahmanism.[92] It was challenged by numerous new ascetic religious
and philosophical groups and teachings that broke with the Brahmanic
tradition and rejected the authority of the Vedas and the
Brahmans.[93][94] These groups, whose members were known as
shramanas, were a continuation of a non-Vedic strand of Indian
The Buddhist "Carpenter's Cave" at Ellora in
thought distinct from Indo-Aryan Brahmanism.[95][96] Scholars have
Maharashtra, India
reasons to believe that ideas such as samsara, karma (in the sense of
the influence of morality on rebirth), and moksha originated in the
shramanas, and were later adopted by Brahmin orthodoxy.[97][98][99][100][101][102]
At the same time, these movements were influenced by, and in some
respects continued, philosophical thought within the Vedic tradition as
reflected e.g. in the Upanishads.[106] These movements included,
besides Buddhism, various skeptics (such as Sanjaya Belatthiputta),
atomists (such as Pakudha Kaccayana), materialists (such as Ajita
Kesakambali), antinomians (such as Purana Kassapa); the most
important ones in the 5th century BCE were the Ajivikas, who
emphasized the rule of fate, the Lokayata (materialists), the Ajnanas
(agnostics) and the Jains, who stressed that the soul must be freed from
matter.[107]
Buddhism
practice"). The shramanas rejected the Veda, and the authority of the brahmans, who claimed they possessed
revealed truths not knowable by any ordinary human means. Moreover, they declared that the entire Brahmanical
system was fraudulent: a conspiracy of the brahmans to enrich themselves by charging exorbitant fees to perform
bogus rites and give useless advice.[108]
A particular criticism of the Buddha was Vedic animal sacrifice. The Buddha declared that priests reciting the Vedas
were like the blind leading the blind.[109] According to him, those priests who had memorized the Vedas really knew
nothing.[110] He also mocked the Vedic "hymn of the cosmic man".[111] However, the Buddha was not anti-Vedic,
and declared that the Veda in its true form was declared by "Kashyapa" to certain rishis, who by severe penances had
acquired the power to see by divine eyes.[112] He names the Vedic rishis, and declared that the original Veda of the
rishis[113][114] was altered by a few Brahmins who introduced animal sacrifices. The Buddha says that it was on this
alteration of the true Veda that he refused to pay respect to the Vedas of his time.[115] He declared that the primary
goal of Upanishadic thought, the Atman, was in fact non-existent,[116] and, having explained that Brahminical
attempts to achieve liberation at death were futile, proposed his new idea of liberation in life.[117][118] However, he
did not denounce the union with Brahman,[119] or the idea of the self uniting with the Self.[120] At the same time, the
traditional Brahminical religion itself gradually underwent profound changes, transforming it into what is recognized
as early Hinduism.[121] In particular, the brahmans thus developed "philosophical systems of their own, meeting the
new ideas with adaptations of their doctrines".[122]
Indian Buddhism
Main article: History of Buddhism in India
The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into five periods:[123] Early Buddhism (occasionally called
Pre-sectarian Buddhism), Nikaya Buddhism or Sectarian Buddhism: The period of the Early Buddhist schools, Early
Mahayana Buddhism, Later Mahayana Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism (also called Vajrayana Buddhism).
Pre-sectarian Buddhism
Main article: Pre-sectarian Buddhism
Pre-sectarian Buddhism is the earliest phase of Buddhism, recognized by nearly all scholars. Its main scriptures are
the Vinaya Pitaka and the four principal Nikayas or Agamas. Certain basic teachings appear in many places
throughout the early texts, so most scholars conclude that Gautama Buddha must have taught something similar to
the Three marks of existence, the Five Aggregates, dependent origination, karma and rebirth, the Four Noble Truths,
the Noble Eightfold Path, and nirvana.[124] Some scholars disagree, and have proposed many other theories.[125][126]
Early Buddhist schools
Main articles: Early Buddhist schools, Buddhist councils and Theravada
22
Buddhism
23
According to the scriptures, soon after the parinirva (from Sanskrit:
"highest extinguishment") of Gautama Buddha, the first Buddhist
council was held. As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of
teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to
collectively recite the teachings to ensure that no errors occurred in
oral transmission. In the first council, nanda, a cousin of the Buddha
and his personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses
(stras, Pli suttas) of the Buddha, and, according to some sources, the
abhidhamma. Upli, another disciple, recited the monastic rules
(vinaya). Scholars regard the traditional accounts of the council as
greatly exaggerated if not entirely fictitious.[127]
Buddhism
24
Buddhism
25
Development of Buddhism
Main article: Timeline of Buddhism
Buddhism may have spread only slowly in India until the time of the
Mauryan emperor Ashoka, who was a public supporter of the religion.
The support of Aoka and his descendants led to the construction of
more stpas (Buddhist religious memorials) and to efforts to spread
Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into
neighboring landsparticularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of
Afghanistan and Central Asia, beyond the Mauryas' northwest border,
and to the island of Sri Lanka south of India. These two missions, in
opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the
spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the
emergence of Theravda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to
the coastal lands of Southeast Asia.
This period marks the first known spread of Buddhism beyond India.
According to the edicts of Aoka, emissaries were sent to various
countries west of India to spread Buddhism (Dharma), particularly in
eastern provinces of the neighboring Seleucid Empire, and even farther
to Hellenistic kingdoms of the Mediterranean. It is a matter of
disagreement among scholars whether or not these emissaries were
accompanied by Buddhist missionaries.[149]
The gradual spread of Buddhism into adjacent areas meant that it came
into contact with new ethnical groups. During this period Buddhism
Coin depicting Indo-Greek king Menander, who,
was
exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek
according to Buddhist tradition records in the
civilization, to changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian
Milinda Panha, converted to the Buddhist faith
and became an arhat in the 2nd century BCE .
religionsthemselves influenced by Buddhism. Striking examples of
(British Museum)
this syncretistic development can be seen in the emergence of
Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the Indo-Greek Kingdom, and
in the development of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhra. A Greek king, Menander, has even been immortalized in
the Buddhist canon.
The Theravada school spread south from India in the 3rd century BCE, to Sri Lanka and Thailand and Burma and
later also Indonesia. The Dharmagupta school spread (also in 3rd century BCE) north to Kashmir, Gandhara and
Bactria (Afghanistan).
