FACULTY:

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND LANGUAGES

SEMESTER / YEAR:
SEMESTER JANUARY 2015

COURSE CODE:
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MORPHOLOGY, SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS

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781117065006

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019- 4355002

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LEARNING CENTRE

PERAK LEARNING CENTER

1. Introduction
Malaysia is a multi-racial society which is strongly bounded by its system of monarchy.
Malays form the largest portion of its demography, with Malay as its national language.
Though Malay is still the most normally used lingua franca among Malaysians, English is
gaining more importance in the country. In fact, Malaysians have come to become conscious
that it is no longer necessary, nor desirable to aim at an English native speakers speech to
achieve their communicative function. English is the second most important language in
Malaysia. It is used in various professions and is an important requirement in Malaysian
academic settings. The academic setting is a microcosm of the Malaysian population, which
is a mix of interlocutors of different racial and language backgrounds. They may also vary in
their English language proficiency levels. Therefore, it could be believed that in Malaysian
schools unique language environment, sociolinguistic competence contributes to Malaysian
students English language proficiency.
2. English as an international language
It is undeniable that English is the most common and the most important language in the
world. The speakers can be found almost anywhere, whether native or non-native. The
expansion and acceptance of English is still growing. According to Zaharuddin (1993), this
widespread use of English is due to two successive periods where two English speaking
countries dominated the world with their wealth, strength, economic power and advanced
technology. During the period of the 19th century, the English controlled the world trade.
After that, from the 20th century onwards, the United States of America takes over. Malaysia
learns English as a result of the British colonisation, similar to other countries which have
had the same experience, and takes the language as the second language because of its
importance in development and modernisation.
Presently, Zaharuddin (1993) stated that English is used by a number of countries totalling
about 600 million people. Half of the population is native speakers while the other half is of
the non-native speakers. Since English is still expanding, it is estimated that the number of
non-native speakers of English may exceed the number of native speakers. Strevens (1980)
stated that it would be an area of interest, since the larger the total number of users, the
larger the number of differentiated versions of the language which will develop.
3. The position of English language in Malaysia

Due to colonisation, English was introduced to Malaysia, and has become the second
language. Currently, it is an international language and is used as the language in
international relations, and in exchanging knowledge and technology. According to Platt
(1982), English has had a reasonably long history in Malaysia. It was only as a few decades
ago that it is taught to almost all school children. Historically, the Malays were the main
ethnic group until the 19th century. Platt (1982) says that English colonies grew rapidly.
When Kuala Lumpur became the capital of the federation, with the development of the
British administration, the importance and use of English increased. However, then, Malay or
pidginised Malay was used as a tool of communication between the ethnic groups. A local
English-based pidgin did not develop, but the basic Pidgin English was used to
communicate with the Europeans here.
Since the independence in 1957, English has had changes in its roles and functions. In
governments effort to unify the multi-racial Malaysia and create a sense of identity, Bahasa
Melayu has been chosen to be the national language. Juliah (1993) stated that being the
national language, it is also the official language and the medium of instruction. Therefore,
every Malaysian citizen has to acquire it. According to Asmah (1983), as an official language,
Malay is used orally or in written form in official and formal communications in government
administration. As a medium of instruction, Malay is the medium used in schools and other
educational institutions. Juliah (1993) added that due to its significant status and role in
communication and language teaching, Malay has been made as a compulsory subject in all
schools and institutions run by the government. With this new educational policy, Malay is
gaining more and more prestige and importance.
With the upgrading of Malay, English was phased out from being the official and
prestigious language. Its position has been reduced to the second language, and its usage is
very limited. In the public sector, English is no longer important. In academic field, English is
learned mainly because it offers access to higher academic pursuits and certain positions in
employment.

