Chemistry 2014 EOY

Salt Preparation
Salt Solubility
Group 1 and Ammonium Salts
Nitrate Salts
Chloride Salts
Sulfate Salts
Hydroxide Salts
Oxide Salts
Lead Salts

All are soluble under all circumstances

All are soluble
All soluble except AGCL, and PBCL2
All soluble except AGSO4, PBSO4, BASO4 and
CASO4
All Insoluble except BAOH2
All insoluble
All insoluble except ethanoate and nitrates

Determine Method of Filtration

Soluble Salt to
be produced

Insoluble Salt to
be produced

Group 1 or
Ammonium
Titration

Precipitatio
n

Others
Reactions
with acids

Filtration Method
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Warm the acid to be used.

Add in excess the reactant to ensure all acid is used up.
Filter the solution to remove the impurities
Filtrate is the solution.
Heat to evaporate the filtrate to get hot saturated solution
Cool immediately to obtain ___ as crystals
Filter again to obtain crystals as residue
Dry between sheets of filter papers.

Titration Method
1.
2.
3.
4.

Pipette 20cm^3 of hydrochloric acid into a conical flask.

Add 2 to 3 drops of indicator.
Fill up a burette with alkali.
Titrate, drop by drop the alkali into the conical flask. Swirl solution.

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Chemistry 2014 EOY

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

When a colour change is observed, stop titration and note volume of alkali used.
Repeat titration without indicator with the volume obtained previously.
Heat solution until saturation
Allow to cool to obtain___ as crystals.
Filter to obtain crystals as residue.
Dry between sheets of filter paper.

Precipitation Method
1.

Add two salts together, stir, filter to get ppt as residue, wash with deionized water, dry between
sheets of filter paper.

Atomic Structure
Model of an Atom
Plums understanding of the atom was that the
electrons were equally distributed among the
positive protons. However, this was not correct
until
Rutherford
discovered
the
nucleus.

Rutherford discovered that some

particles got deflected slightly, some
passed straight through while some
bounced
back
altogether.
Protons have a charge of +1 , have a relative mass of 1, Neutrons have a charge of 0, have a
relative mass of 1, electrons have a charge of -1, have a lower mass of 0.0005
The top numbering is the atomic number which comprises protons
and neutrons combined. The bottom number is only the atomic mass
and comprises only the protons.

Remember that things have same total number of electrons

are isoelectronic and isotopes are atoms of same element having different atomic numbers,
different number of neutrons. They have the same chemical properties but different physical

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Chemistry 2014 EOY

properties!

Shells, Subshells, Orbitals, Electrons

1s
2s
2p
3s
3p
4s
3d
When there are no electrons in 3d, 4s automatically fall in front of 3d.

4p

5s

4d

1s
2s
2p
3s
3p
When there are electrons in 3d, it remains below 4s.

4p

4d

5s

3d

4s

Electron in box diagram must be drawn with

electrons opposite in each full box, and free orbitals
must be occupied singly before in pairs.

3d

become
electron.
Sigma

orbitals

are

4S

spherical

Sometimes, if it takes one electron for 3d to

either half or fully filled, 4S will donate that

while

pi

is

dumbbell

shaped.

Ionization Energy
1st Ionization Energy: Ca=Ca+ + e2nd Ionization Energy: Ca+=Ca2+ + e- (Take up more energy than the first one)
Shielding Effect

Atomic Size

Outermost electron shielded by the repelling effect

of the inner electrons. Attraction between nucleus
decreases.
As atomic size increases, attraction decreases and
less energy is required to remove electron.
This can be used to determine the
number of shells an element has and the
number of electrons in that shell. For
example for Sodium, it has one valence
electron, you see a huge jump in
ionization energy from first to second
row, shows only one electron in valence
shell.

Chemical
Bonding
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Chemistry 2014 EOY

Metallic Bonding
Defined as the electrostatic force of attraction between sea of delocalized electrons and positively charged
cations in giant metallic lattice.

Strength depends on the charge. For example, Sodium has a charge of +1, while Calcium has a
charge of +2, therefore Sodium chloride has half the boiling point of calcium chloride due to a
stronger electrostatic force of attraction.

High melting/Boiling Point

-Large amount of energy needed to overcome

strong metallic bonds in giant metallic lattice.
-Bond strength depends on the number of valence
electrons involved in forming the bond.
-Has sea of delocalized electrons to act as mobile
charge carriers
The atoms can slide over another without
disrupting the bond.