The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to China is most commonly thought to have started in the late 2nd or the
1st century CE, though the literary sources are all open to question.[150][151] The first documented translation efforts
by foreign Buddhist monks in China were in the 2nd century CE, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the
Buddhism
26
Buddhism today
Main article: Timeline of Buddhism:Common Era
By the late Middle Ages, Buddhism had become virtually extinct in
India, and although it continued to exist in surrounding countries, its
influence was no longer expanding. It is now again gaining strength
worldwide.[153][154] China and India are now starting to fund Buddhist
shrines in various Asian countries as they compete for influence in the
region.
Most Buddhist groups in the West are nominally affiliated with at least
one of these three traditions:
Buddhism
27
In the second half of the 20th Century a modern movement in Nichiren Buddhism: Soka Gakkai (Value Creation
Society) emerged in Japan and spread further to other countries. Soka Gakkai International (SGI) is a lay Buddhist
movement linking more than 12 million people around the world, and is currently described as "the most
diverse[158] and the largest Lay Buddhist movement in the world.[159]
Demographics
Main article: Buddhism by country
According to most scholars of religious demographics, there are
between 350 million and 1.6 billion Buddhists, with 350550 million
the most widely accepted estimate. This makes Buddhism the
fourth-largest religion after Christianity, Hinduism, and Islam. Due to
the highly syncretistic nature of religious beliefs in East Asia, however,
some believe the Buddhist population exceeds 1 billion. According to
demographers Todd M. Johnson and Brian J. Grim,
The demographics of Buddhism can be considered in two
ways: core Buddhism and wider Buddhism. Core
Buddhism includes the major schools of Buddhist thought:
Theravada, Mahayana, and Tibetan. The concept of wider
Buddhism includes all Buddhists of core Buddhism, plus
all Chinese folk-religionists and most other Chinese. The
Buddhist worldview and key rituals impact the whole of
Chinese culture, including many Chinese who claim to be
agnostic or atheist. In this "wider" definition it is
appropriate to speak of 1 billion Buddhists.
difficulties in estimating the number of Buddhists who do not have congregational memberships and often do not
participate in public ceremonies;
official policies on religion in several historically Buddhist countries that make accurate assessments of religious
adherence more difficult; most notably China, Vietnam and North Korea.[164] In many current and former
Communist governments in Asia, government policies may discourage adherents from reporting their religious
identity, or may encourage official counts to underestimate religious adherence.
Buddhism was the third oldest organized world religion, and the world's largest in most of history. In 1951, it was
the world's largest religion with 520 million adherents, compared to Christianity with 500 million adherents.[165]
Buddhism
28
Not all traditions of Buddhism share the same philosophical outlook, or treat the same concepts as central. Each
tradition, however, does have its own core concepts, and some comparisons can be drawn between them. For
example, according to one Buddhist ecumenical organization,[170] several concepts common to both major Buddhist
branches:
Both accept the Buddha as their teacher.
Both accept the Middle way, dependent origination, the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path and the
Three marks of existence.
Both accept that members of the laity and of the sangha can pursue the path toward enlightenment (bodhi).
Both consider buddhahood the highest attainment.
Timeline
This is a rough timeline of the development of the different schools/traditions:
Timeline: Development and propagation of Buddhist traditions (ca. 450 BCE ca. 1300 CE)
[171]
450 BCE
India
SriLanka&
SoutheastAsia
Tibet
Early
Sangha
500 CE
Mahyna
700 CE 800 CE
1200 CE
[172]
Vajrayna
Theravda
Nyingma
Kadam
Kagyu
Dagpo
Sakya
Jonang
Buddhism
29
EastAsia
Early Buddhist
schools
and Mahyna
Nara
Shingon
Chn
to Vietnam)
Thin, Seon
Zen
Tiantai
Tendai
Nichiren
Jdo sh
Greco-Buddhism
450 BCE
500 CE
700 CE 800 CE
1200 CE
Theravada school
Main article: Theravada
Theravada ("Doctrine of the Elders", or "Ancient Doctrine") is the oldest surviving Buddhist school. It is relatively
conservative, and generally closest to early Buddhism.[173] This school is derived from the Vibhajjavda grouping
that emerged amongst the older Sthavira group at the time of the Third Buddhist Council (c. 250 BCE). This school
gradually declined on the Indian subcontinent, but its branch in Sri Lanka and South East Asia continues to survive.
The Theravada school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the Pli Canon and its commentaries. After
being orally transmitted for a few centuries, its scriptures, the Pali Canon, were finally committed to writing in the
1st century BCE, in Sri Lanka, at what the Theravada usually reckon as the fourth council. It is also one of the first
Buddhist schools to commit the complete set of its canon into writing.Wikipedia:Citation needed The Sutta
collections and Vinaya texts of the Pli Canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the Tripitaka), are
generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in
every branch of Buddhism.
Theravda is primarily practiced today in Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as well as small portions of
China, Vietnam, Malaysia and Bangladesh. It has a growing presence in the west.
Theravadin Buddhists think that personal effort is required to realize rebirth. Monks follow the vinaya: meditating,
teaching and serving their lay communities. Laypersons can perform good actions, producing merit.[174]
Buddhism
30
Mahayana traditions
Main article: Mahayana
Mahayana Buddhism flourished in India from the 5th century CE
onwards, during the dynasty of the Guptas. Mahyna centres of
learning were established, the most important one being the Nland
University in north-eastern India.
Mahayana schools recognize all or part of the Mahayana Sutras. Some
of these sutras became for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha
himself, and faith in and veneration of those texts are stated in some
sutras (e.g. the Lotus Sutra and the Mahaparinirvana Sutra) to lay the
foundations for the later attainment of Buddhahood itself.
Vajrayana traditions
Main article: Vajrayana
Buddhism
31
In one of the first major contemporary academic treatises on the subject, Fairfield University professor Ronald M.
Davidson argues that the rise of Vajrayana was in part a reaction to the changing political climate in India at the
time. With the fall of the Gupta dynasty, in an increasingly fractious political environment, institutional Buddhism
had difficulty attracting patronage, and the folk movement led by siddhas became more prominent. After perhaps
two hundred years, it had begun to get integrated into the monastic establishment.Wikipedia:Citing sources
Vajrayana combined and developed a variety of elements, a number of which had already existed for centuries.[177]
In addition to the Mahyna scriptures, Vajrayna Buddhists recognise a large body of Buddhist Tantras, some of
which are also included in Chinese and Japanese collections of Buddhist literature, and versions of a few even in the
Pali Canon.
