Concrete Diaphragm Walls

2003

The history

The idea of using slurry as a stabilizing

agents dates back to early 1900s,
noticed by oil engineers when drilling
deep boreholes
Significant progress in slurry
preparation and control of properties
started in 1940s

Contiguous drilled pier walls

Adapted from oil-well drilling

Started in 1950s, 30 years after the
introduction of bored piles

Slurry trench cutoff walls

45 ft deep cutoff wall was built at

Terminal Island near Long Beach, CA,
1948

Continuous diaphragm wall

Idea of simplified contiguous drilled pier

walls by the use of grabs for linear
excavation under slurry was conceived
by Veder in 1938.
The first continuous diaphragm wall
was built in 1950s.

What is a concrete diaphragm

wall

Continuous concrete wall built from the

ground surface
May consist of precast or cast-in-place
concrete panels or contiguous bored
concrete piles

Construction of concrete
diaphragm wall

Guide walls
Excavating 3 to 6m wide panels under
slurry
Tremie concrete
Diaphragm wall thickness 50 to over
150 cm

Advantages

Saves time feasible for top-down or

under-the-roof construction, whereby
excavation of basement and eraction of
superstructure proceed simultaneously
Flexible in construction procedure, low
in noise and vibration
Easy to control ground movement

Disadvantages

Finished surface may be rough

Obstructions may cause concrete
blisters
Difficult in sloped hard formations, may
cause deflection in excavation

Slurry trench stability

Fluid pressure + arching in the ground

Local penetration of slurry into pervious soil
imparts cohesion to the soil and prevents
spalling
Bentonite slurry is kept higher than the
groundwater table
Hydrostatic pressure, osmotic pressure,
electrolytic properties of the colloid,
membrane or mudcake forms against the
walls of the trench

Stability analysis

Fluid pressure + arching

Analysis mostly based on experience

Stability of unsupported
trenches

Stability of slurry - filled

trenches in clay

Stability of slurry - filled

trenches in dry sand

tan =

f
2 f

F=

2 f tan
f

Stability of slurry - filled trenches

in sand w/ water

F=

2 f tan
f

f = K a + w

For F = 1

Arching

Load concentrates at the ends of excavated

panel, thus relieving the stress condition near
the center and improving stability (horizontal
arching)
Guide wall restraints lateral movement at the
ground surface, develops arching in the
vertical plane
At great depth, the stress is high, arching
effects in the horizontal plane is minimal

Arching effects on short

trenches in sand

hw = depth of ground water

Arching effects on short

trenches in sand

Arching effects, the

Schneebeli theory

Effects of mud(filter)cake in
sand

r = pore radius
f = gel strength
w/o mudcake, seepage force only

w/ mudcake

Excavation in clay shallow

circular cuts
Depth to diameter ratio < 12

Excavation in clay deep

circular cuts
Depth to diameter ratio > 12

Properties of bentonite

Montmorillonite mixed with water

Bentonite slurry forms a gel and
develop shear resistance if left
undisturbed - thixotropic
Bentonite slurry displays plastic
viscosity, develops additional shear
resistance depending on the rate of
shearing rate Bingham fluid

Mudcake

K > 10-1 cm/sec no mudcake can

develop
K between 10-2 and 10-1 cm/sec some
time lag before mudcake can develop
K < 10-2 cm/sec mudcake develops with
no time lag

Pressure of slurry fluid

At least at 4ft above the groundwater

table
Bentonite concentration 4 to 6% by
weight with specific gravity at 1.023 to
1.034

Other contributing factors to

trench stability

Electro-osmotic phenomenon
migration of colloidal particles to the
trench wall by electrical potential at the
slurry soil interface
Penetration of slurry into cohesionless
soil forming of the mudcake by
seepage force affected by depth and
permeability of the soil

Quality control (assurance)

Slurry level sufficiently above the

ground water level maybe
necessary to raise the height of the
guide wall
Control of bentonite quality
contamination control
Trench stability and concrete quality

Bentonite contamination

Detritus contamination

Sand, clay and silt particles build up in the

slurry
Increases the density of slurry
Adversely affects concrete placement

Bentonite contamination

Calcium (Ca+) contamination

Calcium in cement or building debris

causes flocculation of bentonite
The slurry becomes thick and more difficult
to circulate
Forms thick and more permeable mudcake

Bentonite contamination

Salt (Na+) contamination

Same effects as the calcium
contamination

The slurry mix

Dense enough to provide stability

Thin enough to allow circulation and
concreting
Agents may be added to assure quality
and prevent chemical contamination

Slurry mix agents

To prevent flocculation - dispersing

agents, known as the mud thinner,
decreases the viscosity of slurry

Field quality control

Density
PH
viscosity

Excavation equipment

Concreting and construction

Joints

Keyed and water-stop joints

Construction planning