Good electrical conductivity

Malleable and Ductile

Ionic Bonding
Defined as the electrostatic force of attraction between positively charged cations and negatively charged
anions. (METAL AND NON-METAL)
High Boiling and Melting Points

Soluble in Water but not in organic solvent

Conduct electricity in liquid or molten state
Strength Depends on the charge and size of ions

-Large amount of energy needed to break strong

electrostatic force of attraction between cations
and anions in the Giant Ionic Lattice
-Hydration energy larger than EFA
-Ions are free to move around and are not held
tightly together
-Charge takes precedence as larger charge means
greater EFA, smaller ion means higher charge
density.

Covalent Bonding
Defined as bond formed by sharing of electrons. Dot and Cross.
Single Covalent Bond
Double Covalent Bond

1 sigma bond
1 sigma, 1 pi, with pi as increment for future

Bond Polarity
A polar bond is due to unequal sharing of electrons and formed between atoms
of differing electronegativity. Remember that this is the notation to denote polar
bonds. The more electronegative one should have the partial negative symbol.

Remember that polar bonds can cancel out, in the case of linear and tetrahedral
VSEPR shapes.

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Intermolecular Forces
Hydrogen Bonding, Van Der Waals
Permanent Dipole Interaction
Permanent Dipole Induced Dipole interaction
Induced Dipole Interaction

TWO POLAR MOLECULES

One Polar induce another non-polar
Both Non-Polar, only instantaneous when electron
cloud change shape momentarily
Hydrogen Bonds are only formed between a
hydrogen bonded to FON and the lone pair of a
neighbouring FON. The bond must be depicted like
this, with dotted lines! Lone pair must be drawn!

Water has the strongest hydrogen bond as compared to Hydrogen Fluoride or Ammonia as it can form 200
hydrogen bonds, lone pair limiting bond for ammonia, number of hydrogen atoms limiting HF. HF has a
stronger hydrogen bond than NH3 as HF bond is more polar than NH.

Acids, bases and salts

Strong Acids/Alkalis : Dissociate/Ionize completely in water to produce hydrogen/hydroxide ions.
Ph = -log10 (H+ Conc)

Indicators
Universal Indicator test
Red

Orange

Green

Blue

Violet

MethyL Orange
Red

Orange

Yellow

Bromothymol Blue
Yellow

Green

Blue

Phenolphthalein
Colourless

Colourless

All salts with colourless anions

Iron 2 Chloride, Sulfate, Nitrate
Iron 3 Chloride, Sulfate, Nitrate
Copper 2 Chloride, Nitrate, Sulfate
Copper 2 Carbonate
Copper 2 Oxide and Iron 2 Oxide

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Pink
White when solid, colourless when aqueous
Green
Reddish Brown when solid, yellow when aqueous
Blue
Green
Black

Chemistry 2014 EOY

Zinc Oxide
Lead 2 Iodide

Yellow when hot, White when cool

Bright Yellow

Acid / Alkali Reactions

Acid Base Reaction
Acid Metal
Acid Carbonate Reaction
Calcium Lead and insoluble compounds
Alkali with Ammonium Salts

Produce Water and salt

Produce Hydrogen Gas and salt
Produce salt, CO2, H2O
Form coating and prevent further reaction
Salt, Ammonia Gas, H2O

Oxides

Basic

Amphoteri
c

Neutral

Acidic

Across the Period

Some examples of Basic Oxides: Sodium, Potassium, Magnesium etc
Some examples of Amphoteric Oxides: Zinc Oxide, Lead Oxide, Aluminum Oxide
Some examples of Neutral Oxides: Carbon Monoxide, Nitric Oxide, H2O

Qualitative analysis
Testing for Gases
Hydrogen Gas
Oxygen Gas
Ammonia Gas
Chlorine
Nitrogen Dioxide
Sulfur Dioxide
Water
CO2

Colourless, Odourless Gas extinguishes lighted

splint with a pop sound.
Colourless, Odourless Gas rekindles glowing splint
Turns Red Litmus Paper Blue, Pungent and
Colourless
Greenish Yellowish gas that turns blue litmus red
and bleaches it
Brown Gas with pungent smell. Turn Blue litmus
red, and form colourless solution with water
Acidified Potassium Manganate VII, decolorize from
purple to colourless
Cobalt 2 Chloride Paper turn from blue to pink
Colourless and Odourless gas forms white
precipitate in Calcium Hydroxide

Action of heat on Salts

Carbonate Salts
Nitrate Salts

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Produce Oxide and CO2

Produce Oxide, O2 and NO2

Chemistry 2014 EOY

Heat Ammonia Salts

Sublime, produce ammonia gas and a _____

Test of Cations Special

Aluminium
Dissolve in Excess of NAOH
Zinc
Dissolve in excess of BOTH
Lead 2
Dissolved in excess of NAOH
Copper 2
Dissolve in excess of ammonia to give dark blue
*Test for NH4+ through reacting with NAOH, warm, and ammonia gas would be released.