Buddhist texts
Main article: Buddhist texts
Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different
schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on learning the
various texts. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects
in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. Buddhist
scriptures are mainly written in Pli, Tibetan, Mongolian, and Chinese.
Some texts still exist in Sanskrit and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit.
Buddhism
32
clergy or laity in China and Japan.[179] Other scholars say there is no universally accepted common core.[180] The
size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer Babasaheb
Ambedkar) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy.
The followers of Theravda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pli Canon as definitive and authoritative,
while the followers of Mahyna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahyna stras and
their own vinaya. The Pli sutras, along with other, closely related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the
gamas.
Over the years, various attempts have been made to synthesize a single Buddhist text that can encompass all of the
major principles of Buddhism. In the Theravada tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined
popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, the
Dhammapada was championed as a unifying scripture.
Dwight Goddard collected a sample of Buddhist scriptures, with the emphasis on Zen, along with other classics of
Eastern philosophy, such as the Tao Te Ching, into his 'Buddhist Bible' in the 1920s. More recently, Dr. Babasaheb
Ambedkar attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles in "The Buddha and His
Dhamma" [181]. Other such efforts have persisted to present day, but currently there is no single text that represents
all Buddhist traditions.
Pli Tipitaka
Main article: Pli Canon
Pli Canon
Vinaya Pitaka
Suttavibhanga
Khandhaka
Parivara
Sutta Pitaka
Digha Nikaya
Majjhima Nikaya
Samyutta Nikaya
Anguttara Nikaya
Khuddaka Nikaya
Abhidhamma Pitaka
Dhammasangani
Vibhanga
Kathavatthu
Yamaka
Patthana
v
t
e [182]
The Pli Tipitaka, which means "three baskets", refers to the Vinaya Pitaka, the Sutta Pitaka, and the Abhidhamma
Pitaka. The Vinaya Pitaka contains disciplinary rules for the Buddhist monks and nuns, as well as explanations of
why and how these rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification. The Sutta Pitaka contains
discourses ascribed to Gautama Buddha. The Abhidhamma Pitaka contains material often described as systematic
expositions of the Gautama Buddha's teachings.
Buddhism
33
The Pli Tipitaka is the only early Tipitaka (Sanskrit: Tripiaka) to survive intact in its original language, but a
number of early schools had their own recensions of the Tipitaka featuring much of the same material. We have
portions of the Tipitakas of the Srvstivda, Dharmaguptaka, Sammitya, Mahsaghika, Kyapya, and
Mahsaka schools, most of which survive in Chinese translation only. According to some sources, some early
schools of Buddhism had five or seven pitakas.[183]
According to the scriptures, soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named
Mahkyapa (Pli: Mahkassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the Buddha's teachings. Upli
recited the vinaya. nanda, the Buddha's personal attendant, was called upon to recite the dhamma. These became
the basis of the Tripitaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was
committed to text in the last century BCE. Both the stras and the vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide
variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and
cosmogonical texts, stories of the Gautama Buddha's previous lives, and various other subjects.
Much of the material in the Canon is not specifically "Theravadin", but is instead the collection of teachings that this
school preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of teachings. According to Peter Harvey, it contains material at
odds with later Theravadin orthodoxy. He states: "The Theravadins, then, may have added texts to the Canon for
some time, but they do not appear to have tampered with what they already had from an earlier period."[184]
Mahayana sutras
Main article: Mahayana sutras
The Mahayana sutras are a very broad genre of Buddhist scriptures that
the Mahayana Buddhist tradition holds are original teachings of the
Buddha. Some adherents of Mahayana accept both the early teachings
(including in this the Sarvastivada Abhidharma, which was criticized
by Nagarjuna and is in fact opposed to early Buddhist thought[185]) and
the Mahayana sutras as authentic teachings of Gautama Buddha, and
claim they were designed for different types of persons and different
levels of spiritual understanding.
The Mahayana sutras often claim to articulate the Buddha's deeper,
more advanced doctrines, reserved for those who follow the
bodhisattva path. That path is explained as being built upon the
motivation to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the
name Mahyna (lit., the Great Vehicle).
According to Mahayana tradition, the Mahayana sutras were transmitted in secret, came from other Buddhas or
Bodhisattvas, or were preserved in non-human worlds because human beings at the time could not understand
them:[186]
Some of our sources maintain the authenticity of certain other texts not found in the canons of these
schools (the early schools). These texts are those held genuine by the later school, not one of the
eighteen, which arrogated to itself the title of Mahayana, 'Great Vehicle'. According to the Mahayana
historians these texts were admittedly unknown to the early schools of Buddhists. However, they had all
been promulgated by the Buddha. [The Buddha's] followers on earth, the sravakas ('pupils'), had not
been sufficiently advanced to understand them, and hence were not given them to remember, but they
were taught to various supernatural beings and then preserved in such places as the Dragon World.
Approximately six hundred Mahayana sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in Chinese or Tibetan translations. In
addition, East Asian Buddhism recognizes some sutras regarded by scholars as of Chinese rather than Indian origin.
Buddhism
Generally, scholars conclude that the Mahayana scriptures were composed from the 1st century CE onwards: "Large
numbers of Mahayana sutras were being composed in the period between the beginning of the common era and the
fifth century",[187] five centuries after the historical Gautama Buddha. Some of these had their roots in other
scriptures composed in the 1st century BCE. It was not until after the 5th century CE that the Mahayana sutras
started to influence the behavior of mainstream Buddhists in India: "But outside of texts, at least in India, at exactly
the same period, very differentin fact seemingly olderideas and aspirations appear to be motivating actual
behavior, and old and established Hinnayana groups appear to be the only ones that are patronized and supported."
These texts were apparently not universally accepted among Indian Buddhists when they appeared; the pejorative
label hinayana was applied by Mahayana supporters to those who rejected the Mahayana sutras.
Only the Theravada school does not include the Mahayana scriptures in its canon. As the modern Theravada school
is descended from a branch of Buddhism that diverged and established itself in Sri Lanka prior to the emergence of
the Mahayana texts, debate exists as to whether the Theravada were historically included in the hinayana
designation; in the modern era, this label is seen as derogatory, and is generally avoided.
