(1)What is Personal Development?

Personal development is a lifelong process. Its a way for people to assess their skills and qualities, consider
their aims in life and set goals in order to realise and maximise their potential.
This page helps you to identify the skills you need to set life goals which can enhance your employability
prospects, raise your confidence and lead to a more fulfilling, higher quality life. Plan to make relevant,
positive and effective life choices and decisions for your future to enable personal empowerment.
A Theory of Personal Development
There are many ideas surrounding personal development, one of which is detailed below - Abraham
Maslow's process of Self Actualisation.
Self Actualisation
Maslow (1970) suggests that all individuals have an in-built need for personal development which
occurs through the process called self-actualisation.
The extent to which people are able to develop depends on certain needs being met and these needs form a
hierarchy. Only when one level of need is satisfied can a higher one be developed. As change occurs
throughout life, however, the level of need motivating someones behaviour at any one time will also
change.

At the bottom of the hierarchy are the basic physiological needs for food, drink, sex and sleep, i.e.,
the basics for survival.
Second are the needs for safety and security in both the physical and economic sense.
Thirdly, progression can be made to satisfying the need for love and belonging.
The fourth level refers to meeting the need for self-esteem and self-worth. This is the level most
closely related to self-empowerment.
The fifth level is the need to know and understand the environment, this level includes more
abstract ideas such as curiosity and the search for meaning or purpose.
The sixth relates to aesthetic needs of beauty, symmetry and order. At the top of Maslows
hierarchy, is the need for self-actualisation.
Maslow (1970, p.383) says that all individuals have the need to see themselves as competent and
autonomous, also that every person has limitless room for growth.
Self-actualisation refers to the desire that everybody has to become everything that they are capable of
becoming. In other words, it refers to self-fulfilment and the need to reach full potential as a unique
human being.
For Maslow, the path to self-actualisation involves being in touch with your feelings, experiencing life fully
and with total concentration.
Maslow, A. H. (1970), Motivation and Personality, (2nd Edition), Harper & Row, New York.
Practical Steps to Personal Development
Practical steps can be taken to enhance personal development, including:

Organising your time.

Producing a personal CV or rsum.

Undertaking a skills appraisal.
Looking at your transferable skills.
Overcoming barriers to learning a new skill.

Organising Your Time

If you are considering making changes in your life, finding additional time often poses a problem. It could
be that the changes you are thinking of making are to ensure you have extra time to:

Spend with your family.

Spend on things you enjoy doing.

Devote to your work.
Devote to your education.
Whatever the reason, looking at how you spend your time will encourage you to think of ways your time
could be managed more effectively.
Manage your time more effectively, these include:

Learning to say 'no' to jobs or requests that you feel are not your responsibility.
Learning to delegate sharing jobs can be fun and will leave you with more time. See our
page, Delegation Skills.
Making a to do list of tasks you need to do each day/week, ticking off tasks that you complete.
Giving up things you do not really want or need to do.
Identifying your high and low times of the day. Everyone has a time when he/she feels more or
less energetic. Try to do the most demanding tasks when you have the greatest energy as you will do them
more quickly, thereby releasing more time to spend on other things.
For many people their personal development will involve setting goals; these might be to change behaviour
- as in looking at their time management - learning new skills or advancing their career.
Many employers are looking for the same sorts of skills. These include good communication skills,
the ability to work as part of a team and the ability to learn these are often termed Soft Skills and
are the sorts of skills that SkillsYouNeed writes about. Beyond that the skills required will depend on
the particular job.

Overcoming Barriers to Learning a New Skill

Learning a new skill will broaden the opportunities open to you, at the same time as empowering you
as an individual. There are many things that prevent people from learning new skills, these barriers
may be overcome with some thought. These might include:

Lack of Confidence or Self-Esteem: This is one of the greatest obstacles facing many
individuals. However, if this is a problem then ask yourself if there is anyone who would support and help
you to take the first steps towards learning a new skill. Often, once the first move is made then the greatest
hurdle is overcome. Confidence increases as you develop new skills. See our pages: Building
Confidence and Improving Self-Esteem for more.
Economic Situation: You may see your financial situation as a barrier to developing new skills,
this need not be the case. The internet has lots of pages and tools that can help you develop specify skills.
There may be courses offered in local schools, colleges or universities which are free or offered at a
reduced rate for people on a lower incomes. Distance-learning courses allow you to study at home which
can help to reduce the cost of learning. There may exist trust funds or charities that offer grants for people
developing new skills in your area. It is also possible to learn a new skill with the aid of books from a
library. Also, voluntary work can provide an excellent opportunity for learning and developing new skills
as can being a member of a local group or society.
Family Commitments: If you have family commitments that prevent you from having the time
to learn a new skill, perhaps it is possible for you to enlist the help of a friend or family member to give you
a few free hours weekly. Colleges and universities offering vocational training courses may have free or
subsidised crche places.
Lack of Time: See our pages: Time Management and Minimising Distractions and consider
how you could reorganise your time to fit in the development of a new skill.

(2)Personal Empowerment

Personal empowerment is about looking at who you are and becoming more aware of yourself as a unique
individual.
Personal empowerment involves developing the confidence and strength to set realistic goals and fulfil
your potential. Everyone has strengths and weaknesses and a range of skills that are used in everyday
situations, but all too often people remain unaware of, or undervalue, their true abilities.
A person aiming for empowerment is able to take control of their life by making positive choices and
setting goals. Developing self-awareness, an understanding of your strengths and weaknesses knowing your own limitations is key to personal empowerment.
Taking steps to set and achieve goals - both short and longer-term and developing new skills, acts to
increase confidence which, in itself, is essential to self-empowerment.

What is Personal Empowerment?

At a basic level, the term 'empowerment' simply means 'becoming powerful'. Building personal
empowerment involves reflecting on our personal values, skills and goals and being prepared to
adjust our behaviour in order to achieve our goals. Personal empowerment also means being aware
that other people have their own set of values and goals which may different to ours.
Many other, more detailed, definitions exist. These usually centre on the idea that personal
empowerment gives an individual the ability to:

Take control of their circumstances and achieve their own goals in their personal and working life.
Become more aware of their strengths and weaknesses and therefore be better equipped to deal
with problems and achieve goals.
Enhance the contribution they make both as an individual and as a member of a team.
Take opportunities to enhance personal growth and a sense of fulfilment.
Developing personal empowerment usually involves making some fundamental changes in life, which is
not always an easy process. The degree of change required will differ from person to person, depending on
the individual starting point.
Dimensions of Personal Empowerment
The following dimensions of personal empowerment are based on the belief that the greater the
range of coping responses an individual develops, the greater their chance of coping effectively with
diverse life situations. These dimensions are:
Self-Awareness
Self-awareness involves understanding our individual character and how we are likely to respond to
situations. This enables us to build on our positive qualities and be aware of any negative traits which may
reduce our effectiveness. Self-aware people make conscious decisions to enhance their lives whenever
possible, learning from past experiences.
Values
Values are opinions or beliefs that are important to us but of which we are not always aware. They can be
any kind of belief or perceived obligation, anything we prefer and for any reason. The reasons we may
prefer one thing over another, or choose one course of action over another, may not always be obvious or
known; there may be no apparent reason for our values. Nevertheless our values are important to us as
individuals. In order to be self-aware it is necessary to be aware of our values, to critically examine them
and to accept that our values may be different from those of others.
Skills
An individual's skills are the main resource which enables them to achieve their desired goals. Skills can
be gained through experience, practice, education and training. It is only by developing such skills that
individual values can be translated into action.
Information
Knowledge or information is necessary in the development of self-awareness and skills. It is an essential
skill in itself to know where to find appropriate information. Without information, the choices open to
people are limited, both in their personal and working lives. The internet has provided an easy way for
everybody to access huge amounts of information very quickly and easily. The problem is then centred
around the quality of the information found, and the skill set is concerned with finding accurate and reliable
information.
Goals
Setting goals is a means by which an individual can take charge of his/her life. The process of setting a
goal involves people thinking about their values and the direction that they would like their lives to follow.
Choices are made through reflection followed by action. Goals should always be both specific and
realistic. Setting personal goals gives us a sense of direction in life, this direction is essential to personal
empowerment.

Language and Empowerment

Language is the main medium of human communication whether used in spoken or written form.
The use of language, how individuals express themselves verbally and non-verbally to others, can be
empowering to both themselves and the people with whom they are communicating. Looking at how
language is used is important in terms of self-empowerment and when attempting to empower other people.
The Use of Language for Personal Empowerment
In terms of personal empowerment and communication the following ideas are helpful and their use
can be both self-affirming and positive:

Use Positive Language: Research into language suggests that a person's self-image is reflected in
the words that they use. For example, people who say they 'should' behave in a certain way implies
passivity and can detract from them seeming to be in control and taking responsibility for their actions.
Talking about yourself in a positive way, acknowledging strengths and weaknesses, can be empowering.
Use Active Language: Use terms which imply positive action rather than making vague
statements, particularly when talking about the future. For example, 'I will...' and 'I can...'.
Use Words to Define Your Own Space and Identity: If you fail to use words to define your own
space and identity then others will tend to define you and set standards by which you evaluate yourself.
Furthermore, they will try to persuade you to conform to their demands. Be clear about who you are and
what your values and goals are do not let others define you.

The Use of Language for Empowering Others

In order to use language to help empower others:

Do not use jargon or complex terminology: The use of jargon and complex terminology can be
both alienating and dis-empowering. When working with clients the use of jargon can create feelings of
intimidation and inferiority. Without shared understanding of the words you use, effective and empowering
communication cannot take place. Choose words with care, which give clarity to what you are trying to
express.
Focus on the words people use: Mirror words people use, see our
pages: Reflection and Clarification for more information. Using shared terminology appropriately can
enable you appear more in tune with the other person and what they are saying.
Choose positive words: Choosing positive or active words such as 'will' or 'can' indicates that
you have control in your life and is more likely to induce positive action in others. Compare the use of
these words with others such as might' or 'maybe' which suggest hesitancy. Using words and statements
which carry responsibility are empowering as they suggest a determined rather than a passive approach.
Avoid criticism and negativity: Criticism should always be given with extreme care and only
when absolutely necessary. Once words have been spoken they cannot be easily taken back. If criticism is
necessary then it can be given in a constructive way, through the use of positive and supporting words and
phrases. Always attempt to cushion criticism with positive observations.
Use open questions when appropriate: The use of closed questions will restrict responses to
'yes' and 'no' answers. This type of question can leave people feeling powerless because there is no
opportunity to explain their response. On the other hand, open questions give the person being asked the
chance to explore the reasons behind their answers. Open questions encourage a person to take
responsibility for their thoughts and actions and can therefore aid empowerment. Open questions can also
help people to solve problems through their own devices, help them to set their own goals and work out an
appropriate plan of action.

Developing Self-Empowerment
We all have opportunities to explore and develop new skills. In order to become more empowered we
should, in our interactions with others, aim to:

Develop trust.

Understand our strengths, weaknesses and limits.

Develop confidence and self-esteem.

Developing Trust
Developing trust can be a difficult and lengthy process. In order to develop trust with others you
should aim to:

Be Open: In the sharing of information, ideas and thoughts. When appropriate also sharing
emotions, feelings and reactions. Also aim to reciprocate appropriately, when somebody shares their
emotions, thoughts or feelings with you.
Share and Co-operate: Share resources and knowledge with others to help them to achieve their
goals. Work together towards mutual goals.
Be Trustworthy: When other people place their trust in you do your best to provide positive
outcomes.
Be Accepting: Hold the values and views of others in high regard.
Be Supportive: Support others when necessary but also recognise their strengths - allowing them
to work towards goals without your intervention as appropriate.
In the workplace and in any professional working relationship there are three basic components of
trust:

Trust in the integrity and goodwill between all workers, regardless of salary or status and whether
paid or unpaid.
Trust that all workers within an organisation share the same objectives and are open with each
other about any conflicting objectives.
Trust in each other's competence and to do what you promise to undertake.
Trust can be broken very quickly and may never be restored to its former level, think about the
points above and try to build and maintain trusting relationships in both your personal and
professional life.
Avoid the following actions that may destroy trust and have a detrimental effect on personal
empowerment:

Making a joke at anothers expense.