Anion Test
Test for Chloride
Test for Sulfate
Test for Iodide
Test for Carbonate
Test for Nitrate

-Add Barium Nitrate. White precipitate that is

Barium Chloride would form.
-Add Silver Nitrate. White precipitate that Is Silver
Sulfate would form.
-Add Lead 2 Nitrate. Bright yellow ppt would be
formed.
-Add nitric acid. Effervescence of .
-Add aluminum foil, NAOH and warm. Colourless
and pungent gas which is ammonia would be
formed.

Chemical calculation
Calculate Relative mass
No of Mol
Mol
Mol
Mol

-Combine percentages of isotopes

No of Mol=No of particles / 6 x 10^23
No of Mol=Mass/MM
No of Mol=Volume of Gas/24
No of Mol=Volume x Concentration

Serial Dilution

M1V1=M2V2 (M=CONC)

This

is

how you find the empirical formula. After which if

they provide Mr, then you can use that to find the
Molecular formula.

Periodic Table
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Group 0 Noble Gases

Atomic Radius
Melting and Boiling Point

-Increases Down the Group. Due to more shells.

-Increases down the group. As atomic size
increases, atoms become more polarizable. Thus
strength of van der Waal forces increase
Low Densities. Increases down the group as
increase in mass is larger than increase in volume.
Insoluble
Does Not
No

Density
Solubility
Conduct Electricity
Reactive

Group 1 Alkali Metals

Soft, Grey, Shiny
Good Conductor of heat, electricity
Density is low, increases down the group
Atomic Radius
Melting and Boiling Points

Reactivity

Reaction with Water

Reaction with Oxygen
Reaction with Halogen like Chlorine/Bromine

Yes
Yes
Increase in mass larger than increase in volume.
Increase down the group. More Shells
Decrease down the group as there is higher
shielding effect due to increasing atomic size, and
decrease in effective nuclear charge, which
weakens EFA, less energy required.
Increase down the group. More size, shielding effect
increase, easier to lose/displace an electron to
achieve octet.

Explosive, Produce hydroxide salt and h2 gas.

Produce Oxide Salt, dissolve in water to form
hydroxide
Halogen Salt

Group 7 Halogen
Fluorine
Pale Yellow gas

Chlorine
Greenish-Yellowish Gas

Atomic Size
Density
Melting and Boiling Points

Reactivity

Reactivity Decrease across group 1, 2, 3 metals

Bromine
Reddish-Brown Liquid

Iodine
Purplish-Black Solid

Increase Down the group due to more shells.

Density increases down the group as increase in
mass bigger than increase in volume.
-Increase down the group as larger atomic size
means more polarizable, causing strength of VDW
to increase
Decrease down the group. Atomic Size increase,
more shielding effect, decrease in effective nuclear
charge and EFA, harder for nucleus to attract
electrons to complete octet.
Increases for Group 5-7 elements

Its much harder to lose 2-3 electrons as compared to 1, and it is much easier to gain one electron rather than
2/3

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Displacement Reaction

Reaction with Iron

More reactive halogen can displace less reactive

ones. Since reactivity decrease down the group,
top elements can displace bottom elements.
Halogens can react with Iron to produce iron salt

Period Trends
Atomic Size

Electronegativity

Metallic Properties
Solid to Gas
Electrical Conductivity
Melting Points

Decreases across Period because proton number

increases and EFA increases, therefore electrons
are held closer to nucleus.
Increases across period. Same shielding effect as
same number of shells, But proton number
increase, EFA increase, atomic radius decrease.
Ability to attract electrons increases.
Going across period, become less and less metallic.