Scholar Isabelle Onians asserts that although "the Mahyna ... very occasionally referred contemptuously to earlier
Buddhism as the Hinayna, the Inferior Way," "the preponderance of this name in the secondary literature is far out
of proportion to occurrences in the Indian texts." She notes that the term rvakayna was "the more politically
correct and much more usual" term used by Mahynists.[188] Jonathan Silk has argued that the term "Hinayana" was
used to refer to whomever one wanted to criticize on any given occasion, and did not refer to any definite grouping
of Buddhists.[189]
Comparative studies
Buddhism provides many opportunities for comparative study with a diverse range of subjects. For example,
Buddhism's emphasis on the Middle way not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but has also allowed
Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various differing beliefs, customs and institutions in countries where it has
resided throughout its history. Also, its moral and spiritual parallels with other systems of thoughtfor example,
with various tenets of Christianityhave been subjects of close study. In addition, the Buddhist concept of
dependent origination has been compared to modern scientific thought, as well as Western metaphysics.
Is Buddhism a religion?
34
Buddhism
35
B. Alan Wallace states: "When we in the West first engage with Buddhism, it is almost inevitable that we bring
out one of our familiar stereotypes and apply it to Buddhism, calling it simply a 'religion.'... But Buddhism has
never been simply a religion as we define it in the West. From the very beginning it has also had philosophical
elements, as well as empirical and rational elements that may invite the term 'science.'"[193]
Rupert Gethin states: "I am not concerned here to pronounce on a question that is sometimes asked of Buddhism:
is it a religion? Obviously it depends on how one defines a religion. What is certain, however, is that Buddhism
does not involve belief in a creator God who has control over human destiny, nor does it seek to define itself by
reference to a creed; as Edward Conze has pointed out, it took over 2,000 years and a couple of Western converts
to Buddhism to provide it with a creed. On the other hand, Buddhism views activities that would be generally
understood as religioussuch as devotional practices and ritualsas a legitimate, useful, and even essential part
of the practice and training that leads to the cessation of suffering."[194] Gethin points out that some key
differences between Buddhism and conventionally considered Western religions are that Buddhism does not
assert a belief in a creator god, nor does it define itself by a particular creed. On the other hand, Gethin notes,
Buddhist practice often includes devotional practices and ritual, which are typically associated with religious
belief.[194]
Damien Keown states: "Problems [...] confront us as soon as we try to define what Buddhism is. Is it a religion? A
philosophy? A way of life? A code of ethics? It is not easy to classify Buddhism as any of these things, and it
challenges us to rethink some of these categories. What, for example, do we mean by religion? Most people
would say that religion has something to do with belief in God. [...] If belief in God in this sense is the essence of
religion, then Buddhism cannot be a religion. [...] Some have suggested that a new category that of the
non-theistic religion is needed to encompass Buddhism. Another possibility is that our original definition is
simply too narrow.[195]
Buddhism
The Dalai Lama states: "From one viewpoint, Buddhism is a
religion, from another viewpoint Buddhism is a science of mind and
not a religion. Buddhism can be a bridge between these two sides.
Therefore, with this conviction I try to have closer ties with
scientists, mainly in the fields of cosmology, psychology,
neurobiology and physics. In these fields there are insights to share,
and to a certain extent we can work together."[196]
Ilkka Pyysiinen states: "There are thus great difficulties involved in
conceptualizing religion as belief in god(s), superhuman agents,
etc., although we intuitively think that some such beings,
nevertheless, are essential in religion. As is well-known, Buddhism
is the favorite example of scholars who have argued that we should
find some other way of defining religion than the one based on the
idea of belief in gods or superhuman beings." and "Buddhism does
not have to be the problematic touchstone for a global concept of
religion."
Martin Southwold states: "It is argued that Buddhism, though
Czech Buddhists
non-theistic, resembles other religions in depending on mystical
notions; it is shown how this contributes to understanding the social
functions of religions."
Walpola Rahula states: "The question has often been asked: Is Buddhism a religion or a philosophy? It does not
matter what you call it. Buddhism remains what it is whatever label you may put on it. The label is immaterial.
Even the label 'Buddhism' which we give to the teaching of the Buddha is of little importance. The name one
gives it is inessential. What's in a name? That which we call a rose, By any other name would smell as sweet. In
the same way Truth needs no label: it is neither Buddhist, Christian, Hindu nor Moslem. It is not the monopoly of
anybody. Sectarian labels are a hindrance to the independent understanding of Truth, and they produce harmful
prejudices in men's minds."[197]
Dzogchen Ponlop Rinpoche states: "If you are interested in 'meeting the Buddha' and following his example, then
you should realize that the path the Buddha taught is primarily a study of your own mind and a system for training
your mind. This path is spiritual, not religious. Its goal is self-knowledge, not salvation; freedom, not heaven. And
it is deeply personal."
36
Buddhism
In the mid-19th century, encounters between Buddhists and Christians in Japan prompted the formation of a
Buddhist Propagation Society.Wikipedia:Citation needed In Japan, a school of Buddhist self-criticism exists. In the
1990s, Bhutan expelled or forced to leave its Hindu population in the name of preserving its Buddhist culture and
identity.[202]
Notes
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10] For instance, Gethin Foundations, p. 14, states: "The earliest Buddhist sources state that the future Buddha was born Siddhrtha Gautama
(Pali Siddhattha Gotama), the son of a local chieftaina rjanin Kapilavastu (Pali Kapilavatthu) what is now the IndianNepalese border."
However, Professor Gombrich (Theravda Buddhism, p. 1) and the old but specialized study by Edward Thomas, The Life of the Buddha,
ascribe the name Siattha/fitta to later sources.
[11] Keown, Dictionary of Buddhism, p. 267
[12] Skilton, Concise, p. 25
[13] Earlier Buddhist texts refer to five realms rather than six realms; when described as five realms, the god realm and demi-god realm
constitute a single realm.
[14] See the article Sasra (Buddhism) for further details and citations.