Being judgemental about anothers behaviour, attitudes or beliefs.

Communicating rejection or non-acceptance, either verbally or non-verbally.

Understanding Your Strengths, Weaknesses and Limits

Becoming empowered includes knowing your own strengths and weaknesses, identifying these will
enable you to work on improving your weaknesses and build on your strengths.

It is not uncommon for other people to have misjudged your strengths and weaknesses, or for you to
misjudge those of others. This can lead to opportunities being limited due to the misconception of
abilities. It is important, therefore, to know your own strengths and weaknesses and to communicate them
clearly to others, whilst encouraging others to communicate their strengths and weaknesses to you.
In some circumstances you may feel that you face problems that are truly beyond your capabilities. In such
cases you should seek help. Empowered people know their own limits and have no problems with asking
for help or guidance. Self-knowledge, often referred to as self-awareness, is a strength which enables you
to set personal improvement goals in order to make a more substantial contribution. The more empowered
you become, the more you will be able to help others to become empowered.
Developing Confidence
Confidence acts as one of the greatest motivators or most powerful limitations to anyone trying to change
their behaviour and become more empowered. Most people only undertake tasks that they feel capable of
doing and it takes great effort to overcome a lack of confidence in one's capabilities. Self-empowerment
involves people constantly challenging their own beliefs and what they are capable of undertaking.
Personal empowerment is not a static thing that you can do once in your life, you should view personal
empowerment as ongoing personal development. As circumstances change and develop and as we
ourselves change and develop so do our needs for development and empowerment.
(3)Personal Change Management Skills
Why do some people seem to sail gently through all the changes life throws at them, while others get upset
if they have to change even their breakfast cereal?
The key is in how you view change, and your level of acceptance of uncertainty.
There is plenty of evidence that what we find most stressful as human beings is uncertainty, not
change in itself. Even the most difficult life events, such as divorce or marital separation, can be more
stressful in terms of the uncertainty.
Very often, its not the event, but the worry about what will I do?, or how will the children cope?
that people find hard. But there are some simple skills that you can develop that will help you to
manage change in your own life, whether through work or life events.
Stress: Some Background
Stress can cause genuine physical symptoms, including dizziness, tension headaches, diarrhoea and
insomnia, which in turn can make you feel worse, and even more stressed.
This kind of negative feedback loop is common in nature, and is designed to make you stop! Your body is
trying to tell you something and, if you dont listen to it, you could find yourself becoming very ill indeed.
Dont be tempted to ignore the symptoms of stress, and hope that they go away by themselves. They
wont. Instead, you need to deal with the causes.
If you are struggling with stress and it's making you unwell you should seek professional help from a
counsellor or health-care provider.
There is plenty of evidence that we all go through more or less the same process when dealing with change,
although particular stages may take rather longer in some cases than others.

Elizabeth Kubler-Ross looked at the way people come to terms with the news that they have a terminal
illness, and developed a model called the Transition or Change Curve. Later studies showed that people
react in similar ways to bereavement and also to changes at work.
The model shows that people start in a state of denial, with quite high levels of energy and
confidence, but that confidence and energy then dip as they feel the need for support, and then
become angry, asking questions like Why me?. They then start to move towards exploration of their
condition and new options, and into acceptance.

Managing Personal Change

There is a prayer which has been adopted by Alcoholics Anonymous, called the Serenity Prayer. It
says:
God, grant me the serenity to accept the things I cannot change, the courage to change the things I can, and
the wisdom to know the difference.
Reinhold Niebuhr (18921971).
Although it may have become rather hackneyed, this is not an unreasonable approach to managing
change in your life.

Accepting the Things That You Cant Change

One of the things which those who embrace change generally say that they do is to accept what cant be
changed, and worry only about what they can change themselves.
It can be very hard to let go of worrying, but there is no point in getting stressed about things over
which you have no control.
If you find yourself lying awake at night worrying about something, ask yourself:
Can I do anything to change either the likelihood of this happening, or the outcome if it does happen?
If the answer is genuinely a resounding No, then park the issue. Put it to one side, as something that may
happen, or not, but over which there is no point in worrying. Then, and this is important, find something
else to occupy your mind instead!
Planning to Change the Things That You Can
The next step is to consider the issues and areas over which you do have control. Instead of worrying about
the potential change, ask yourself two questions:
o
o

Realistically, is there anything that I can do to change the likelihood of this event
happening, and if so what?
Realistically, is there anything that I can do to change the outcome to a more favourable
one for me, and if so what?

The key word here is realistically: these have to be actions that you can genuinely take to change things,
not ideal world things like I will get a plumbing qualification within three weeks and be the best student
theyve ever seen.
Before thinking about how you can change the outcome, it is important to think about what your ideal
outcome might look like, and how likely that is to happen anyway.
A worked example
The company you work for looks like being taken over by another, and youre worried that you might lose
your job, or that you might end up doing something less interesting.
Is there anything that you can realistically do to change the likelihood of the company being taken over?
No. Unless youre the CEO, its out of your hands. Stop worrying about it.
Is there anything you can realistically do to make a more favourable outcome for you more likely?
Yes. Brush up your CV or rsum, get in touch with a recruitment agency specialising in your type of work,
and look for another job. You will become more confident as you see the value that others place on your
skills, and you will also be more attractive to your existing company if you have another job offer, giving
you options.
You could also think about what opportunities might open up should you be made redundant, such as the
chance to set up your own company, or perhaps take some time off work to travel. This should also make
you feel much more positive, and therefore more attractive to potential employers.
The Wisdom to Know the Difference
This is the final element in managing change gracefully.

Like good strategic thinkers, those who accept and manage personal change well are those who are clear
about what they want. They are quick to decide what they cannot change, and to put it to one side. They are
also effective in taking the necessary steps towards change and taking control of those elements that they
can change.
And Finally
The most important element to remember is that:
Once you have made your final decision about what you can and cant change, and what you are
going to do about it, stick to it.
Accept your decision and move on. Dont constantly worry about what if, as that will undermine all
your good work in parking the things that you cant control. It doesnt even matter if the reason that
you cant realistically do anything is I have too much else on in my life to have time to deal with
this. Its fine. Give yourself a break, and accept your own wisdom.
(4)Learning Approaches
Over the years many theories have been developed to examine the processes involved in learning. Most
learning theories concentrate on the significance for the way that learning is delivered.
There are, of course, many different ways of learning both formally and informally: as part of a group, such
as in a classroom setting, one-to-one, such as in a mentoring or coaching arrangement, and self-learning.
Furthermore people learn differently at different times in their lives and in different circumstances.
This page examines the three main learning approaches. Most learning theories fall into one or more of
these approaches.
These learning approaches are:

The Behaviourist Approach (which is concerned with learners responding to some form of
stimulus).
The Cognitive approach (based on knowledge and knowledge retention).
The Humanist approach (based on explanations of individual experience).

Behaviourist Approach to Learning

This approach to learning is based on the idea that learners respond to stimuli in their environment.
The role of the learning facilitator, therefore, is to provide relevant and useful stimuli so that the
learner responds to and gains the required knowledge or experience.
The behaviourist approach to learning centres around the belief that appropriate behaviour can be taught
through constant repetition of a task combined with feedback from the facilitator. Positive feedback
encourages and reinforces success while negative feedback and immediate correction discourages the
repetition of a mistake or undesirable behaviour.
In 1927 Ivan Pavlov conducted a famous experiment with dogs. Pavlov 'taught' the animals to salivate on
hearing a ringing bell by linking the time of their feeding to the bell being rung. Later he stopped feeding
them in this way, but the dogs continued to salivate when they heard the bell. In other words, the learned
behaviour was a result of a sequence of events experienced, rather than a conscious thought process.
Pavlov discovered what is now termed classical conditioning.
This kind of conditioning can be used to develop repetitive actions within training, for example looking in
the mirror and putting your seatbelt on before driving off in a car.

The association between stimulus-response can be made more effective by reinforcement. It is this idea
that underpins the theory later developed by B.F. Skinner (1957). Reinforcement can work in both positive
and negative ways. A positive reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. In training,
where the aim is learning, for example, this might be stimulated by verbal praise, a good mark, or a feeling
of achievement. On the other hand, if verbal praise is withdrawn, this will have a negative effect and
motivation to learn will decrease.
One of the main ways to use the behavioural approach to learning in training and teaching is to specify
clear behavioural objectives at the start. Then supplying learning opportunities that ensure that the
objectives are met.
The approach is also based on the view that there is one right way, one truth that the student needs to learn,
and that knowledge is the same for all learners. For this reason it emphasises teacher or trainer control; the
trainer employs external reinforcement to motivate and encourage trainees to reach the stated objectives.
R. M. Gagn - Theory of Instruction
A more recent proponent of the behaviourist approach can be found in the work of Gagn. In his
theory of instruction, Gagn suggests that learning takes place in a hierarchical way. He proposes an
eight-stage model, each stage of which is associated with a type of learning that influences the way
that instruction is delivered. Gagne says that learning at one level is only possible if learning at a
previous level has already taken place.
Gagns eight types of learning are:

Signal learning/recognition (recognising that something is happening).

Stimulus/response learning (learning the response to the stimulus).

Motor chain learning (learning the sequence of actions necessary).
Verbal chain learning (associating words in sequence).
Multiple discrimination (choosing relevant responses to particular stimuli).
Concept learning (making a common response to a class of stimuli).
Acquisition of rules (concepts joining together to guide behaviour)
Problem solving (combining rules to form a new capability)
(Adapted from Gagn R M. The Conditions of Learning (1977). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Florida State University, Tallahassee)
Social Learning Theory
The social learning theory is a development of early behaviourism theory. It proposes that people
can learn, both directly and indirectly, by observing others. In order that this learning becomes
absorbed into their repertoire of behaviours, it needs to be positively reinforced.
There are three stages in the sequence:

Attention is focused using a model (e.g., a child and a parent).