Worse and Worse

Increases first, before decreasing. As for Metals,
they have more electrons going across period, more
strength, more energy needed. Spike at Sulfur and
phosphorus due to larger molecular size as S8, P4

Transition Metals
Form Coloured Ions or Compounds
Exist in various oxidation states
Act as catalysts
Form complex ions

Coloured
More than 1
Ammonia reaction with excess Copper ion

Air and the Atmosphere

Composition of Air
Oxygen
Nitrogen
CO2
Water Vapour
Noble Gases

21% to 16%
78%
0.04% TO 4%
0-5%
Rest

Common Pollutants and Combatant Methods

Carbon Monoxide

Car
Exhaust.
Incomplete
Combustion of petrol.

Methane

Decomposition of Plant/Animal
Matters in absence of oxygen.
Combustion
engines/lightning
when temperature is high.

Nitrogen Dioxide

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-Bind with haemoglobin to form

carboxyhaemoglobin
which
reduces bloods oxygen carrying
capacity. Breathing Difficulties
-30X more potent that CO2 as
greenhouse gas
N^2 + O^2=2NO
2NO+O2=2NO2

Chemistry 2014 EOY

Sulfur Dioxide
Photochemical Smog

Acid Rain

Factory Emissions. Combustion of

carbon based fuel.
Combination of Nitrogen Dioxide
and unburnt hydrocarbon in
presence of sunlight to form
ground level ozone.
Sulfur Dioxide/Nitrogen Dioxide

Photochemical Smog.
Irritate lung.
Acid Rain.
Acid Rain
Breathing Difficulty.
NO2+energy=NO+O
O+O2=O3
NO+O3=NO2+O2
SO2+H2O=H2SO3
2H2SO3+O2=2H2SO4
NO2+H2O=HNO2+HNO3
2HNO2=O2=2HNO3
CO2+H2O=H2CO3
below 7 ph)

Depletion of Ozone by CFC

Global Warming

CFC

Greenhouse Gases

Catalytic Converter

Flue Gas Desulfurization

Remove sulfur dioxide

(Slightly

-Corrodes bridges, statues

-Pollutes waterways, kills fishes,
destroy forest.
-Use catalytic converter, use fuel
with less sulfur
UV
radiation
split
oxygen
molecules into atoms. Combine
with oxygen to form ozone. UV
Split Ozone back into oxygen and
oxygen atom, being absorbed in
the process. However CFC disrupt
this process.
Cl. + O3=CIO+O2
CIO+O3=Cl. + 2O2
-Greenhouse Gases trap too
much heat. Methane, Nitrogen
Dioxide etc.
Cause Sea level rise and glacier
to melt, Flooding may occur. Use
renewable energy.
2NO+CO=2CO2+N2
Hydrocarbon oxidized into CO2
and H2O.
CACO3+SO2=CASO3+CO2
2CASO3+O2=2CASO4
Also can use Calcium Oxide

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Separation Techniques
As this is too easy, it will just be spelled out below.
Filtration
Crystallization
Chromatography
Simple Distillation
Fractional Distillation
Separating Funnel
Evaporation (Heat to dryness)
Sublimation (For Ammonium and Iodine Salts)

Redox Reactions
Loss or Gain Of Oxygen
Loss or Gain of Hydrogen
Transfer of electrons.

Change in Oxidation State

Disproportionate Reaction

-If gain oxygen, means oxidized, if lost oxygen,

means reduced. E.G (CUO - CU)
-If gain Hydrogen, means reduced, if lost hydrogen
means oxidized.
-Oxidation is loss of electrons. Electron goes to the
reduced substance which gains the electrons lost.
Al+3e = Al3+ (Reduced)
-Increase in Oxidation state
decrease means reduction.

means

oxidized,

Oxidation state of all atoms in elemental state

e.g(Cl2) is 0, and all metals oxidation state mostly
follow their charges. Must be written as +() and not
()+
-This happens when a substance is both oxidized
and reduced at the same time.

Oxidising Agents (Gets reduced itself)

Chlorine
Hydrogen Peroxide (Disproportionate)
Acidified Potassium Manganate VII
Acidified Potassium Dichromate VI

Reducing Agents (Gets oxidised itself)

Carbon Monoxide
Carbon
Metals E.g Magnesium
Potassium Iodide

Test for an Oxidising Agent (Use Reducing Agent)

Potassium Iodide (Reducing Agent)
Starch-Iodide Paper

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Turns Brown due to I2 formation. (Iodine)

Turns from White to Blue. Iodine reacts with starch

Chemistry 2014 EOY

to turn blue.