[15] Journal of Buddhist Ethics: "Zen as a Social Ethics of Responsiveness" (https:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20090325011050/ http:/ / www.
buddhistethics. org/ 13/ zse1-kasulis. pdf) (PDF), T. P. Kasulis, Ohio State University
[16] Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 40
[17] Dr. Richard K. Payne (ed.), Tantric Buddhism in East Asia, Wisdom Publications, Boston, 2006, p. 74
[18] Lopez, Buddhism. p. 248
[19] Keown, Buddhism, Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 107
[20] Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 34
[21] Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (Volume Two), p. 711
[22] Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 33
[23] Andr Bareau, Les Sectes bouddhiques du Petit Vhicule, cole Franaise d'Extrme-Orient, Saigon, 1955, pp. 212223: the top of p. 212
says: "Here are the theses of the Theravadins of the Mahavihara"; then begins a numbered list of doctrines over the following pages, including
on p. 223: "There are only five destinies ... the kalakanjika asuras have the same colour, same nourishment, same foods, same lifespan as the
petas, with whom ... they marry. As for the Vepacittiparisa, they have the same colour, same nourishment, same foods, same lifespan as the
gods, with whom they marry."(Translated from the French)
[24] The 31 Planes of Existence (http:/ / www. buddhanet. net/ pdf_file/ allexistence. pdf) (PDF), Ven. Suvanno Mahathera
[25] Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Vol. 1, p. 377
[26] The Connected Discourses of the Buddha. A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Bhikkhu Bodhi, Translator. Wisdom Publications.
[27] See the article Four Noble Truths for further details and citations. In particular, the section "The four truths" within that article provides a
footnote showing variety of translations of these four statements.
[28] For clarification of translations, see Dukkha#Translating the term dukkha.
[29] See the article Dukkha for further details and citations.
[30] See the article Four Noble Truths for further details and citations.
[31] Ajahn Sucitto 2010, p.87-88.
[32] Gethin 1998, p.82.
[33] Armstrong, p. 77.
[34] Nhat Hahn, Thich, p. 36.
[35] and
[36] Kohn, Shambhala, pp. 131, 143
[37] Jeffrey Po, "Is Buddhism a Pessimistic Way of Life?" (http:/ / www. 4ui. com/ eart/ 172eart1. htm)
37
Buddhism
[38] Thanissaro Bhikkhu, The Not-Self Strategy (http:/ / www. accesstoinsight. org/ lib/ authors/ thanissaro/ notself. html), See Point 3The Canon
quote Thanissaro Bhikkhu draws attention to is the Sabbasava Sutta (http:/ / www. accesstoinsight. org/ tipitaka/ mn/ mn. 002. than.
html#ayoniso).
[39] This twelve nidana scheme can be found, for instance, in multiple discourses in chapter 12 of the Samyutta NikayaNidana Vagga (e.g., see
SN 12.2, Thanissaro, 1997a) (http:/ / www. accesstoinsight. org/ tipitaka/ sn/ sn12/ sn12. 002. than. html). Other "applications" of what might
be termed "mundane dependent origination" include the nine-nidana scheme of Digha Nikaya 15 (e.g., Thanissaro, 1997b) (http:/ / www.
accesstoinsight. org/ tipitaka/ dn/ dn. 15. 0. than. html) and the ten-nidana scheme of Samyutta Nikaya 12.65 (e.g., Thanissaro, 1997c). (http:/ /
www. accesstoinsight. org/ tipitaka/ sn/ sn12/ sn12. 065. than. html) So-called "transcendental dependent origination" (also involving twelve
nidanas) is described in Samyutta Nikaya 12.23 (e.g., see Bodhi, 1995). (http:/ / www. accesstoinsight. org/ lib/ authors/ bodhi/ wheel277.
html) In addition, Digha Nikaya 15 describes an eleven-nidana scheme (starting with "feeling") that leads to interpersonal suffering ("the
taking up of sticks and knives; conflicts, quarrels, and disputes; accusations, divisive speech, and lies").
[40] Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, page 56
[41] Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 57
[42] Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 58
[43] Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 59
[44] Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 60
[45] Christian Lindtner, Master of Wisdom. Dharma Publishing 1997, p. 324.
[46] Dan Lusthaus, "What is and isn't Yogacara" (http:/ / www. acmuller. net/ yogacara/ articles/ intro-uni. htm)
[47] Williams, Paul. Buddhist Thought. Routledge 2000, page 161.
[48] raga, Pali-English Dictionary (http:/ / dsal. uchicago. edu/ cgi-bin/ philologic/ getobject. pl?c. 3:1:489. pali), The Pali Text Society
[49] dosa, Pali-English Dictionary (http:/ / dsal. uchicago. edu/ cgi-bin/ philologic/ getobject. pl?c. 1:1:2598. pali), The Pali Text Society
[50] moha, Pali-English Dictionary (http:/ / dsal. uchicago. edu/ cgi-bin/ philologic/ getobject. pl?c. 3:1:229. pali), The Pali Text Society
[51] Hawkins, pp. 40, 46.
[52] Kogen Mizuno, Essentials of Buddhism, Shunju-sha, 1972, English translation, Kosei, Tokyo, 1996, p. 57
[53] Dispeller of Delusion. Vol. II. Pali Text Society, p. 184
[54] The Bodhisattva Vow: A Practical Guide to Helping Others, page 1, Tharpa Publications (2nd. ed., 1995) ISBN 978-0-948006-50-0
[55] Nattier, Jan (2003), A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra: p. 174
[56] Mall, Linnart. Studies in the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita and Other Essays. Motilal Banarsidass. 2005. pp. 53-54.
[57] Hirakawa, Akira. A History of Indian Buddhism: from kyamuni to Early Mahyna. Motilal Banarsidass. 2007. p. 297.
[58] Conze, Edward. The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and its Verse Summary. Grey Fox Press. 2001. p. 89.
[59] The Bodhisattva Vow: A Practical Guide to Helping Others, pages 4-12, Tharpa Publications (2nd. ed., 1995) ISBN 978-0-948006-50-0
[60] Harvey, p. 170
[61] Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) by Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 22)
[62] Barbara Stoler Miller, Yoga: Discipline of Freedom: the Yoga Sutra Attributed to Patanjali; a Translation of the Text, with Commentary,
Introduction, and Glossary of Keywords. University of California Press, 1996, page 8.
[63] Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge, 2007, page 73.
[64] Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge, 2007, page 105.
[65] Michael Carrithers, The Buddha. Taken from Founders of Faith, published by Oxford University Press, 1986, page 30.
[66] Alexander Wynne, The origin of Buddhist meditation. Routledge, 2007, p. 72.
[67] Richard Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988,
page 44.
[68] Johannes Bronkhorst, The Two Traditions of Mediation in Ancient India. Franz Steiner Verlag Weisbaden GmbH, pages 1-17.
[69] Randall Collins, The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change. Harvard University Press, 2000, page 199 (http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=2HS1DOZ35EgC& pg=PA177& source=gbs_toc_r& cad=0_0#PPA199,M1).