Learning takes place through observation of the model's behaviour, and the consequences of this
(e.g., the child watches the parent use the telephone).
The subject analyses and codes the learning. If imitation of the model is possible, this will help in
the reinforcement process (e.g., if the child can copy the parent's actions, the learning will be reinforced).
The social learning approach places great significance on learning with other people, through
interpersonal interactions, either face-to-face or in a team. One problem of this approach is that people
do not copy everything they see but, as individuals, tend to be selective about what they choose to copy. It

is therefore important for others to demonstrate best practice while using this approach to training and pick
up on mistakes quickly.
Cognitive Approach to Learning
Whereas behaviourist theories of learning essentially stress the importance of the assertiveness of the tutor,
and the passive participant who is not given a great deal of choice, other than to respond in a predetermined
way. Cognitive theories are concerned with the role of the active mind in processing learning opportunities
and developing. The tutor (if present) and the participant both engage with knowledge, the role of the tutor
is choosing the best method to convey understanding.
The work of two well-known classical cognitive theorists is summarised below:
John Dewey
Dewey (1938) believes learning involves 'learning to think'. He says the process of learning is more
than doing a task or activity; it also requires reflection and learning from this. To Dewey, the purpose of
thought is attaining a state of equilibrium, enabling an individual to solve problems and to prepare them for
further inquiry.
Often associated with 'progressive education', Dewey rejected traditional forms of education based on the
reinforcement of information where the student has a passive role, suggesting that this type of learning was
superficial. He said that learning only occurs if the student plays an active role in the process. For learning
to take place it must be meaningful to each individual, with students critically reflecting on information
presented; they have to be able to 'experience' the information and the way to facilitate this is to draw on
past experience. It could be argued, therefore, that Dewey was one of the foremost proponents
of experiential learning.
Teachers or trainers employing Dewey's approach to learning play a key role in learner's development, but
in a more indirect way than that implied in the behaviourist model. For example, planning sessions that
encourage interaction with the material presented and reflective thinking, as well as creating a climate
whereby students or trainees can structure their own learning.
B. S. Bloom
Another theorist who developed the cognitive approach, Bloom, considered learning occurred in both
the cognitive domain, that associated with memory and understanding, and the affective domain,
how feelings or emotions change as a result of learning. Bloom suggests that parallel learning between
the cognitive and the affective domains takes place in a cumulative way depending of the degree of
difficulty. The degree to which learners use the cognitive and affective domains will depend on the
individual.
Examples of each type include:
Cognitive

Affective

Knowledge

Receiving

Comprehension

Responding

Application

Valuing

Analysis-synthesis Conceptualising
Evaluation

Organising

Bloom, B.S. (1965). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals. New
York: David McKay Company, Inc.
Humanistic Approach to Learning
The more recent humanist theories take into account the way that, in our society, previously polarised
views of right and wrong have dissolved into a variety of potentially equally valuable truths, i.e., a
pluralistic approach. The stress on valuing diversity in many organisations and in society generally is a
reflection of this ideology. An emphasis on active learning is at the core of these approaches. The terms
'andragogy' and 'pedagogy' highlight the difference between earlier models of training and the more usual
approach nowadays.
Pedagogy and Andragogy
Pedagogy and andragogy are terms derived from the Greek words meaning 'child' and 'man'
respectively. Pedagogy is essentially based on instruction; knowledge is transmitted formally from one
who knows to one who does not know. This type of model has often been used in institutional settings,
where it can be administratively easier to assume control of the learning experience, while ignoring the
ability or needs of the person to engage in self-directed learning for example in schools and other
educational establishments. Unfortunately, this model can engender resistance or rebellion, particularly in
older children, adolescents and adults.
It could be claimed that pedagogy actually misses the point: providing training or education does not
necessarily mean that the learner will enjoy or remember the experience, even less transfer it to useful
settings. Andragogy, however, provides us with a process model in which the learner discovers knowledge
at a pace to suit him/herself, supported by a facilitator, perhaps a coach or mentor.
Andragogical theory is based on four assumptions that define its unique position, as against pedagogy or
traditional learning methods:

The learner needs freedom to develop his/her own learning.

The existing experiences of the learner are fundamental for understanding and new learning to
take place effectively.
The person needs to be ready to learn, as opposed to being motivated by fear or coercion.
The orientation to learning is paramount: in other words, it is not subject-orientated but learner
centred.
Informal individual support is important in andragogy theory, as is the development of a group environment
that is both positive and accepting. Sharing experiences can deepen individual learning, not only for
cognitive (intellectual) processes, but also affective (emotional) processes. Participative methods build on
both individual and group experiences, aiding reflection, lengthening the span of attention and increasing
self-awareness. Learning in this way is often referred to as 'experiential learning'.
David Kolb - The Experiential Approach
The experiential model of learning that David Kolb proposes, underpins much of the work of modern
adult training providers.
Essentially, Kolb believes that learning is a dynamic process, in which we are constantly able to
construct our own learning and development by moving through the following cycle.

Kolbs four aspects of his learning cycle, in which experience is constantly reviewed and impressions
challenged or confirmed, form the basis of experiential learning theory. The sequence is explained in the
following way: a person's life experiences form the basis for his/her observation and reflection on what has
been encountered encourages learning. This in turn becomes assimilated into what is already known,
providing a new conceptual map on which further actions will be based, thus forming a new experience. To
complete the cycle, people also need to be able to practice skills learned if the training is to have any true
meaning for them.
In training terms, therefore, learning is facilitated if the course content and process key into participants'
existing experience and are so designed to encourage reflection and the formation of new concepts.
Bandura's Self Efficacy Theory
Albert Bandura was a key proponent of social learning who also popularised the notion of selfefficacy.
Bandura's theory takes into consideration how people perceive themselves or how they appraise their own
level of competence in the process of learning. People low in self-efficacy will dwell on their perceived
inadequacy and the difficulties of their situation. Conversely, people high in self-efficacy will see a
situation as a challenge rather than a problem and focus on what needs to be done. They manage threats
well and can apply their knowledge to different situations.

Self-efficacy can be defined as people's judgements of their capabilities to organise and execute
courses of action required to attain designated types of performance. Bandura suggests that the
strength of an individual's convictions in his/her own effectiveness determines whether he/she will even try
to cope in difficult situations. He points out that the level of self-efficacy may influence a person's
performance in the following ways:

The Amount of Effort and Persistence a Person puts into a Task: For example, if a person
starts an activity with weak expectations, or self-efficacy, but this is followed by positive experiences, they
are more likely to persevere. However, individuals who have strong expectations will continue to
persevere despite negative or dissuading experiences.
The Actions or Tasks People Choose: Individuals will be more inclined to undertake tasks in
which they have strong expectations and less inclined to do those linked to weak expectations.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Self-efficacy is derived from a number of sources which include:

Performance Accomplishments: These are the most dependable source of efficacy expectations
because they are based on one's own personal experience. Successes raise mastery expectations and
repeated failures lower them.
Vicarious Experience: Watching others undertake feared activities without negative
consequences can create more positive expectations in observers. This is sometimes referred to as
'modelling'.
Verbal Persuasion: Individuals can be led to believe they can cope successfully. Expectations
created in this way, however, tend to be weak unless accompanied by an authentic experiential base.
Emotional Arousal: People partly rely on their physiological arousal to judge anxiety states.
High aversive arousal tends to debilitate performance whereas with calm or low arousal, success is more
likely.
The implications for training design are various and include setting realistic, but not too easy goals, in order
that people can feel they have achieved something, and ensuring that people have support and reward for
their learning in either in workplace or in other training and learning environments.
(5)Learning Styles
Four Different Learning Styles
Kolb proposed this as a cycle. But theres no question that while we all go through the cycle when we
learn something, we also all prefer to start in different places and to spend more time on some aspects than
others.
Two men called Peter Honey and Alan Mumford noticed this and built on Kolbs work to propose the
theory of learning styles.
Honey and Mumford identified four separate learning styles:

Activist

Pragmatist
Reflector
Theorist

Activists learn by doing.

They dont want to hear what they should be doing, they want to dive in head-first and have a go.
Activists are likely to say:
Lets just give it a go and see what happens
Can I try it out?
Pragmatists care about what works in the real world.
They arent interested in abstract concepts, they just want to know if it works.
Pragmatists are likely to say:
How will it work in practice?
I just dont see how this is relevant
Reflectors like to think about what theyre learning.
They want to understand things thoroughly before they try them out.
Reflectors are likely to say:
Let me just think about this for a moment
Dont lets rush into anything
Theorists like to understand how the new learning fits into their framework and into previous
theories.
Theyre likely to be uncomfortable with things that dont fit with what they already know.
Theorists are likely to say:
But how does this fit in with [x]?
Id just like to understand the principles behind this a bit more
Practical Implications of Learning Styles
Identifying learning styles is interesting and entertaining, but it also has some important practical
implications.
1.

2.

o
o
o

You learn best using your preferred style

This follows whether were talking about Honey and Mumfords four learning styles, or the VAK
model. You are strongest in your preference and you will also enjoy learning more, and get more out of
the experience, if its in your preferred style.
Choose your experiences to fit your preferred style
It follows, therefore, that you should use your preferred style to work out what sort of learning
experiences will suit you best. For example:
Activists, who are also often kin aesthetic, like brain-storming, role plays, group
discussion and problem-solving. Choose courses that will offer you those options, or one that is heavily
based on laboratory experimentation for scientists, rather than those that call for quiet study at home on
your own.
Pragmatists like case studies and time to think about the practical applications of what
theyre learning. Choose case- or problem-based learning, where youll have both time to think about
things on your own, and discuss them with others.
Reflectors like time to read around a subject, and also watching others try things out.
Choose courses that will let you read ahead, and discuss over time, rather than just one-day courses
needing immediate input, and ones that allow observation as well as participation.
Theorists like models and theories, with plenty of background information. Choose
courses that are theory-based, rather than case-based.

If youre considering a course, whether for long-term study or shorter-term learning, dont be afraid to
phone the person organising it and discuss the type of learning. It may be that it could be tailored more
to your learning style, or the tutor may be able to suggest a more appropriate course for you.
3.

If you cant choose your experiences, adapt them

If youre a visual or kinaesthetic learner, youre not going to get all that much out of sitting in a lecture,
listening to someone talk. But dont be tempted to just abandon the experience! Instead, you have an
opportunity to tailor it to your preferences. Try taking notes, or drawing a picture such as a mind-map to
help you remember it more visually, or organise a discussion session afterwards over coffee with others
to consider the learning in a different way.
If your course is examination-based, you also need to think about how youre going to revise the
subject matter. For example, if youre an auditory learner, youre going to love lectures, but youre not
going to enjoy reading over your notes to revise them. Maybe you should ask your lecturers if you can
record the lecture, or perhaps record your notes onto a Dictaphone or digital voice recorder? Then you
can play back your notes afterwards and listen again to revise them.

Learn and Adapt

Teachers and tutors at all levels of education are increasingly aware of different learning styles and
the need to tailor lessons and courses to fit different styles.
As a learner, though, it also helps if you are actively aware of your preferences, and can choose
courses and learning experiences that will fit these and from which you will benefit. However, if you
make the wrong choice, dont panic, just find ways to adapt your experience to suit your learning
style and dont be afraid to ask for help in doing so.
(6)Lifelong Learning

Most people associate learning with formal education at school, college, university etc. We are all told,
from an early age, that we should get a good education.
Generally speaking it is true that a formal education and the resulting qualifications are
important. Education may maximise our potential to find better, more satisfying jobs, earn more and,
perhaps, become more successful in our chosen career.
However, schooling is only one type of learning. There are many other opportunities to further your
knowledge and develop the skills you need throughout life.
Knowledge can be acquired and skill-sets developed anywhere learning is unavoidable and happens
all the time. However, lifelong learning is about creating and maintaining a positive attitude to
learning both for personal and professional development.
Lifelong learners are motivated to learn and develop because they want to: it is a deliberate and
voluntary act.

Lifelong learning can enhance our understanding of the world around us, provide us with more and
better opportunities and improve our quality of life.
There are two main reasons for learning throughout life: for personal development and for professional
development. These reasons may not necessarily be distinct as personal development can improve your
employment opportunities and professional development can enable personal growth.
Learning for its own sake brings its own advantages. For example, learning in whatever context:

Boosts our confidence and self-esteem

Makes us less risk averse and more adaptable to change when it happens
Helps us achieve a more satisfying personal life
Challenges our ideas and beliefs
Can be fun

Learning for Personal Development

There does not need to be a specific reason for learning since learning for the sake of learning can in
itself be a rewarding experience.
There is a common view that continuous learning and having an active mind throughout life may delay or
halt the progress of some forms of dementia, although there is actually very little scientific evidence to
support these claims. However, keeping the brain active does have advantages since learning can prevent
you from becoming bored and thus enable a more fulfilling life at any age.
There are, of course, many reasons why people learn for personal development.

You may want to increase your knowledge or skills around a particular hobby or pastime that you
enjoy.

Perhaps you want to develop some entirely new skill that will in some way enhance your life
take a pottery or car mechanic course for example.
Perhaps you want to research a medical condition or your ancestry.
Perhaps youre planning a trip and want to learn more about the history and culture of your
destination.
Maybe you will decide to take a degree course later in life simply because you enjoy your chosen
subject and the challenges of academic study.