Test for an Reducing Agent (Use Oxidising Agent)

Acidified Potassium Manganate VII
Acidified Potassium Dichromate VI

Decolourise from purple to colourless

Turn from orange to green.

Electrolysis
Molten Compounds
Molten compounds do not contain water. Also,
this method works only for Binary ionic
compounds. Ternary compounds like NANO3
will not work. Anode is positive, Cathode is
Negative, positive element gets attracted to
cathode, negative gets attracted to Anode.
They all form products as H2O is not present.

Active/Inert Electrodes
Active Electrodes

Inert Electrode

Almost all electrodes will take part in chemical

reactions. For example, copper, silver etc. However,
less reactive material is displaced and discharged.
Also, electrodes can be discharged only if they are
on the Anode end.
Only platinum and graphite electrodes are inert.
These electrodes never take part.

Aqueous Solutions
Concentrated Salt

Dilute Salt

If Chlorine ions is present in concentrated amounts,

although it is of a higher reactivity than OH-, it will
still be selectively discharged.
Lower reactivity means higher tendency to be
discharged. Hydrogen gas discharged at Cathode,
Oxygen gas at Anode.
2H+ + 2e- =H2
4OH-=2O2+2H2O+4e-

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Uses of Electrolysis
Extraction of Metals

Purification of Metals

Very reactive metals must be extracted from their ores by

electrolysis. E.G SODIUM FROM MOLTEN SODIUM CHLORIDE (Must
be Molten!)
Oxygen gas released at the other end, react with carbon electron
to form CO2, therefore electrode would slowly corrode.
Must use reactive electrodes and use metal of cation. Impure
metal used as anode, pure metal used as cathode.

1.

2.
3.

Impure copper will get discharged into the solution,

Therefore anode becomes thinner. Impurities will collect
in the tank.
Pure copper gets discharged onto the cathode, and
cathode becomes thicker.
In Summary, PURE COPPER IS TRANSFERRED FROM
ANODE TO CATHODE.

NO LOSS OF METAL IN PURIFICATION PROCESS!

Electroplating

-Depositing a layer of metal on another substance. E.G Aluminium

Oxide coating to prevent aluminium from rusting.
-Item to be electroplated must be at cathode.
-Material to electroplate must be at anode.
The electrolyte must also contain ions of plating metal.

Energy Change
Exothermic or Endothermic
Exothermic reactions give out heat, while Endothermic reactions absorb heat.
Dissolution of ammonium chloride/nitrate
Photosynthesis
Reaction of ammonium chloride with barium hydroxide
Thermal Decomposition of carbonate and nitrate salts
Acid and Carbonate reaction.
THESE ARE ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS.

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Energy Level Diagram

Endothermic Reaction (Heat is absorbed)

Energy Profile Diagram

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Bond Breaking and Bond Forming

-Bond breaking always requires energy, bond forming gives out energy. In exothermic reactions, bond
forming takes up more energy than breaking and the opposite for endothermic reactions.

Heat of Formation
Precipitation Reaction
Neutralisation
Combustion

1 mol of product
1 mol of Product
1 mol of Reactant

Temperature and EA
At a higher temperature, molecules
have higher kinetic energy and this
increases the rate of effective
collisions.
Therefore,
higher
percentage of particles have sufficient
energy and correct orientation to
overcome the activation energy of the
reaction, increasing rate of reaction
and formation of products.
Collision Theory States
product to be formed:
1.
2.

Ways to Measure
Volume of gas evolved (Syringe)
Formation of Precipitate although there is no way to measure mass/time
Change in mass (gas evolved)
Colour Changes
Temperature Changes
Change in concentration
PH Change

Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction

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for

Need to have correct orientation

Need to overcome EA

Speed Of Reaction
Rate of Reaction is inversely proportional to the time taken!