4. Malaysian English

Even after the colonial period, the need for English was still evident in Malaysia. English still
played an important role in Malaysia. It was used in Malaysia even when people talked
informally among themselves. This widespread use of English in a non-native environment
resulted in the emergence of a new variety of English called Malaysian English. According to
Le Page (1964:39), Malayan Englishthe fore-runner of Malaysian English -- emerged as
early as 1964. He states that:
Although the history of English-medium education in Malaya is comparatively short,
a distinctive Malayan English community is already emerging, whereby speakers from the
three major communities Malay, Chinese and Tamil have a number of linguistic features
in common.
Researchers have differing views about the emergence of Malaysian English. Platt
and Weber (1980:18) claim that it is the transference of linguistic concepts from the speech
varieties of the main ethnic groups (e.g. Hokkien, Cantonese, Malay and Tamil) to the
English that was acquired by school children at the English medium schools. Platt and
Weber also add that Malaysian English is a result of inter language meaning the stages of
progressive approximation towards the real language (1980:20). Richards (1979:26)
describes Malaysian English as the evolution of a distinct variety of English as a result of
widespread use of English in new social cultural contexts (1979:26). It would seem that
from these writers viewpoints, the emergence of Malaysian English is merely accidental, i.e.
a result of new languages that came in contact.
Malaysian English has been a subject of much discussion both by locals (Baskaran,
1987; Asmah Haji Omar, 1992, 1993; Gaudart, 1997; Kuang, 1999; Kow, 2000; Thilagavathi,
2002; Pillai 2006) and foreign writers (Platt, Weber and Ho, 1984; Preshou, 2001; David and
McClellan, 2008; Hayton, 2007). Discussions range from looking at it as a unique variety of
English to how unEnglish it sounds when interpreted by foreign ears. Baskaran (1987)
claims that Malaysian English is a variety in itself when compared to Standard English
because it contains various lexicon peculiar only to this country. Likewise, Pillai (2006) do
not disclaim that Malaysian speakers have a range of spoken English ranging from the
acrolectal, mesolectal to the basilectal. She also stresses that most Malaysians speak the
mesolectal kind although a good speaker may also have a range of registers to fit into the
community. Hafriza (2003) mentions that Malaysians are most prone to code switch between
Malay and English. As a colloquial form, Malaysians English is also of various strands with
each strand carrying a different accent and pronunciation. Hayton (2007) mentions that the

different ethnic communities and their different languages have influenced the way
Malaysian English is spoken. Malaysian English not only contains lexicons of other
languages, it also involves the use of local tags or particles like lah and ah which are
inserted at the end of utterances (tags may also be found within utterances), followed by
inverted question forms, the use of peculiar vocabulary to substitute the same concept,
omission of certain grammatical components as well as its unique pronunciations, depending
on who the speakers are.
Malaysian English is the result of various processes like simplification, acculturation and
generalization by the local community, making it exclusively Malaysian. In Malaysian
educational institutions, the usage of Standard English is emphasized. However, the speakers
have adopted the language to suit their needs and convenience when it comes to
communicating. Some Malaysian English-speaking people use the informal approach when
writing to family and friends. Most Malaysians are very comfortable using this variety
although there may be some who try very hard to imitate the L1 variety and frown upon
this unique L2 variety. Many regard the variety as a deviation from the parent language
resulting in fossilization (Selinker, 1972). On the other hand, there are also scholars who
refute this notion. Sridhar (1983:52-53) defends it by saying that it is the process of
accommodation of an alien code in the usage of social-cultural context. Malaysian English
has become the norm among the locals when it comes to communicating with one another.
What was initially used among the locals started evolving and it is now used by foreigners
and expatriates who have been living in Malaysia for a period of time. Locals who have been
living abroad for either studies or migration purposes generally do not lose touch when it
comes to the use of Malaysian English. This is because they were introduced to this variety
from a very young age and it has become a norm in their daily usage while communicating.

5. Malaysian English (ME) VS Standard English.

Most purists and native speakers fear were based on their definition of a standard language.
What is a specific measure for a language to achieve its Standard? A language becomes
standard if the spoken and written language is clearly understood by its users. The language
becomes beyond understanding and later leads to major problems if the acquisition of new
varieties of English occurs in isolation from their cultural context (Foley: 1998). Therefore, it
is important to use the Malaysian English in its own sociolinguistic settings. As gathered by
Syed Hussein Al-Attas (1990), opposition to standardization in the use of English will only
promote backwardness especially among Malay Malaysian speakers. However, a point to be
considered here is what are we standardizing and to whos standard are we prescribing to.
As the Malays, Chinese, Indians have their own mother tongue language, the need for
acquiring English vary from the second language for the Malays and the third language for
the Chinese and Indians as Bahasa Malaysia is the official language. Hence, Malaysian
English arises to be the lingua-franca (used in an informal setting) to this multiracial society.
For example, a Malay speaker would speak Malaysian English with certain words, phrases,
particles understood by the Chinese and Indians.
Malay ME has more of dialectal influence on the use of English language. This can be
seen clearly through the usage of dialects in Kelantanese English, Kedahan English and
Perakian English. As a result, the dialectal deviations nativise the use of English to the point
that makes it more comprehensible to fellow Malay interlocutors of the state. In short, Malay
ME is a sub-variant of ME that acts as an intra-state communication tool of English. On the
other hand, Malaysian English functions on a wider range of interlocutors; namely that the
Malays, Chinese and Indian. With these dominant influences, this language variety
consequently acts as an intercultural communication tool of English that is more
comprehensible within the domains of Malaysia. This has emphasized by Gill (1994),
Malaysian English consists of lectal manifestations that enable international and intranational communication to take place. Among the features of Malay ME are as the following:
a. particle lah usage
b. particle kan usage
c. direct translations of English to BM
d. nativized intonation, speech rhythm and pronunciation
6. Literature Review