Learning for Professional Development

Our capacity to earn is directly related to our willingness to learn.

Being well-educated is not necessarily the key to employment.

Although qualifications may get you an interview, actually getting the job can take a lot more.

Employers are looking for well-balanced people with transferable skills. This includes the ability to be able
to demonstrate that you are keen to learn and develop.
If you do find yourself unemployed then use the time wisely. Learning something new can pay-off
with new opportunities which might not otherwise have arisen.
While you are employed, take advantage of training, coaching or mentoring opportunities and work
on your continuous professional development as you will likely become better at what you do and
more indispensable to your current or future employer.
Putting the time in for extra learning brings its own rewards.
It means we can get more personal satisfaction from our lives and jobs as we understand more about who
we are and what we do. This can lead to better results and a more rewarding working day in turn. If you
choose to learn about another complementary sector, this enables opportunities to specialise and potentially
earn more or move to a connected industry. In turn this gives us wider experience on which to build our
knowledge and more transferable skills in readiness for your next move.
From a financial point of view, a more highly skilled and knowledgeable worker is an asset to any company
and can lead to faster promotion with associated salary increases.
Someone who can offer more expertise will be of more value not just to employers but also to customers.
Expertise is also, often, a key quality of an effective leader.
If you are frustrated with your job, continuing to hone your skills will make it easier to find new ways out
of a potentially stressful work situation. Keeping an open mind to learning and giving yourself room for
flexibility is key to job satisfaction. Furthermore, potentially staying ahead of competitors for jobs by
being more experienced or knowledgeable can give you an edge.

MASTER your Learning

In his book, Master it Faster, Colin Rose uses the mnemonic MASTER to describe the six stages he
believes are key to becoming an effective learner. These stages can be applied to any type of learning,
either formal or informal.

Motivation

Acquire
Search
Trigger
Examine
Reflect
Motivation
Lifelong learning requires self-motivation. You need to feel positive about learning and about your ability
to learn. If you struggle to see the point of learning what you are learning, you are unlikely to do well.
Acquire
Effective learning requires that you acquire information through reading, listening, observing, practising,
experimenting and experience. Information is all around you: the trick is to acquire relevant and
meaningful information and develop this into knowledge and skills.

Search
Learning is successful when we can search for a personal meaning in the information were acquiring. We
find it hard to remember facts without understanding them or being able to put them into context.
Learning is about applying what you acquire and asking yourself questions such as: How does this idea
help in my life? or What has this experience taught me about myself?
Trigger
Human beings are notoriously bad at retaining information. You cannot and will not remember all that you
read, hear and experience. You can help to trigger recollection in a variety of ways. For example, you can
take notes, practice, discuss and experiment with new ideas and skills to help you learn and develop.
Examine
You should regularly examine your knowledge to help reinforce in your mind what you have learned. You
should always try to keep an open-mind, question your understanding and be open to new information.
Talking to others and seeing their point of view can be a powerful way of examining your own perception
and understanding of a subject.
Reflect
Finally, you should reflect on your learning. Think about how and why you learned, including how you felt
about a particular topic or situation, before and after you developed your knowledge.
Learn from your mistakes as well as from your successes and always try to remain positive.
Learning Gives You Options
The bottom line is that, whatever your life path, there are a number of sometimes unanticipated benefits to
continual personal and professional development.
Whatever your age, it's never too late to start.
Successfully changing career path in mid-life and spending time informally developing expertise is more
common than ever, especially during rapidly changing market conditions.
Most people still rely on succeeding in employment for their ability to earn a living. The more flexible
we can be about our direction, the easier we make our lives.
Our economy is shifting increasingly towards short-term and part-time contracts with more flexible workpatterns whilst old industries are shifting abroad. We have to adapt to changes going on in the work-world
and make more of ourselves by stepping out of our comfort zones and ideas of how we believe our life is
going.
Relying on job permanence for earnings and promotion is not as feasible as it once was.
Because of work-life instability, more people of all ages are turning their hobby into a business idea.
Continually following ones passion outside of work hours can lead you to get paid for doing what you
love, and typically you will develop business and other transferable skills as you go along until the point
that you can delegate your least favourite jobs.
(7)Creative Thinking Skills
How is it that some people always seem to be able to generate new ideas and think creatively, and others
seem to struggle to do so?

Regardless of whether you view yourself as a creative type or not, you can learn some useful skills and
techniques which will enable you to tap into that creative right brain thinking and bring a new perspective
to innovation, problem-solving and managing change.
Although at first glance, creative thinking techniques may sometimes look a bit ridiculous, there are
good principles behind most of them. However sceptical you may be about their potential, its a good
idea to approach them with an open mind.
Brainstorming
The best way to have a good idea is to have lots of ideas.
Linus Pauling Double Nobel Laureate, chemist, biochemist and peace campaigner.
Brainstorming is the often-maligned practice of getting a group of people together and generating
ideas.
Its generally agreed that the rules of brainstorming, at least in the initial stages, include:

Everyone having a say

All ideas being equally valued

No criticism of other people's ideas is allowed
There are at least a couple of different ways that brainstorming sessions can be run:
1.
2.

Everyone follows up an initial idea, feeding off it to generate new ones, until an end point is
reached on that idea, at which point the group turns to a new idea and does the same.
Participants are encouraged to come up with more free-flow generation of unconnected ideas that
can then be grouped and themed later.

It is also generally agreed that following an initial period of open brainstorming, there needs to be a period
of idea evaluation where questions are asked and criticisms are made. This allows for initial ideas to be
explored in more detail and accepted for further investigation or discarded.
Many people also use this opportunity to group ideas by theme to make exploration easier since, often, a lot
of the ideas will be linked.
The principle behind brainstorming is Linus Paulings point that most ideas are not very good. So the best
way to have a good idea is to generate lots of ideas, then discard the impractical and inappropriate ideas.
The trouble is that there is no scientific formula for the number of ideas you need to generate to find a good
one, or even a guarantee that youll be able to find a good one at all.
It is important to set aside plenty of time for brainstorming, and to keep exploring even when you think
youve found a good idea: the first idea is very seldom the best.
Engaging your Right Brain
Much research has been done over the years on the way in which the two sides of the brain work
differently.

The left side of the brain is supposedly focused on logic and order.

The right side of the brain focused on the more 'messy', creative and innovative aspects.

Although this is a rather extreme view, there does seem to be evidence that doing physical activities that
engage the creative areas of your brain can help you think differently.
One fairly simple way to do this is by drawing or creating something in three dimensions, perhaps using
junk-modelling or balloons and post-it notes. This can be an individual or group activity, to aid either your
own or everyones thinking processes.
Being able to draw is not a prerequisite to this approach. Its the activity, not the precise form at the
end, thats important.
Examples that use drawing techniques to aid creative thinking
Mind mapping is a technique originally created by Tony Buzan, and adapted by many others since.
Mind mapping uses words connected with arrows or lines. Its a good way of representing a large amount
of interconnecting information in a fairly compact way, and many people also use it for planning
presentations or taking notes in meetings.
Mind maps usually start with a single word in the centre, and connected ideas and concepts radiating out
via branches.
Rich pictures are a rather more visual version of mind mapping. Again, you create a picture of a situation,
but this time using words as sparingly as possible. Theyre not banned altogether, but your thinking will be
more creative if you focus on the pictures.
Rich pictures encourage to use colour and symbols: anything, really, that will help your picture to come
alive for you, and show you the situation in a different way.
Envisaging the future is an interesting exercise to do with a group especially during times of change.

Cover as much of a wall as possible with large pieces of paper, such as flip-chart pages.
Ask the group to start at one edge, and draw the situation, as it currently is. No words are allowed,
it all has to be pictures, although they can talk about what theyre drawing.
Then ask them to move to the opposite edge, and draw the ideal future situation. Again, no words
are to be written.
Next, draw a large semi-circular bridge between the current and future sides, and ask the group
to draw what needs to happen to move from one side to the other.
This part is clearly the crux, which should help the group see what needs to be done.
The idea behind this is that seeing the pictures makes it easier to 'bridge' the gap between the current
situation and the desired future situation.

Another way of harnessing the creative side of the brain is to make something, perhaps out of
balloons, or old cardboard boxes large and small, or even Lego. Many people also find doing jigsaw
puzzles is a good way to get some creative thinking time.
The act of making something with your hands, and occupying your conscious mind with spatial problems,
can often allow your subconscious to get to work on the big intractable problem.
Just as sleeping on a problem can give you a new perspective, so can doing something completely different.
Role-Play Situations
Role-play situations are probably the 'Marmite' of management development courses: you either love
them or you hate them. But love them or hate them, they can have some dramatic results.

Role-play, does not just include the basic pretend Im your customer-type role-plays, or even
walk around the room trying to channel an animal-type exercises, which rightly or wrongly are
often regarded as something of a waste of time.
The term role-play also encompasses Business Constellations.
Business Constellations is a technique emerging from family therapy, which allows a group to explore the
interrelationships within it by the use of actors or group members to represent particular individuals, not
necessarily themselves.

One person starts by placing all the others in the room to show the way that they see the problem.
In turn, each person in the group then moves to where they see themselves fitting best. And of
course, as each person moves, it affects the others in the group, who then want to move again.
The end point is reached when everyone is comfortable with their location within the group, and
this represents the shape of the group and the dynamics within it.
This is a very powerful technique, which can cause emotions to run high, so should only be
undertaken with a trained practitioner to facilitate.
Even those qualified to lead this kind of role-play exercise, and who have done so many times, can often be
surprised by their outcomes. There is something about pretending to be someone else and channelling
someone elses emotions which is astonishingly freeing and can lead to hugely creative thinking.
A Take-Home Message
There are two key things to remember when you are engaged in creative thinking skills and
techniques.
The first is dont stop there. Even when you think youve reached a good point, carry on a bit further.
Dont be satisfied with the first solution you reach. Instead, as long as you have time, try exploring other
ideas, or even push the one that you have a bit further. Take it right to the point of idiocy, and see where
that gets you.
As Oscar Levant said, there is a fine line between genius and insanity. Try crossing it, giving yourself the
option of crossing back to the point of genius again.
The second point is closely related and it is go with the flow.
Sometimes the most useful outcomes of any creative thinking exercise are the unexpected ones, so dont
squash ideas just because they dont seem to fit straight away. Just let them run for a while and see what
happens.
An open mind is the most important prerequisite for creative thinking.
(8)Critical Thinking Skills
What is Critical Thinking?
Critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally and has been the subject of much debate and
explanation over the past twenty years or so, though its been written about from time to time right back to
the Greek philosophers including Plato and Socrates.Critical thinking might be described as the ability to
engage in reflective and independent thinking.
Someone with critical thinking skills can:

Understand the logical connections between ideas.

Identify, construct and evaluate arguments.