that

Chemistry 2014 EOY

Total Surface Area

Concentration

Temperature

Pressure

Catalyst

-Smaller particle size means total surface area

becomes larger.
-Frequency of collision between particles on surface
becomes higher.
-Increases
frequency
of
effective
collision
BETWEEN ____ AND ______.
Higher % of particles have enough energy to
overcome EA.
Rate of reaction increases.
-Larger the concentration, the more particles PER
UNIT VOLUME.
-Increases the frequency of effective collisions
between ___ and ______.
- Higher % of particles have enough energy to
overcome EA.
Rate of reaction increases.
-Higher the temperature, molecules have more
kinetic energy, higher frequency of effective
collision between ___ and ___.
Higher % of particles have enough energy to
overcome EA.
Rate of reaction increases.
-More pressure, means less volume or more
particles in same volume. Higher % of particles
have enough energy to overcome EA.
Rate of reaction increases.
Decreases
activation
energy
by
providing
alternative path for reaction to take place.
Properties of Catalyst:
1. Does not affect Heat Enthalpy
2. Remains unchanged at end of reaction
3. Does not alter nature of products
formed
4. Increases rate of reaction.
5. Small amount needed.
6. Specific
7. Mostly Transition elements
8. Enzymes
Example Catalysts:
1. Vanadium
V
Oxide
catalyses
production of sulfuric acid
2. Hydrogen peroxide decomposition is
catalyzed by Manganese oxide
3. Platinum catalyzes production of nitric
acid, catalytic converters.
4. Iron catalyzes Haber process!

Reaction Graphs

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Chemistry 2014 EOY

Higher temperature, higher conc, small

particle size will increase the initial rate of
reaction, but does not alter the amount of
products formed.
Amount of products formed must
be calculated through the number
of mol. E.G If Mol is double, then
means twice the amount of
products formed.
As for sulfuric acid, it is dibasic as
compared to HCL, so concentration
doubles, increasing both rate of
reaction and if volume of acid is
the same, double the amount of
products formed as well.

Reversible Reaction
Le Chateliers Principle

Increasing Concentration of Reactants

Increasing Pressure

Position of equilibrium will move to the right,

favouring the forward reaction that uses A and B as
substrate to produce more products and to
counteract the increase in concentration of the
reactants. so that the concentration of A and B
decreases again - by reacting it with B and turning
it into C + D.
Note that this will only affect reactions with all gas
molecules.
According to Le Chatelier, the position of
equilibrium will move in such a way as to
counteract the change. That means that the
position of equilibrium will move so that the
pressure is reduced again.
Pressure is caused by gas molecules hitting the
sides of their container. The more molecules you
have in the container, the higher the pressure will
be. The system can reduce the pressure by reacting
in such a way as to produce fewer molecules.
In this case, there are 2 molecules on the left-hand
side of the equation, and 2 on the right. In this
case, pressure doesn't affect.

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Increasing the temperature

However, in a reaction with varying reactants and

products, Increasing the pressure on a gas reaction
shifts the position of equilibrium towards the side
with fewer molecules, therefore decreasing the
pressure.
This depends on whether the forward or backward
reaction is exothermic. Usually you will write the
reaction like this: A+B = C+D+Heat
Therefore if you increase the temperature, it would
shift the equilibrium to the left, favoring the
endothermic backward reaction which absorbs the
additional energy to form more reactants.

Alkane
SATURATED (As they contain only single C-C bonds, which means more unstable and easier to break down)
General Formula of Alkanes:CnH2n+2

Naming of Alkanes
This is how you name straight chain Alkanes. As
for branched Alkanes, remember to add a
methyl/ethyl/propyl/butyl in front with numbers
to denote the location of the branched carbon.
Remember to add DI if one carbon has 2
branched carbons.

Physical Properties of Alkanes

Melting/Boiling Points

Density
Solubility
Electrical Conductivity

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-Alkanes are covalent compounds held by weak

VDW. But there is a gradual increase as the
molecules become larger. Number of electrons and
surface area increases as size increases, stronger
VDW,
Alkanes less dense than water. Float on water.
Increase with increasing mass.
Not soluble in water, only in organic solvent.
Do not conduct.

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Flammability.
Viscosity

Less flammable as alkane size increases as carbon

increases.
More viscous as size increase, VDW stronger,
harder for liquid to flow.

Chemical Properties of Alkanes

Combustion

Halogenation

-Complete Combustion produces CO2 and H2O.

-Incomplete Combustion produces CO and H2O. /
just carbon
Reaction with a halogen. Need UV light!
CH4+CL2=HCL+CH3CL (Chloromethane)

Alkene
Unsaturated due to C=C double bonds.
General Formula: CnH2n

Naming of Alkenes
Same way as Alkanes for the branches, but alkenes require you to specify where the double bond is located.
Label such that the double bond gets the smallest number possible. If double bond is not on 1 carbon, But-2ene, Prop-2-ene.