[70] Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 51.
[71] Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 56.
[72] Middle-Length Discourses of the Buddha, tr. Nanamoli, rev. Bodhi, Wisdom Publications, 1995, pp. 708f
[73] Professor C.D. Sebastian, Metaphysics and Mysticism in Mahayana Buddhism, Sri Satguru Publications, Bibliotheca Indo-Buddhica Series
No. 238, Delhi, 2005, p. 83
[74] Professor C.D. Sebastian, Metaphysics and Mysticism in Mahayana Buddhism, Delhi, 2005, p. 82
[75] Hiroshi Kanno, Huisi's Perspective on the Lotus Sutra as Seen Through the Meaning of the Course of Ease and Bliss in the Lotus Sutra, p.
147, http:/ / www. iop. or. jp/ 0414/ kanno2. pdf, consulted 5 February 2010
[76] Stewart McFarlane in Peter Harvey, ed., Buddhism. Continuum, 2001, page 187.
[77] Stewart McFarlane in Peter Harvey, ed., Buddhism. Continuum, 2001, pages 195-196.
[78] Richard Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988,
page 89. He is quoting Carrithers.
[79] B. Alan Wallace, Contemplative Science. Columbia University Press, 2007, p. 81.
[80] Welch, Practice of Chinese Buddhism, Harvard, 1967, p. 396
[81] Peter Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism. Cambridge University Press, 1990, page 144.
38
Buddhism
[82] Damien Keown, Charles S Prebish, editors, Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Routledge, 2007. p. 502
[83] Sarah Shaw, Buddhist Meditation: An Anthology of Texts from the Pli Canon. Routledge, 2006, page 13. Shaw also notes that discourses on
meditation are addressed to "bhikkhave", but that in this context the terms is more generic than simply (male) "monks" and refers to all
practitioners, and that this is confirmed by Buddhaghosa.
[84] According to Charles S. Prebish (in his Historical Dictionary of Buddhism, Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi, 1993, p. 287): "Although a
variety of Zen 'schools' developed in Japan, they all emphasize Zen as a teaching that does not depend on sacred texts, that provides the
potential for direct realization, that the realization attained is none other than the Buddha nature possessed by each sentient being ...".
[85] Prebish comments (op. cit., p. 244): "It presumes that sitting in meditation itself (i.e. zazen) is an expression of Buddha nature." The method
is to detach the mind from conceptual modes of thinking and perceive Reality directly. Speaking of Zen in general, Buddhist scholar Stephen
Hodge writes (Zen Masterclass, Godsfield Press, 2002, pp. 1213): "... practitioners of Zen believe that Enlightenment, the awakening of the
Buddha-mind or Buddha-nature, is our natural state, but has been covered over by layers of negative emotions and distorted thoughts.
According to this view, Enlightenment is not something that we must acquire a bit at a time, but a state that can occur instantly when we cut
through the dense veil of mental and emotional obscurations."
[86] (Critical Sermons on the Zen Tradition, Hisamatsu Shin'ichi, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2002, passim) Commenting on Rinzai Zen
and its Chinese founder, Linji, Hisamatsu states: "Linji indicates our true way of being in such direct expressions as 'True Person' and 'True
Self'. It is independent of words or letters and transmitted apart from scriptural teaching. Buddhism doesn't really need scriptures. It is just our
direct awakening to Self ..." (Hisamatsu, op. cit., p. 46).
[87] Kosho Uchiyama, Opening the Hand of Thought: Approach to Zen, Penguin Books, New York, 1993, p. 98
[88] Harvey, Introduction, pp. 165f
[89] Williams, Mahayana Buddhism, Routledge, 1st ed., 1989, p. 185
[90] Routledge Encyclopedia of Buddhism, p. 781 .
[91] Gethin, Sayings of the Buddha, Oxford University Press, 2008, p. xv
[92] Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Buddhism: The foundations of Buddhism: The cultural context. Retrieved 19-07-2009.
[93] Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Hinduism: History of Hinduism: The Vedic period (2nd millennium - 7th century BCE); Challenges to
Brahmanism (6th - 2nd century BCE); Early Hinduism (2nd century BCE - 4th century CE). Retrieved 19-07-2009.
[94] Warder, A.K. 2000. Indian Buddhism. P.32
[95] Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 81-208-0815-0 Page 18. "There is no
evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of
India and have contributed to much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times."
[96] S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East and West (1972): "Alongside
Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."
[97] "This confirms that the doctrine of transmigration is non-aryan and was accepted by non-vedics like Ajivikism, Jainism and Buddhism. The
Indo-aryans have borrowed the theory of re-birth after coming in contact with the aboriginal inhabitants of India. Certainly Jainism and
non-vedics [..] accepted the doctrine of rebirth as supreme postulate or article of faith." Masih, page 37.
[98] Karel Werner, The Longhaired Sage in The Yogi and the Mystic. Karel Werner, ed., Curzon Press, 1989, page 34. "Rahurkar speaks of them
as belonging to two distinct 'cultural strands' ... Wayman also found evidence for two distinct approaches to the spiritual dimension in ancient
India and calls them the traditions of 'truth and silence.' He traces them particularly in the older Upanishads, in early Buddhism, and in some
later literature."
[99] Gavin D. Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press : UK ISBN 0-521-43878-0 - "The origin and doctrine
of Karma and Samsara are obscure. These concepts were certainly circulating amongst sramanas, and Jainism and Buddhism developed
specific and sophisticated ideas about the process of transmigration. It is very possible that the karmas and reincarnation entered the
mainstream brahaminical thought from the sramana or the renouncer traditions." Page 86.
[100] Padmanabh S. Jaini 2001 "Collected Paper on Buddhist Studies" Motilal Banarsidass Publ 576 pages ISBN 81-208-1776-1: "Yajnavalkya's
reluctance and manner in expounding the doctrine of karma in the assembly of Janaka (a reluctance not shown on any other occasion) can
perhaps be explained by the assumption that it was, like that of the transmigration of soul, of non-brahmanical origin. In view of the fact that
this doctrine is emblazoned on almost every page of sramana scriptures, it is highly probable that it was derived from them." Page 51.
[101] Govind Chandra Pande, (1994) Life and Thought of Sankaracarya, Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 81-208-1104-6 : Early Upanishad thinkers
like Yajnavalkya were acquainted with the sramanic thinking and tried to incorporate these ideals of Karma, Samsara and Moksa into the
vedic thought implying a disparagement of the vedic ritualism and recognising the mendicancy as an ideal. Page 135.