Detect inconsistencies and common mistakes in reasoning.
Solve problems systematically.
Identify the relevance and importance of ideas.
Reflect on the justification of one's own beliefs and values.
Regardless of the time involved, critical thinking is thinking about things in certain ways so as to arrive at
the best possible outcomes in the current circumstances the thinker is aware of. In more everyday language
it is a way of thinking about whatever is presently occupying your mind so that you come to the best
available conclusion.
Critical Thinking is:
A way of thinking about particular things at a particular time; it is not something you learn once and then
use in that form forever such as the nine times table you learn and use in school.
You should also be aware that we dont think critically all the time. Sometimes we think in almost any
way but critically, for example when our self-control is affected by anger, grief or joy or when we are
feeling just plain bloody minded.
On the other hand the good news is that, since our critical thinking ability varies according to our current
mindset, most of the time we can learn to improve our critical thinking ability by developing certain routine
activities and applying them to all the problems that present themselves.
What are you Aiming to Achieve?
One of the most important aspects of critical thinking is to decide what you are aiming to achieve and then
making a decision from a range of possibilities.
Once you have clarified that aim for yourself you should use it as the starting point in all future
situations requiring thought and, possibly, further decision making. Where needed, make your
workmates or family, your sports team or whoever aware of it and your intention to pursue this goal.
Then you must discipline yourself to keep on track until changing circumstances mean you have to
revisit the start of the decision making process.
However, there are things that get in the way of simple decision making. We all carry with us a range of
likes and dislikes, learnt behaviours and personal preferences developed throughout our lives; they are the
hallmarks of being human. A major contribution to ensuring we think critically is to be aware of these
personal characteristics, preferences and biases and make allowance for them when considering possible
next steps, whether they are at the pre-action consideration stage or as part of a rethink caused by
unexpected or unforeseen impediments to continued progress.
I would the powers the giftie gius to see oursels as others see us.
- Robert Burns
Which for non-Scots might be translated as:
Wouldnt it be great if we could look at ourselves in the same way as other people do.
The more clearly we are aware of ourselves, our strengths and weaknesses, the more likely our
critical thinking will be productive.
In the same way we need to be keenly aware of our reactions to others, instinctive or learned. It is a fact of
human life that we dont get on as well with everyone around us. Since this a human characteristic theres

nothing to be ashamed of. But it is of the utmost importance that we keep our foibles clearly in mind when
we are making decisions. If we can discipline ourselves to keep them from taking over our thinking, we
will harness a major element of good critical thinking.
The Benefit of Foresight
Perhaps the most important element of thinking critically is foresight. Almost all decisions we make and
implement dont prove disastrous if we find reasons to abandon them. However, our decision making will
be infinitely better and more likely to lead to success if, when we reach a tentative conclusion, we pause
and consider the impact on the people and activities around us.
The elements needing consideration are generally numerous and varied. In many cases, consideration of
one element from a different perspective will reveal potential dangers in pursuing our decision. For
instance, moving a business activity to a new location may improve potential output considerably but it
may also lead to the loss of skilled workers if the distance moved is too great. Which of these is the more
important consideration? Is there some way of lessening the conflict?
These are the sort of problems that may arise from incomplete critical thinking, a demonstration perhaps of
the critical importance of good critical thinking.
In Summary:

Critical thinking is aimed at achieving the best possible outcomes in any situation. In order
to achieve this it must involve gathering and evaluating information from as many different sources
possible.
Critical thinking requires a clear, often uncomfortable, assessment of your personal
strengths, weaknesses and preferences and their possible impact on decisions you may make.
Critical thinking requires the development and use of foresight as far as this is possible. As
Doris Day sang, the futures not ours to see.
Implementing the decisions made arising from critical thinking must take into account an
assessment of possible outcomes and ways of avoiding potentially negative outcomes, or at least
lessening their impact.
Critical thinking involves reviewing the results of the application of decisions made and
implementing change where possible.
It might be thought that we are overextending our demands on critical thinking in expecting that it can help
to construct focused meaning rather than examining the information given and the knowledge we have
acquired to see if we can, if necessary, construct a meaning that will be acceptable and useful. After all,
almost no information we have available to us, either externally or internally, carries any guarantee of its
life or appropriateness. Neat step-by-step instructions may provide some sort of trellis on which our basic
understanding of critical thinking can blossom but it doesnt and cannot provide any assurance of certainty,
utility or longevity.
At some stage of setting out on a critical thinking process we have to face the question What happens
when critical thinking doesnt produce any acceptable or usable solution to our problem or indicators of the
next step?'
(9)Introducing Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP)
What is Neuro-Linguistic Programming?
Neuro-Linguistic Programming, or NLP, provides practical ways in which you can change the way that you
think, view past events, and approach your life.

Neuro-Linguistic Programming shows you how to take control of your mind, and therefore your life.
Unlike psychoanalysis, which focuses on the why, NLP is very practical and focuses on the how.
How NLP Began
NLP was co-created by Richard Bandler, who noticed that conventional psychotherapy techniques didnt
always work and was interested in trying different ways. He worked closely with a very successful therapist
called Virginia Satir, and NLP was born from the techniques that really worked with patients and others.
Richard Bandler has written many books about NLP. One of the most helpful as a basic introduction is
probably: How to Take Charge of Your Life: The Users Guide to NLP, by Richard Bandler, Alessio Roberti
and Owen Fitzpatrick.
Taking Control of Your Mind: The Principle Behind NLP
NLP works from the starting point that you may not control much in your life, but that you can
always take control of what goes on in your head.
Your thoughts, feelings and emotions are not things that are, or that you have, but things that you do. Their
causes can often be very complicated, involving, for instance, comments or beliefs from your parents or
teachers, or events that you have experienced.
NLP shows you how you can take control of these beliefs and influences. Using mind techniques such as
visualisation, you can change the way that you think and feel about past events, fears and even phobias.
You cant always control what happens, but you can always control how you deal with it

Richard Bandler, Alessio Roberti and Owen Fitzpatrick, How to Take Charge of Your Life: The Users
Guide to NLP
The Power of Belief
What you believe can be extremely powerful.
If you believe youre ill and that youre going to die, you probably will: witch doctors have been using
this technique for centuries.
Likewise, if you believe that you have been given something that will make you better, you often do
get better. This placebo effect is well-documented in clinical trials.
What this boils down to is that if you believe you can do something, you probably can. But you can also
challenge limiting beliefs, and change whether you believe you can do something by asking yourself
questions like:

How do I know I cant do that?

Who said that to me? Might they have been wrong?

Goal Setting
Were all familiar with the principles of goal-setting, but NLP suggests some interesting new insights,
focusing on satisfaction, not dissatisfaction.
For example, its helpful to make your goals positive; focus on what you want to have, not what youd like
to lose or not have. You should also think about what it is that you really want. For example, you dont

actually want to buy your dream house, you want to live in it. Its much easier to get motivated about a goal
that really satisfies you.
The Power of Questions
Bandler suggests that our minds actively look for answers to questions.
So if you ask yourself Why do I feel so bad?, your mind will find lots of answers and you will feel worse.
With NLP the key is to ask the right questions, for example:

Why do I want to change?

What will life be like when I have changed?

What do I need to do more/less of in order to change?
Questions like these naturally lead to a more positive outlook.Some Tools and Techniques from NLP
There are many tools and techniques used in NLP and this section gives a brief introduction to a few.
To find out more, you could go on a reputable NLP course, or read one of Richard Bandlers books.
Moving images

Imagine an image of someone who annoys you. Concentrate on how the picture appears in your
mind.

Make the image smaller, put it in black and white, and imagine it moving away from you. Notice
how this makes you feel.
Imagine a picture of something that makes you feel good. Make it bigger and brighter, and move it
closer to you. Notice how this makes you feel.

The idea behind this thought process is that it helps you see how people or events affect you and understand
the way you feel about them.
By manipulating images in this way, you are teaching your brain to magnify good feelings and make bad
feelings weaker.Undermining the Critical Voice
Many of us will admit to having a critical voice in our heads that pops up at inopportune moments and says
things like You couldnt possibly do that, or That sounds way too difficult for someone like you.
Next time you hear the critical voice, imagine it sounding silly, maybe like Donald Duck or Tweetie Pie.
Notice how this changes the way that you regard the voices wisdom.
If the voice no longer sounds like someone real, its much easier to silence it.
Running the Movie Backwards
If youve had a bad experience that youre struggling to get over, it can help to imagine it backwards.

Start from a point in time where you realised the experience was over. Then imagine the whole
incident happening backwards, until youve gone back to a time before it happened.
Do this a few times until youre familiar with the way that the film plays backwards.
Now make it really small in your mind say little enough to view on a mobile phone screen - and
play it again backwards.

Finally, think of a different end to the experience, one that makes you smile. Notice how the way
that you feel about it has changed.

The key to this technique is that you are showing your brain a different way of looking at a memory, which
will change the way that you feel about it too.

Brilliance Squared

Take an emotion that you would like to feel, for example confidence. Imagine a coloured square in
front of you filled with the colour that you associate with that emotion.
Imagine yourself standing in the square, filled with that emotion. Notice how you would stand, the
look on your face, everything about you.
Step into the square, and take on the mantle of the imaginary you. Feel the feeling spreading
through you. Repeat this a few times, until you can do it easily.
Now, imagine the coloured square on its own in front of you and step in. See how it feels.

The trick here is that you have trained your mind to associate an image with a feeling. By conjuring up the
image, you can now conjure up the feeling too.
Conclusion
NLP is a very powerful technique based on the power of your own mind. Some might call it mind
tricks but, by using these techniques and others developed by NLP practitioners, you can learn to
take control of your mind and how you respond to the world.
You may not be able to control the world, but you can control how you react to it.

(10)Emotional Intelligence (EI)

Many of us are aware of IQ (Intelligence Quotient) an individuals score when performing a series of tests
designed to measure intellectual intelligence. Higher IQs indicate better cognitive abilities - these include
the ability to learn and understand - and people with higher IQs are more likely to do well academically,
without exerting the same amount of mental effort as those with lower IQ scores.
A logical assumption, therefore, is that people with higher IQs will be more successful at work and through
life. This assumption has been proven incorrect there is more to success than simply being clever.
Emotional Intelligence (EI or sometimes EQ Emotional Quotient) is a more modern concept and
was only fully developed in the mid-1990s.
Emotional Intelligence is the measure of an individuals abilities to recognise and manage their
emotions, and the emotions of other people, both individually and in groups.

Benefits of Higher Emotional Intelligence

People with higher emotional intelligence find it easier to form and maintain interpersonal
relationships and to fit in to group situations.
People with higher EIs are also better at understanding their own psychological state, this can
include managing stress effectively and being less likely to suffer from depression.

There is no correlation between IQ and EI scores.

Academic aptitude (IQ) has no connection with how people understand and deal with their emotions
and the emotions of others (EI).
Some people have high IQs and low emotional intelligence and vice-versa; some people score highly on
both and some do not. Both IQ and EI attempt to measure different forms of human intelligence, these
measures along with personality make up an individuals psyche.
Emotional intelligence is the one part of the human psyche that we can develop and improve by learning
and practising new skills.
You can find many different tests to help you measure your IQ, EI and personality online and in books.
Emotional intelligence tests require that the person taking the test answers questions honestly and it is
therefore a lot easier to cheat at an EI test than it is an IQ test.
Ultimately emotional intelligence can only be measured by how an individual progresses through life developing meaningful relationships with others, their interpersonal skills and understanding and managing
their own emotions, intra-personal (or personal) skill.
Elements of Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence is split between our personal and interpersonal skills, these are sometimes also
referred to as personal and social competencies. Within each of these sections are a range of skills
which are the elements of emotional intelligence.
Personal Skills
Self-awareness: is the skill of being aware of and understanding your emotions as they occur and as they
evolve. It is wrong to think of emotions as either positive or negative but rather as appropriate or
inappropriate. Anger is usually associated with being a negative emotion, for example. However, anger
can be a completely reasonable and appropriate emotion in certain circumstances emotional intelligence
allows us to recognise our anger and understand why this emotion has occurred.
People who lack self-awareness find living a truly happy and productive life difficult. This can be difficult
to overcome as many societies and cultures encourage us to ignore our feelings and emotions Keep Calm
and Carry On. Examples of this include people who stay in jobs that they find unfulfilling or make them
unhappy, or in relationships that they are not comfortable with. People find ways to mask their emotions
rather than listening to them addiction to certain behaviours is often linked to emotional masking, these
include excessive drinking, over-working, smoking, computer games and gambling.
People can find self-analysis of their emotions difficult, especially if they have suppressed them for a long
time. It may be hard for people to accurately recognise their emotions and even more difficult to
understand why they are feeling them. Effective self-assessment of feelings and emotions demonstrates
good emotional intelligence and will help to improve your confidence and self-esteem, which in turn are
also key skills of the emotionally intelligent person.