Chemical Properties of Alkenes

Combustion

Halogenation

Hydrogenation

Addition of Water

Addition of Hydrogen Halide

Alkenes have same physical properties as Alkanes.

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-Complete Combustion produces CO2 and H2O.

-Incomplete Combustion produces CO and H2O. /
just carbon
Burn with sootier flames as compared to Alkanes
due to more carbon.
Reaction with a halogen. NO Need UV light!
Used to test for Unsaturation.
-Using aqueous bromine, an alkene presence would
turn bromine from orange to colourless, whereas an
alkane would need energy to kick start the reaction.
-Adding hydrogen would turn Alkenes into alkanes.
-Require Nickel/Platinium as catalyst.
Break double bond, and form more hydrogen.
-Converts Alkenes into alcohol.
-Needs concentrated phosphoric acid at 300
degree and 60atm pressure.
E.G Ethene reacts with HCL to form
chloroethane. Note that CL must put in the
middle as that is the MASTER product!

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Cracking
Cracking converts heavy oil such as petroleum into smaller constituents, such that they are more useful. It is
unable to predict the products formed. Hydrogen can also be produced as a byproduct to be used in fuel cell.

Alcohol
Are Neutral, Have a functional Group of -O-H
Naming of alcohol is the same as alkenes, just that the ENE becomes an OL. Number of the carbon chair
branched with the OL is also needed, and branched carbons must be included in front as well.

Production of Alcohol
Addition of water to Alkenes
Fermentation of Glucose

-Addition reaction with phosphoric acid catalyst at

300 degree and 60atm pressure.
Glucose can be fermented to produce ethanol and
CO2. Note that NO water is produced!

Catalyst is yeast enzyme zymase at 20

degrees and without oxygen.

Physical Properties
Liquid at room temperature.
Soluble because they form hydrogen bond!!! Solubility decrease as carbon increase.
Colourless, have sharp smell, miscible, low boiling point but volatile!

Chemical Properties
Combustion
Oxidation

Dehydration

Complete produces CO2 and H2O.

Doesn't have incomplete combustion!!!
Alcohols can be oxidized to form carboxylic acid.
Oxidation agents can be Acidified Potassium
Dichromate VI or Manganate VII./sulfuric acid
EQN: Alcohol + 2[O] = CARBOXYLIC ACID + WATER
Alcohols can be converted back into alkenes by the
removal of water molecules through catalysts conc
sulfuric acid or hot porcelain. (Removal of water
from alcohol and formation of double bond)

Carboxylic Acid
Acidic, Have General Formula of Cn-1H2n-1CO2H, Functional Group is COOH
Naming is the same as the rest, just drop the end and replace with oic acid. No numbering needed.

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Physical Properties
Boiling Points higher than alkanes with same no. of carbon due to hydrogen bonds..
Boiling point increase with more carbon atoms.
4 carbon or fewer very soluble in water due to hydrogen bond.
Solubility decreases with increasing carbon atoms.

Chemical Properties
Acidic

Reaction with Alcohols

Since it is acidic, it has the same properties that

any acid has, react with metals, react with bases
and react with carbonates.
React with alcohol to produce ester and WATER.
This is done in reflux with the presence of conc.
Sulfuric acid and at 60 degrees. Alcohol functional
group combines with one H from carboxylic acid to
form water as a by product. Naming of ester comes
from alcohol first, followed by the carboxylic acid.
E.G Ethanol+Butanoic acid = Ethyl Butanoate
This is a reverscible reaction!
Learn what is reflux!
Ester are sweet, used as flavourings,
cosmestics, soaps, detergents, solvent for
organic compounds.

Polymerization
Is a macromolecule made up of multiple repeating monomers.

Addition Polymerization
Requirements: NEED C=C Double Bond.

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Break the double bond in the monomer and copy and paste. When naming, just add the prefix poly in front of
the monomers name.

Condensation Polymerization
Monomers join together to form a polymer with the byproduct of water/HCL/NH2.

You can see that water is given out once the monomers join up to form a polymer due to the
presence of the OH functional groups.

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As we can see again, this is how NYLON is formed. Water is also give out as a by-product and the linkage is
known as an amide. Nylon is therefore referred to as a polyamide. Natural polyamides include proteins.
Nylon is always named with 2 numbers. E.G Nylon 6,6. The first number refers to the number of carbons in
the carboxylic group, while the second number refers to the number of carbon in the amine group.
Monomers with 1 functional group is needed to stop polymerization and control length of
polymer chains.

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