[102] "The sudden appearance of this theory [of karma] in a full-fledged form is likely due, as already pointed out, to an impact of the wandering
muni-and-shramana-cult, coming down from the pre-Vedic non-Aryan time." Kashi Nath Upadhyaya, Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgita.
Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1998, page 76.
[103] Satapatha Brahmana 13.8.1.5
[104] Oldenberg, Hermann, The Doctrine of the Upanishads and Early Buddhism, 1915, reprinted 1991 by Shridhar B. Shrotri, Delhi, Motilal
Banarsidass
[105] Greater Magadha, Studies the Culture of Early India, Bronkhorst, Johannes, Brill Academic Publishers Inc, 2007, Series: Handbook of
Oriental Studies, Section 2 South Asia Series, ISBN 978-90-04-11519-4
[106] Warder, A.K. 2000. Indian Buddhism. P.30-32
[107] Warder, A.K. 2000. Indian Buddhism. P.39
39
Buddhism
[108] Warder, A.K. Indian Buddhism. P.33
[109] Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught, pages 9-10.
[110] "The brahmin by caste alone, the teacher of the Veda, is (jokingly) etymologized as the 'non-meditator' (ajhyaka). Brahmins who have
memorized the three Vedas (tevijja) really know nothing: it is the process of achieving Enlightenment what the Buddha is said to have
achieved in the three watches of that nightwhich constitutes the true 'three knowledges.'" R.F. Gombrich in Paul Williams, ed., "Buddhism:
Critical Concepts in Religious Studies." Taylor and Francis 2006, page 120.
[111] Richard Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988,
page 85.
[112] P. 177 The sacred books of the Buddhists compared with history and modern science By Robert Spence Hardy
[113] Vinaya Pitaka of the Mahavagga (I.245) in P. 494 The Pali-English dictionary By Thomas William Rhys Davids, William Stede
[114] "Atthako, Vmako, Vmadevo, Vessmitto, Yamataggi, Angiraso, Bhradvjo, Vsettho, Kassapo, and Bhagu" in P. 245 The Vinaya
piaka: one of the principle Buddhist holy scriptures ..., Volume 1 edited by Hermann Oldenberg
[115] The Vinaya Pitaka's section Anguttara Nikaya: Panchaka Nipata in P. 44 The legends and theories of the Buddhists, compared with history
and science By Robert Spence Hardy
[116] Richard Francis Gombrich, How Buddhism began: the conditioned genesis of the early teachings Continuum International Publishing
Group, 1996, pages 38-39
[117] Michael Carrithers, The Buddha, 1983, pages 41-42. Found in Founders of Faith, Oxford University Press, 1986.
[118] Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 21.
[119] "Even so have I, monks, seen an ancient way, an ancient road followed by the wholly awakened ones of olden time....Along that have I
done, and the matters that I have come to know fully as I was going along it, I have told to the monks, nuns, men and women lay-followers,
even monks, this Brahma-faring brahmacharya that is prosperous and flourishing, widespread and widely known become popular in short,
well made manifest for gods and men." (P. 57 Buddhist Art & Antiquities of Himachal Pradesh, Upto 8th Century A.D. By Omacanda H)
[120] . 59 What the Buddha taught by Walpola Rhula
[121] Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Vedic religion. Retrieved 19-07-2009.
[122] Warder, A.K. 2000. Indian Buddhism. P.35
[123] A History of Indian Buddhism Hirakawa Akira (translated and edited by Paul Groner) - Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1993, p.
7
[124] Mitchell, Buddhism, Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 34 & table of contents
[125] Skorupski, Buddhist Forum, vol I, Heritage, Delhi/SOAS, London, 1990, p. 5; Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies,
vol 21 (1998), part 1, pp. 4, 11
[126] see also the book Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks, University of Hawai'i Press, by Dr Gregory Schopen
[127] Encyclopedia of Religion, Macmillan, New York, sv Councils, Buddhist
[128] Journal of the Pli Text Society, volume XVI, p. 105
[129] Janice J. Nattier and Charles S. Prebish, 1977. Mahsghika Origins: the beginnings of Buddhist sectarianism in History of Religions,
Vol. 16, pp. 237272
[130] Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 74
[131] "Abhidhamma Pitaka." Encyclopdia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopdia Britannica, 2008.
[132] Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Routledge. p. 485.
[133] Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993). A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: p. 260
[134] Akira, Hirakawa (1993), A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana: p. 271
[135] "One of the most frequent assertions about the Mahayana ... is that it was a lay-influenced, or even lay-inspired and dominated, movement
that arose in response to the increasingly closed, cold, and scholastic character of monastic Buddhism. This, however, now appears to be
wrong on all counts." Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 494
[136] Nattier, Jan (2003), A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra: p. 193-194
[137] Williams, Paul (2008) Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations: p. 4-5
[138] Williams, Paul (2000) Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition: p. 97
[139] Williams, Paul (2008) Mahyna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations: p. 5
[140] "The most important evidence in fact the only evidence for situating the emergence of the Mahayana around the beginning of the
common era was not Indian evidence at all, but came from China. Already by the last quarter of the 2nd century CE, there was a small,
seemingly idiosyncratic collection of substantial Mahayana sutras translated into what Erik Zrcher calls 'broken Chinese' by an Indoscythian,
whose Indian name has been reconstructed as Lokaksema." Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 492
[141] Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993). A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: p. 263, 268
[142] "The south (of India) was then vigorously creative in producing Mahayana Sutras" Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999). Indian Buddhism: p.
335.
[143] Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993). A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: p. 253
[144] A History of Indian Buddhism Hirakawa Akira (translated and edited by Paul Groner) - Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1993, p.
8,9
[145] Peter Harvey, "An Introduction to Buddhism." Cambridge University Press, 1993, page 95.
[146] Dan Lusthaus, Buddhist Phenomenology. Routledge, 2002, pages 236-237.
40
Buddhism
[147] Peter Harvey, "An Introduction to Buddhism." Cambridge University Press, 1993, page 113. "There were no great Indian teachers
associated with this strand of thought."
[148] A History of Indian Buddhism Hirakawa Akira (translated and edited by Paul Groner) - Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1993, p.
9
[149] Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism, Routledge, 2nd ed, 2006, page 135
[150] Zrcher (1972), pp. 22-27.