Self-management: by being aware of your own emotions you can learn to manage them appropriately and
proportionately.
Self-management skills relate to the emotions you are feeling at any given time or in any given
circumstance and how well you manage them. Fundamental to self-management is self-control. Selfcontrol is NOT masking or hiding your emotions but recognising and controlling them appropriately. This
means NOT making rash decisions or over-reacting to a situation but remaining calm and rational, making
balanced decisions based on what is really important and not just how we feel in the spur of the moment.
We have all reacted badly or inappropriately to events or situations in the past, and we will all do the same
in the future. Reflective practice, i.e. think back over such situations, enables us to analyse and understand
why we acted in the way that we did, this in turn can help us to behave more intelligently in the future.
When reflecting it is useful to think of yourself in a positive way, dont think, I have completely messed
that up, Im a failure but aim for something more positive, I can use those experiences to learn and
become a better person.
Self-management also includes knowing our personal limits and abilities. Personal time-management, selfmotivation and assertiveness are key skills in this area. Do not make unreasonable demands on yourself,
learn to be assertive rather than just saying, Yes to the demands of others.
Personal development is another form of self-management and is concerned with our desire to become a
better person by learning new skills and developing existing skills. Personal development is about being
proactive and showing innovative, about learning new skills because we feel we have to.
Interpersonal Skills
Interpersonal skills are the skills we use to interact with other people, they enable us to communicate
appropriately and build stronger, more meaningful relationships. Emotional intelligence includes how we
understand others and their emotions and our actions and behaviours towards them.
Social Awareness: is the skill-set used to understand the emotions and feelings of other people both
individually and in group situations. Comprehension and acceptance of the emotions of others allows us to
empathise, seeing things from their point of view and therefore developing a stronger bond and
understanding.
Empathy, however, can often be difficult to achieve. Learn to listen effectively to both the verbal and nonverbal messages of others, including body movements, gestures and physical signs of emotion. Use
questions to find out more about other people and what they are feeling, use feedback to clarify that what
you have understood is a true reflection of their feelings. Acknowledge and respect the feelings of others
even if you disagree, avoid making comments or statements that are judgemental, belittling, rejecting or
undermining.
Rapport Building: The final element of emotional intelligence is concerned with developing strong social
skills and by doing so building rapport with others. By understanding your emotions and the emotions of
others you can work towards building rapport. Rapport enhances the effectiveness of communication and
is fundamental to building meaningful and lasting relationships.
The term social skills covers a wide variety of skills and competencies, many of which are rooted in selfesteem and personal confidence. By developing your social skills, being easy to talk to, being a good
listener, being sharing and trustworthy you also become more charismatic and attractive to others. This in
turn improves self-esteem and confidence which makes it easier for positive personal dialect and a greater
understanding and acceptance of your own emotions.
In Summary

Working on your emotional intelligence could be the most important aspect of personal development.

Research has shown that people with higher levels of emotional intelligence enjoy more satisfying and
successful careers and relationships. Think about ways that you can enhance your EI, not only will you
become more interesting and attractive to others but you will also give your own self-esteem a boost.

(11)Reflective Practice

What is Reflective Practice?

Reflective practice is, in its simplest form, thinking about or reflecting on what you do. It is closely linked
to the concept of learning from experience, in that you think about what you did, and what happened, and
decide from that what you would do differently next time.
Thinking about what has happened is part of being human. However, the difference between casual
thinking and reflective practice is that reflective practice requires a conscious effort to think about
events, and develop insights into them. Once you get into the habit of using reflective practice, you
will probably find it useful both at work and at home.
Reflective Practice as a Skill
Various academics have touched on reflective practice and experiential learning to a greater or lesser
extent over the years, including Chris Argyris (the person who coined the term double-loop learning
to explain the idea that reflection allows you to step outside the single loop of Experience, Reflect,
Conceptualise, Apply into a second loop to recognise a new paradigm and reframe your ideas in
order to change what you do).
They all seem to agree that reflective practice is a skill which can be learned and honed, which is
good news for most of us.
Reflective practice is an active, dynamic action-based and ethical set of skills, placed in real time and
dealing with real, complex and difficult situations.
Moon, J. (1999), Reflection in Learning and Professional Development: Theory and Practice, Kogan Page,
London.
Academics also tend to agree that reflective practice bridges the gap between the high ground of
theory and the swampy lowlands of practice. In other words, it helps us to explore theories and to
apply them to our experiences in a more structured way. These can either be formal theories from academic
research, or your own personal ideas. It also encourages us to explore our own beliefs and assumptions and
to find solutions to problems.
Developing and Using Reflective Practice
What can be done to help develop the critical, constructive and creative thinking that is necessary for
reflective practice?
Neil Thompson, in his book People Skills, suggests that there are six steps:
1.
2.

Read - around the topics you are learning about or want to learn about and develop
Ask - others about the way they do things and why

3.
4.
5.
6.

Watch - what is going on around you

Feel - pay attention to your emotions, what prompts them, and how you deal with negative ones
Talk - share your views and experiences with others in your organisation
Think - learn to value time spent thinking about your work

In other words, its not just the thinking thats important. You also have to develop an understanding of the
theory and others practice too, and explore ideas with others. Reflective practice can be a shared activity: it
doesnt have to be done alone. Indeed, some social psychologists have suggested that learning only occurs
when thought is put into language, either written or spoken. This may explain why we are motivated to
announce a particular insight out loud, even when by ourselves! However, it also has implications for
reflective practice, and means that thoughts not clearly articulated may not endure.
It can be difficult to find opportunities for shared reflective practice in a busy workplace. Of course there
are some obvious ones, such as appraisal interviews, or reviews of particular events, but they dont happen
every day. So you need to find other ways of putting insights into words. Although it can feel a bit
contrived, it can be helpful, especially at first, to keep a journal of learning experiences. This is not about
documenting formal courses, but about taking everyday activities and events, and writing down what
happened, then reflecting on them to consider what you have learned from them, and what you could or
should have done differently. Its not just about changing: a learning journal and reflective practice can also
highlight when youve done something well. Take a look at our page What is Learning? to find out more
about the cycle of learning (PACT) and the role that reflection (or Considering) plays in it.

In your learning journal, it may be helpful to work through a simple process, as below. Once you get
more experienced, you will probably find that you want to combine steps, or move them around, but
this is likely to be a good starting point.

The Reflective Learning Process

Identify a situation you encountered in your work or personal life that you believe could have been dealt
with more effectively.
Describe the experience
What happened? When and where did the situation occur? Any other thoughts you have about the
situation?
Reflection
How did you behave? What thoughts did you have? How did it make you feel? Were there other
factors that influenced the situation? What have you learned from the experience?
Theorizing
How did the experience match with your preconceived ideas, i.e. was the outcome expected or
unexpected? How does it relate to any formal theories that you know? What behaviours do you think
might have changed the outcome?
Experimentation
Is there anything you could do or say now to change the outcome? What action(s) can you take to
change similar reactions in the future? What behaviours might you try out?

The Benefits of Reflective Practice

Reflective practice has huge benefits in increasing self-awareness, which is a key component
of emotional intelligence, and in developing a better understanding of others. Reflective practice can
also help you to develop creative thinking skills, and encourages active engagement in work
processes.
In work situations, keeping a learning journal, and regularly using reflective practice, will support more
meaningful discussions about career development, and your personal development, including at personal
appraisal time. It will also help to provide you with examples to use in competency-based interview
situations. This is an example of the use of reflective practice, with the focus on what youre going to do
and why.
Warning

Reflective practice is one of the easiest things to drop when the pressure is on, yet its one of the things that
you can least afford to drop, especially under those circumstances. Time spent on reflective practice will
ensure that you are focusing on the things that really matter, both to you and to your employer or family.
To Conclude
Reflective practice is a tool for improving your learning both as a student and in relation to your
work and life experiences. Although it will take time to adopt the technique of reflective practice, it
will ultimately save you time and energy.

(12)Personal Presentation
Personal presentation is all about marketing YOU, the brand that is you. What others see you do and hear
you say will influence their opinion of you so personal presentation is about painting yourself in as
positive a light as possible always.
Organisations spend a lot of time and money working on their image, developing their brand and
producing as many positive signals as possible. Staff in organisations should know that everything
they do is marketing for the organisation, every email they send, every phone call they take, every
time they interact with a client or customer. Organisations also spend a lot of time and money
recruiting and training the right kind of people to project the right kind of image.

Although personal presentation is key in one-to-one situations such as a conversation, in a group situation
such as a meeting, or when giving a presentation such as a talk or speech it is also important in less formal
situations, when socialising with friends, for example. How people perceive you is important to
communication and you should always aim to be viewed as positively and confidently as possible.
People who present themselves as confident will be perceived as such by others.

Your appearance and understanding of personal presentation techniques such as effective speaking
and positive body language will enhance your communication skills and raise your confidence.

Effective Communication
Personal presentation is about you and how you present yourself in everyday situations. However,
personal presentation always involves at least two people - the person presenting themselves (you)
and the person receiving the presentation. It can therefore be described as an interaction.
Personal presentation is concerned with conveying appropriate signals for the situation and for the other
individuals involved. People who lack self-esteem and confidence may fail to convey their message
effectively or fully utilise their skills and abilities because of the way they present themselves. By
improving your personal presentation you improve your communication skills and reduce barriers to
understanding. Everybody presents themselves differently and most can improve their personal
presentation.
Personal presentation is about learning about yourself, being inner-directed and accepting of who you are,
your positives and your negatives, and being comfortable with yourself. Personal presentation is not about
being self-conscious or overly concerned with what others think about you. These concepts are closely
related to Personal Empowerment.
Areas of Personal Presentation
Self-Esteem and Confidence
Self-esteem is not a static thing; it varies based on numerous factors, different situations and the presence
of different people, personal stress levels and change. Think about how you value yourself and learn to
manage the highs and lows of self-esteem, find ways of appearing more confident even when you are not
and learn some powerful techniques to boost your self-esteem and learn about your personality.
Confidence is a measure of how well we think we may perform certain roles or tasks. Linked to selfesteem, confidence is how we feel about our ability.
Effective Speaking
Your voice says a lot about you and learning how to use it more effectively has many benefits. Our
Effective Speaking page examines aspects of your voice, accent, tone, pitch, volume and encourages you to
learn more about your voice and how you use it to its full potential. Learn to communicate more
dynamically, fluently and with passion and enthusiasm.
Personal Appearance
The way you dress and take care of your general appearance are important factors in personal presentation,
what messages does the way you dress send to others? Your personal appearance also includes the body
language, gestures and other non-verbal messages that you use. By being aware of positive and negative
non-verbal signals you can improve your image and the way people perceive you.
Time Management:
If you don't manage your time wisely you are less likely to be able to get everything done effectively. You
are also more likely to be disorganised and run late for meetings or other appointments. Poor time
management has an effect on how you are perceived by others. Learn some simple techniques to help you
improve your time management skills, get more done and avoid being late..

Aspects of self-confidence in personal presentation can be learned and developed. Through practice,
good preparation and an understanding of the control of the voice along with the personal visual
images you send through body language.
By utilising simple techniques such as controlled breathing and the use of positive body language,
nerves and tension can be reduced. This in turn leads to feelings of increased self-esteem and greater
confidence.
This is especially true in more formal situations, culminating in improved communication and
therefore better understanding.

(13)Self-Motivation
Self-motivation is, in its simplest form, the force that drives you to do things.
Self-motivation is far from being a simple topic; there are many books, webpages and articles that attempt
to explain self-motivation and some top academics have dedicated their lifes work to trying to understand,
model and develop motivation theory.
Self-motivation is a key life skill and something that everybody interested in personal development
should think carefully about.
Motivation pushes us to achieve our goals, feel more fulfilled and improve overall quality of life.
People who are self-motivated tend to be more organised, with good time management skills and
have more self-esteem and confidence.
Understanding and developing your self-motivation can help you to take control of many other
aspects of your life.
What is Your Motive?
Fundamental to self-motivation is understanding what motivates you to do things.
This may sound straightforward but sometimes your motivation is hidden from your consciousness your
own personal hidden agenda. Your motivation may well change from hour-to-hour, day-to-day and through
life. As this happens your needs, wants and goals change and evolve.
Murder mystery novels, TV shows and movies are a popular genre, but the stories are often less about
Who Did It and more about Why they did it what was their motive? Sleuths spend their time looking
for physical clues and listening to alibis, but often the most gripping part of the story is in working out the
murderers motives. It may take some detective work to understand your motives too what makes you do
the things you do, and maybe more importantly what stops you from doing other things?
There are two main types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

In their simplest form you can think about these two types of motivation as:

Intrinsic = love, because we want to.

Extrinsic = money, because we have to.

A more detailed definition is:

Intrinsic: To perform an action or task based on the expected or perceived satisfaction of

performing the action or task. Intrinsic motivators include having fun, being interested and personal
challenge.
Extrinsic: To perform an action or task in order to attain some sort of reward, including money,
power and good marks or grades.

Different people are motivated by different things and at different times in their lives. The same task may
have more intrinsic motivators at certain times and more extrinsic motivators at others, most tasks have a
combination of the two types of motivation.
Example:
John works because he has to pay his mortgage and feed himself and his family. He gets no satisfaction
from his job and there is no chance of promotion. Johns motivators are purely extrinsic.
Sally works because she loves what she does, she gets enormous satisfaction and self-fulfilment from her
work. Sally has enough money put away that she does not need to work, she owns her house outright and
can afford to buy what she wants when she wants it. Sallys motivators are purely intrinsic.
Clearly Sally and John are at different ends of the spectrum when it comes to self-motivation. Most people,
however, fall somewhere in the middle.
Most people do have to work in order to earn money, but at the same time they also find their day-to-day
work life rewarding or satisfying in other intrinsic ways - job satisfaction and the chance to socialise with
colleagues, for example.
When thinking about what motivates you to perform a certain task, think about both intrinsic and
extrinsic motivators if you have trouble getting motivated to perform specific tasks it may be useful
to write them down and list the motivators for each.
This may lead us to believe that if a task has neither intrinsic nor extrinsic motivators then we
probably wont perform it as it would be pointless.
This is the case until we take into account feelings of obligation. Obligation motivators are not necessarily
strictly intrinsic or extrinsic but can still be very powerful. Obligation comes from our personal ethics and
sense of duty, what is right and what is wrong.
You may feel obliged to go to a party because you were invited by somebody you know there will be no
obvious extrinsic or intrinsic benefit to you attending but you may worry if you dont go. You are more
likely to enjoy the party you feel obliged to attend if you go with a positive and open attitude this way
you have also added an intrinsic motivator, fun and enjoyment.
Setting Personal Goals
There is a strong correlation between self-motivation, personal goals and achievement. In order to get
properly motivated it helps to spend some time thinking about your personal goals and what you want to
achieve in your life.

We all have an inbuilt desire to achieve, what we want to achieve is personal to us and this may
change through life. At school you may want to achieve good grades, later you may want to pass
your driving test or get a job. People want to know that they have achieved, or have the ability to
achieve something of value, meaning or importance. Generally, the more people achieve, the more
self-confident they become. As self-confidence rises so does the ability to achieve more. Conversely,
when people fail to achieve and meet their goals, self-esteem and confidence can suffer, impacting on
their motivation to achieve more.
Understanding the relationship between motivation, personal goal setting and achievement will help you set
realistic personal goals, which in turn will allow you to achieve more in the longer term.
Personal goals can provide long-term direction and short-term motivation. Goals help us to focus on what
we want to be or where we want to go with our lives. They can be a way of utilising knowledge, managing
time and resources so that you can focus on making the most of your life potential.
By setting clearly defined personal goals, you can measure your achievements and keep sight of your
progress, if you fail to achieve at one step you can reassess your situation and try new approaches. Keeping
your life goals clearly defined and updated as your circumstances change and evolve is one of the most
powerful ways to keep yourself motivated.
Life Goals
It is important to remember, when thinking about what you would like to achieve in your life, that
change is inevitable. Your circumstances and priorities will change through your life, you may
realise, at the age of 40 that you are never going to be a concert pianist as you had planned when
you were 19. However if you take the right steps from the age of 19 then there is nothing to stop you
achieving this potential goal.
When thinking about your lifetime goals, make them challenging and exciting, base them on your strengths
but make them relevant to you and ultimately achievable.
It may be useful to categorise life goals:

Academic goals what knowledge and/or qualifications do you want to achieve?

Career goals where would you like your career to take you, what level do you want to reach?
Monetary goals what do you aim to earn at given point in your life?
Ethical goals do you want to volunteer some of your time to a good cause or get involved in
local events, politics etc.?
Creative goals how do you want to progress creatively or artistically?
Domestic goals how would you like your domestic life to be in the future?
Physical goals do you want to develop you skill in a certain sport or other physical activity?
Once you have thought about your life goals you can start to plan how best to achieve them. Set yourself
smaller goals for the future. In ten years I will be in five years I will be etc. Work out plans of action
with smaller and smaller sub-goals until you can arrive at an action plan that you can start working on now.
If one of your life goals is to write a book you could plan:

5 years from now publish my book

4 years from now finish the first draft of my book

3 years from now complete a university degree in creative writing
1 year from now develop an outline for my book
Next month think about ideas and research potential story lines for my book

This week read two books

Although this example is a very simplistic outline of a major life goal, it should give you an idea of how
you can structure big goals and work out sub-goals that you need to achieve along the way.
Making Your Goals SMART:
It can be useful to make your goals and sub-goals fit the SMART criteria.
That is goals should be:

S Specific make each goal specific, so you know exactly what it is.

M Measurable make each goal measurable so you know how you are progressing.
A Attainable dont set impossible goals, make sure each goal and sub-goal is attainable.
R Relevant make your goals relevant. Ensure your sub-goals are relevant to your life goals.
T Timed set time-limits or deadlines for when to achieve each goal.

Keep Motivated
Finally it is important to keep track of what you want to achieve and stay motivated to do so. To
keep your motivation levels up try to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Learn and Acquire Knowledge. Read, study and talk to people knowledge and information are
key for feeding your mind and keeping you curious and motivated.
Keep the Company of Enthusiastic People. Try to avoid negative people and seek out positive,
well-motivated people. It is a lot easier to be motivated if the people around you are.
Keep Positive. Keep a positive attitude, see problems and set-backs as learning opportunities.
Know Your Strengths and Weaknesses. Work on ironing out your weaknesses and building on
your strengths.
Do it. Try not to procrastinate, assess the risks but keep working towards your goals.
Get Help and Help Others. Dont be afraid to ask other for help and dont hold back if you can
help them. Seeing other people succeed will help to motivate you to do the same.

(14)Building Confidence

Confidence is not something that can be learned like a set of rules; confidence is a state of mind. Positive
thinking, practice, training, knowledge and talking to other people are all useful ways to help improve or
boost your confidence levels.
Confidence comes from feelings of well-being, acceptance of your body and mind (self-esteem) and belief
in your own ability, skills and experience.
Low-confidence can be a result of many factors including: fear of the unknown, criticism, being
unhappy with personal appearance (self-esteem), feeling unprepared, poor time-management, lack of
knowledge and previous failures.

Confidence is not a static measure, our confidence to perform roles and tasks can increase and
decrease; some days we may feel more confident than others.
This page provides practical advice about things that you can do to build your confidence.
Confidence and self-esteem are not the same thing, although they are often linked. Confidence is the
term we use to describe how we feel about our ability to perform roles, functions and tasks. Self-esteem is
how we feel about ourselves, the way we look, the way we think - whether or not we feel worthy or valued.
People with low self-esteem often also suffer from generally low confidence, but people with good selfesteem can also have low confidence. It is also perfectly possible for people with low self-esteem to be very
confident in some areas.
Performing a role or completing a task confidently is not about not making mistakes. Mistakes are
inevitable, especially when doing something new. Confidence includes knowing what to do when mistakes
come to light and therefore is also about problem solving and decision making.
Ways to Improve Confidence
Planning and Preparation
People often feel less confident about new or potentially difficult situations. Perhaps the most
important factor in developing confidence is planning and preparing for the unknown.
If you are applying for a new job for example, you would be wise to prepare for the interview. Plan what
you would want to say in the interview and think about some of the questions that you may be asked.
Practise your answers with friends or colleagues and gain their feedback.
There are many other examples of planning for an interview, perhaps you should visit the hairdresser before
you go. How are you going to travel to the interview, how long will the journey take? What should you
wear? Take control of unknown situations the best you can, break down tasks into smaller sub-tasks and
plan as many as you can.
Learning, Knowledge and Training
Learning and research can help us to feel more confident about our ability to handle situations, roles
and tasks.
Knowing what to expect and how and why things are done will add to your awareness and usually make
you feel more prepared and ultimately more confident. Learning and gaining knowledge can sometimes
make us feel less confident about our abilities to perform roles and tasks, when this happens we need to
combine our knowledge with experience. By doing something we have learned a lot about we put theory to
practice which develops confidence and adds to the learning and comprehension.
First-time parents to-be may well feel nervous and less than confident about having a baby. They are likely
to buy books or visit websites which can offer advice and dispel some of the mysteries. They are also likely
to talk to other parents to gain knowledge and understanding.
In the workplace, training may be provided for staff to teach them how to manage or work with new
systems and procedures. During a period of organisational change this is particularly important as many
people will naturally resist changes. However if those affected by the changes are given adequate
information and training then such resistances can usually be minimised.
Positive Thought
Positive thought can be a very powerful way of improving confidence.
Optimism is the faith that leads to achievement. Nothing can be done without hope and confidence.

Helen Keller - Author, political activist, and lecturer. The first deaf and blind person to earn a BA degree
in the US.
There is a lot of information about positive thinking both online and in print. The basic rules of positive
thinking are to highlight your strengths and successes and learn from your weaknesses and mistakes. This is
a lot easier than it sounds, we often dwell on things that we are not happy with from our past - making them
into bigger issues than they need to be. These negative thoughts can be very damaging to confidence and
your ability to achieve goals.
Try to recondition the way you think about your life:

Know your strengths and weaknesses. Write a list of things that you are good at and things that
you know need improvement. Discuss your list with friends and family, inevitably they will be able to add
to the list. Celebrate and develop your strengths and find ways to improve or manage your weaknesses.
We all make mistakes. Don't think of your mistakes as negatives but rather as learning
opportunities.
Accept compliments and compliment yourself. When you receive a compliment from somebody
else, thank them and ask for more details; what exactly did they like? Recognise your own achievements
and celebrate them by rewarding yourself and telling friends and family about them.
Use criticism as a learning experience. Everybody sees the world differently, from their own
perspective, what works for one person may not work for another. Criticism is just the opinion of somebody
else. Be assertive when receiving criticism, don't reply in a defensive way or let criticism lower your selfesteem. Listen to the criticism and make sure that you understand what is being said, use criticism as a way
to learn and improve.
Try to stay generally cheerful and have a positive outlook on life. Only complain or criticise
when necessary and when you do, do so in a constructive way. Offer others compliments and congratulate
them on their successes.