[151] Hill (2009), p. 30, for the Chinese text from the Hou Hanshu, and p. 31 for a translation of it.
[152] Zrcher (1972), p. 23.
[153] Carol E. Henderson, Culture and Customs of India. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002, page 42.
[154] Joseph B. Tamney in William H. Swatos, editor, Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Rowman Altamira, 1998, page 68.
[155] Major Branches of Buddhism (http:/ / www. adherents. com/ adh_branches. html#Buddhism), Adherents.com, retrieved on 2008-01-15
[156] The Everything Buddhism Book - page 121
[157] Philosophy East and West, volume 54, page 270
[158] http:/ / www. daisakuikeda. org/ sub/ resources/ interview/ interview2/ 2008tricycle. html
[159] http:/ / www. webpages. uidaho. edu/ ngier/ 307/ budhumanism. htm
[160] http:/ / oproject. files. wordpress. com/ 2007/ 09/ mapofwar. jpg
[161] http:/ / library. thinkquest. org/ 05aug/ 02016/ images/ map_of_religions. png
[162] http:/ / www. wadsworth. com/ religion_d/ special_features/ popups/ maps/ matthews_world/ images/ w001. jpg
[163] Britannica (http:/ / media-2. web. britannica. com/ eb-media/ 31/ 3731-004. gif)
[164] State Attitudes to Religion (http:/ / opendemocracy. net/ pix/ home/ stateattitudes. pdf) (PDF), The Atlas of Religion, Joanne O'Brien &
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[165] The Common Denominator in Religious Values (http:/ / www. ascd. org/ ASCD/ pdf/ journals/ ed_lead/ el_195401_bush. pdf) by Merrill
E. Bush. Educational Leadership Vol 11 No. 4 (What Shall We Teach?), January 1954. pp. 226228.
[166] Keown, Buddhism, Oxford University Press, 1996, page 12
[167] Smith, Buddhism; Juergensmeyer, Oxford Handbook.
[168] (Harvey, 1990); (Gombrich,1984); Gethin (1998), pp. 12, identifies "three broad traditions" as: (1) "The Theravda tradition of Sri Lanka
and South-East Asia, also sometimes referred to as 'southern' Buddhism"; (2) "The East Asian tradition of China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam,
also sometimes referred to as 'eastern' Buddhism"; and, (3) "The Tibetan tradition, also sometimes referred to as 'northern' Buddhism.";
Robinson & Johnson (1982) divide their book into two parts: Part One is entitled "The Buddhism of South Asia" (which pertains to Early
Buddhism in India); and, Part Two is entitled "The Development of Buddhism Outside of India" with chapters on "The Buddhism of Southeast
Asia", "Buddhism in the Tibetan Culture Area", "East Asian Buddhism" and "Buddhism Comes West; Penguin handbook of Living Religions,
1984, page 279; Prebish & Keown, Introducing Buddhism, ebook, Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 2005, printed ed, Harper, 2006
[169] See e.g. the multi-dimensional classification in Encyclopedia of Religion, Macmillan, New York, 1987, volume 2, pages 440ff
[170] A Comparative Study of the Schools (http:/ / www. buddhanet. net/ e-learning/ history/ comparative. htm), Tan Swee Eng
[171] Cousins, L.S. (1996); Buswell (2003), Vol. I, p. 82; and, Keown & Prebish (2004), p. 107. See also, Gombrich (1988/2002), p. 32:
[T]he best we can say is that [the Buddha] was probably Enlightened between 550 and 450, more likely later rather than earlier."
[172] Williams (2000, pp. 6-7) writes: "As a matter of fact Buddhism in mainland India itself had all but ceased to exist by the thirteenth century
CE, although by that time it had spread to Tibet, China, Japan, and Southeast Asia." Embree et al. (1958/1988), "Chronology," p. xxix: "c.
1000-1200: Buddhism disappears as [an] organized religious force in India." See also, Robinson & Johnson (1970/1982), pp. 100-1, 108 Fig.
1; and, Harvey (1990/2007), pp. 139-40.
[173] Gethin, Foundations, page 1
[174] Hawkins, p. 88.
[175] Clarke & Beyer, The World's Religions, Routledge, 2009, page 86
[176] Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (Volume One), pages 430, 435
[177] Prebish & Keown, Introducing Buddhism, page 89
[178] A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition (2000)
[179] Eliot, Japanese Buddhism, Edward Arnold, London, 1935, page 16
[180] Gethin, Sayings of the Buddha, Oxford University Press, 2008, page xiv
[181] http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ itc/ mealac/ pritchett/ 00ambedkar/ ambedkar_buddha/
[182] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:PaliCanon& action=edit
[183] Journal of the Pali Text Society, volume XVI, page 114
[184] Peter Harvey, The Selfless Mind. Curzon Press, 1995, page 9.
[185] David Kalupahana, "Sarvastivada and its theory of sarvam asti." University of Ceylon Review 24 1966, 94-105.
[186] Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition, page 4
[187] MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 494
[188] Isabelle Onians, "Tantric Buddhist Apologetics, or Antinomianism as a Norm," D.Phil. dissertation, Oxford, Trinity Term 2001 pg 72
[189] Jonathan A Silk. What, if anything, is Mahayana Buddhism? Numen 49:4 (2002):335-405. Article reprinted in Williams, Buddhism, Vol
III, Routledge, 2005
[190] Harvey 1990, p.1.
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Buddhism
[191] Goldstein 2011, p.27.
[192] Lama Surya Das 1997, p.16.
[193] Goleman 2008, Kindle Locations 1301-1305.
[194] Gethin 1998, p.65-66.
[195] Keown 2000, Kindle Locations 361-372.
[196] Pinburn 1990, p.101.
[197] Walpola Rahula 2007, Kindle Locations 316-323.
[198] http:/ / www. the-philosopher. co. uk/ buddhism. htm
[199] http:/ / www. buddhanet. net/ pdf_file/ milinda. pdf
[200] http:/ / www. buddhanet. net/ pdf_file/ beyond-belief02. pdf
[201] Dharmasiri, Gunapala. 1988. A Buddhist Critique of the Christian Concept of God. Golden Leaves Publishing, Antioch, California.
[202] " Refugees warn of Bhutan's new tide of ethnic expulsions (http:/ / www. theguardian. com/ world/ 2008/ apr/ 20/ 2)". The Guardian. April
20, 2008
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