Talking to Others and Following Their Lead

Confidence is contagious. So is lack of confidence.
Vince Lombardi - Successful American Football coach.
Generally people are attracted to confident people - confidence is one of the main characteristics of
charisma.
Speaking to and being around people who are confident will usually help you to feel more confident. Learn
from others who are successful in fulfilling the tasks and goals that you wish to achieve - let their
confidence rub off on you. As you become more confident then offer help and advice, become a role-model
for somebody less confident.
Experience
As we successfully complete tasks and goals, our confidence that we can complete the same and
similar tasks again increases.
Gaining experience and taking the first step can, however, be very difficult. Often the thought of starting
something new is worse than actually doing it, this is where preparation, learning and thinking positively
can help. Break roles and tasks down into small achievable goals. Make each one of your goals fit SMART
criteria. That is to make goals Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Timed.

Be Assertive
Being assertive means standing up for what you believe in and sticking to your principles.
Being assertive also means that you can change your mind if you believe it is the right thing to do, not
because you are under pressure from somebody else. Assertiveness, confidence and self-esteem are all very
closely linked - usually people become naturally more assertive as they develop their confidence.
Avoid Arrogance
Arrogance is detrimental to interpersonal relationships.
As your confidence grows and you become successful, avoid feeling or acting superior to others.
Remember - nobody is perfect, there is always more that you can learn. Celebrate your strengths and
successes and recognise your weaknesses and failures. Give others credit for their work - use compliments
and praise sincerely. Be courteous and polite and show an interest in what others are doing, ask questions
and get involved.
Admit to your mistakes and be prepared to laugh at yourself!
(15)Improving Self-Esteem

What does self-esteem mean to you?

You may think of it as your inner voice the voice that tells you whether you are good enough to do or
achieve something. Self-esteem is about how we value ourselves, our perceptions and beliefs in who we are
and what we are capable of. Our self-esteem can be misaligned with other people's perception of who we
are.
Interestingly enough, self-esteem has little to do with actual talent or ability. Its quite possible for
someone who is good at something to have poor self-esteem, while someone who struggles at a
particular topic might have good self-esteem.
In the first case, the person might think I have to give a speech tomorrow and Im dreading it. I know
Im no good, even though they are experienced and successful. The other person may be determined
to give a good speech and focuses on feeling more confident about the result, even though they
display less talent than the first person.
It is easy to see how a lack of self-esteem can influence how a person behaves, not to mention what
they achieve in their lives.
Why Do People Experience Low Self-Esteem?
A feeling of failure can stem from a poor decision or a series of experiences in life that lead to the person
feeling down on themselves. For example lets say that you dont have confidence in your own abilities and
you dont feel strong enough to resist falling in with the wrong crowd. In this situation you may feel
powerless to refuse the offer of drugs when they are presented to you. Thus you take them so you can fit in
and feel part of a group, hoping this will increase your self-esteem and confidence. The effects of the drugs
may make you feel more confident for a short time, but this is an external force it does not come from
within you. If you become addicted to drugs, any self-esteem you do have will eventually crumble. You
will feel depressed at having succumbed to them and you may feel hopeless at the odds of beating the
addiction. It sends you into a spiral that can be hard to escape from.

Watch Your Internal Dialogue

However, there are solutions. As you may have guessed, positive internal dialogue is a big part of
improving your self-esteem. Instead of saying things like Im not good enough or Im a failure you can
start to turn things around by saying I can beat this and I can become more confident by viewing myself
in a more positive way. To begin with you will catch yourself falling back into old negative habits, but with
regular effort you can start to feel more positive and build your self-esteem as well.
Help Yourself and Seek Help from Others
Self-esteem varies from situation to situation, from day to day and hour to hour. Some people feel relaxed
and positive with friends and colleagues, but uneasy and shy with strangers. Others may feel totally in
command of themselves at work but struggle socially (or vice versa).
Everybody is different. Some people are naturally positive and optimistic, maintaining equilibrium
when faced with constant difficulties, while others are less so. Some people are good at appearing to
be positive and optimistic on the outside while they struggle with low self-esteem and feelings of selfdoubt on the inside.
You cannot achieve everything in a day, but you can start taking steps to enhance the way you feel. If you
are addicted to drugs or you have problems with overeating or drinking too much, take steps to get help.
Focus on changing your daily routine as well, so you become healthier and more positive too. Exercising
for half an hour a day is recommended by the World Health Organisation, but it is also enough to improve
your general mood. Watching what you eat and trying to maintain a healthy well-balanced diet will help
your body and mind function well and could also help to lift your spirits. Adequate good-quality sleep will
also help to ensure that your body and mind function optimally.
A common symptom of low self-esteem is the feeling that you cannot perform well in public. Gaining
confidence to function in public with ease depends largely on previous personal experiences.
Preparation is important - knowing your information and what you want to say. The key is to face up to
your anxieties and not to walk away from them. Blocking out or refusing to think about fears allows fears
to take over and damage your self-esteem.
Even the seemingly most confident people may feel insecure deep down. To feel nervous is not necessarily
a bad thing. Actors, singers and those who work in the media can be all but paralysed with nerves before a
performance, but as soon as the moment of action comes their control and technique takes over. It can be
the same for everyone if properly prepared. One trick is not to let nerves show, to appear confident however
you feel inside, to learn to channel the nervous energy positively. Once you are in control, the fear will
subside and with it your self-esteem can improve.
Quick Tips to Help Improve Self-Esteem

Gain Control of Yourself: Do not be critical of yourself to others. Whilst it can be useful to
confide your concerns to someone you trust, telling the world is something else. Be kind to yourself. Make
a list of your good qualities and believe them, believe in yourself.
Don't Be A Complainer: Everyone has problems, so why should yours be greater than others? By
being negative you can isolate yourself from others and cut yourself off from solutions to problems.
Learn to Relax: Allow time for yourself each day. This may only be a few minutes, but it is
important to be quiet and to unwind. See our section on Relaxation Techniques for some ideas.

Boost Your Own Morale: Allow yourself a treat from time to time, especially if you have
overcome a hurdle in personal presentation, particularly after your first formal talk or after a successful
meeting. It does not have to be expensive - a cup of coffee at a pleasant place, or some other treat.
Congratulate Yourself on a job/task well done and perhaps tell a friend. Do not always be the one
to give out praise, you need some too. Justified praise is a good boost to morale.
Learn to Channel Nerves and Tension Positively: when you are nervous, adrenalin is pumped
through the body and you feel more keyed up and alert. This extra energy can be used to good effect;
enabling you to communicate with greater enthusiasm and intensity, for example.
Learn to be Assertive: Stand up for what you believe in and do not be pressured by others. See
our section on Assertiveness for lots more information about becoming more assertive.

Improvements Will Come in Small Steps

It is difficult to go from poor self-esteem to positive self-esteem overnight. Instead you will find you
make small improvements over a period of time. Try and stay in touch with how you feel during the day.
Do you feel good about yourself? Why is that? If you feel low and you sense negative thoughts running
through your mind, ask yourself why this is the case. Half the battle to conquering poor self-esteem is to
identify when and why you feel a certain way. If you find exercise is a big mood booster you can build
more of it into your day. If you find you feel low if you are on your own, you can make plans to get out and
about more often.
You dont have to live with poor self-esteem.

By taking positive steps towards practical solutions, you can start moving in the right direction and boost
your self-esteem.

(16)Personal Appearance
Personal appearance is an often disregarded part of communication and presentation skills.
When you are speaking in public you may be representing your organisation or just yourself, but it is
still you in the front line. It is you that the other person, group or audience sees and before you have time to
open your mouth and give an account of yourself, certain assumptions, both consciously and
subconsciously, have been made.
First impressions are very important - they can be about attitude as well as dress.
Visual impact is at least as important as verbal impact, people will very quickly make assumptions
based on your facial expressions, the clothes you wear, how well groomed you are and your body
language.
Facial Expressions
Little can be done to alter your face but a lot can be done about the expression that is on it. However
the day started and whatever minor crisis has occurred along the way, people have not come to meet
you with a dark expression on your face. It is your duty - to yourself as well as to the organisation
that you represent - to convey a calm, friendly and professional exterior, despite how you may feel
inside. Smile and appear optimistic.

Personal Image:
The reflection that stares back at you from a mirror is not necessarily a true likeness of the face known to
family, friends and colleagues, because they will see you off-guard, in repose, concentrating on a task or
listening to them. How many people can honestly admit to looking in a mirror without altering their
expression? It is quite natural to play to a mirror possibly by raising an eyebrow, pulling a face or smiling
at the reflection. This is why people often feel self-conscious when they see a bad photograph of
themselves.
The Real You:
It is human nature to make compromises. All individuals change their approach depending on the people
they meet and what they feel is expected from them. Your 'on-duty' self, the one who functions in public, is
different from your 'off-duty' self, the one concerned with home, family and friends. Everyone has many
and varied roles in life. You can be one person and be a parent, son/daughter, brother/sister, friend, adviser,
patient, client and consumer all in one day.
These differing roles all require their own particular qualities and skills in personal communication and can
also call upon different requirements of attitude and appearance, i.e., of visual image. Your external image
(appearance) is how you are seen by the world, whereas the real you (not a role model or the person you
would like to be) is someone who is honest with themselves.
Clothes and Grooming
What sort of external image is appropriate to the organisation you represent?
Only you can answer this question. Due to the nature of the work, some organisations are happy for
people to be casually dressed, whilst others may expect smarter attire. It is important to be suitably
dressed within expected limits.
Nobody expects you to be packaged into something you are not, but your appearance is a reflection of your
own self-esteem and you should aim to present yourself to your best possible advantage. Whilst you might
be casually dressed when working within your organisation, a more formal approach may well be
preferable when representing your organisation at an external meeting.
Good grooming and a tidy appearance is preferable, whether casually or more formally dressed.
Body Language
Understanding body language is one of the most important aspects of personal presentation. The image
conveyed by the physical self should support and enhance what is being communicated verbally. If the
visual image differs widely from the spoken message, it is often the non-verbal account that is believed.
The way you sit, stand, your gestures and mannerisms and your facial expressions will say far more
about you and how you are feeling at any given time than the words you are using. When individuals
are nervous or uneasy, their behavioural 'bad habits' become more pronounced.
Awareness of your body language, of how you behave under pressure, what signals you are
unconsciously giving, how nerves and stress affect you physically, can help you understand how you
'come across' to others. It can also explain how the wrong impression is sometimes given and how
confusion can occur.
Working on body language is a way of improving personal presentation. For example, when concentrating
on something rather hard, your expression may look troubled, when in reality you are not anxious at all,
merely absorbed. This does not mean you should go around with a fixed smile on your face, but just be
aware that your physical self might send one set of signals when your mind is involved elsewhere.
Body language can also be used as a mask to convey contrary feelings. How often have you nodded firmly
when you did not understand a word, smiled when your instinct was to scowl, clapped enthusiastically at

the end of a talk that nearly put you to sleep? In these cases you were not being hypocritical, but using
body language positively as the mechanism of good manners.
The gestures of individuals are part of their personalities, a part of how they express themselves. Hand and
arm movements can add emphasis, aid explanation and convey enthusiasm. They only become a negative
signal when repeated so often that they become irritating to the observer. Listeners can become so sidetracked by the sight of someone constantly playing with his/her hair, tapping on the table with a pen, etc.,
that they no longer listen to the spoken word. Thus the negative signal has broken down the chain of
communication.

Positive and Negative Body Language

Positive body language includes:

Maintaining eye contact with the person to whom you are speaking.

Smiling (if appropriate) but especially as a greeting and when parting.

Sitting squarely on a chair, leaning slightly forward (this indicates you are paying attention).
Nodding in agreement.
A firm handshake.
Presenting a calm exterior.
Looking interested.
Negative body language includes:

Not looking at a person when speaking.

Tapping a foot, fingers etc.

Rocking backwards and forwards.
Scratching.
Continually clearing your throat.
Fiddling with hair, ear lobes, jewellery, jacket, glasses, etc.
Picking at fingers or finger nails.
Yawning.
Repeatedly looking at your watch or a clock in the room.
Standing too close to others.
Inattention to a person who is speaking.