6.1 Varieties of English

Quirk (1972, in Strevens, 1977:27) lists six classes of varieties, each containing several
different members. The variety classes are: region, education and social standing, subject
matter, medium, attitudes and interference. The varieties are divided into 3 main types based
on an analysis of the works of Halliday, Ellis and Catford (in Strevens, 1977:77). They are:
1. Varieties defining user: relates to the individual features of a persons geographical origin
and his education level as well as social background that mark off one who writes and speaks
English from another.
2. Varieties defining usage being made of English: relates to the medium used, features of
subject matters, special vocabulary to markers of particular occupations.
3. Varieties defining the social relations between the speaker or writer and those he is
addressing: relates to degrees of formality and informality, convergence and
divergence.
According to the division above, one of the reasons that contribute towards varieties of
English is the geographical location where there is a difference in the language being spoken
in different locations. Besides this, the medium, subject matter, degree of formality and social
relations between speaker and interlocutor are the other factors that seem to be contributing
factors resulting in the varieties of English spoken in the world today. Some examples of nonnative varieties which are recognised are Nigerian English, Singaporean English, Malaysian
English, Indian English and Pakistani English. These varieties are variously called nativised
types (Kachru 1983:329), indigenous types (Moag & Moag 1977:3) or institutionalized types
(Kachru 1983:37).

6.2 The Nativisation of English

When English is given the status of a second language in a country, it performs various
functions in a variety of domains namely, educational, social, business, technological, legal
and literary. Consequently, it acquires great depth in the country and the language goes
through a process of adaptation to suit its new functions in the new setting. This process is
called the nativisation of English or institutionalization of English. Kachru (1986:19)
illustrates this by pointing out that: The institutionalized second language varieties, which
have an on-going history of acculturation in new geographical and cultural perspectives, are
extensively used in the local administrative, educational and legal systems. These types of
New Englishs have an important role in many areas where English is a secondary language,
including Malaysia. In Malaysia, the nativisation of English is fundamental as English is
taught as a second language in all Government schools, urban or rural.

6.3 Nativisation of Context

When English is adapted as a second language, changes are evident in the cultural and
localised setting. This is best seen in post-colonial countries. If English is not the original
language of that country or region but has been present there for some time, English develops
other functions that contribute to nativise it (McArthur, 1998; Trudgill & Hannah, 2002). In
this case, Malaysian English is a nativised variety since English has been present in Malaysia
for more than 150 years. It is not a local ethnic language but English has many roles in
Malaysia. This requires studying English as a cultural form that moves, changes and is reused
in a Malaysian context (Pennycook, 2007: 6) because nativised varieties incorporate features
from the native languages in phonology, morphology, syntax, lexis and pragmatics that are
consistent and fixed that users follow (McArthur, 1998; Trudgill & Hannah, 2002). There are
many languages in Malaysia, the most common being Malay, known by Malays and nonMalays because it is the national and official language. Others include Chinese dialects
including Cantonese and Hokkien, and Indian languages such as Tamil and Malayalam. These
native languages play a part in nativising English in Malaysia (Baskaran, 2005).

7. Malaysian English or Manglish as Bahasa Rojak

In Malaysia, we regard Malaysian English as bahasa rojak. (Johnleemk, 8 Mac 2007). Rojak
is a malay word, loosely translated actually means a mixture of. Same goes to in Malaysian
context. We regard our English as rojak English. Malaysians, are very lucky to have many
different races speaking many different languages and still staying together peacefully under
one nation. The variety known as Malaysian English has, among various factors, the local
languages as one of the ingredients that colour this variety. These local languages mentioned
being basically Malay, Chinese and Tamil. Such indigenized varieties are most often used in
an informal communicative variety. This means using the English language with a mixture of
the Malay words, Chinese dialects and Tamil.

Commonly used form of Manglish

Word
lah

Meaning
Used to affirm a statement (similar to "of course").

Example
Don't be an idiot lah!

Frequently used at the end of sentences and usually

ends with an exclamation mark (!).
Used to affirm a sentence (similar to "only"). It is

i got RM5 'nia' , he is

similar to "mah" and "lah" but used in a casual

very stupid 'mia'

mah

context.
Used to affirm a sentence but not as strongly as

She's like that mah..

nah

"lah". Used at the end of sentences.

Derived from the Malay expression of "Nah!". This

Nah, take this! (Here,

is not the usual 'Nah' which means 'No'. Used when

take this!)

meh

giving something to another person.

Used when asking questions, especially when a

Really meh?

liao
ah

person is skeptical of something.

Means "already"
Derived from the Chinese expression "a". Used at

Cannot meh?
No more stock liao.
Why is he like that ah?

the end of sentences, unlike meh the question is

Is that true ah?

rhetorical. Also used when asking a genuine

My brother ah, always

question. Besides that, some people use it when

disturb me!

nia/mia

referring to a subject before making a (usually

negative) comment.

lor
got

Used when explaining something.

Used as a literal translation from the Malay word

Like that lor!

You got anything to do?

'ada'. The arrangement of words is often also

(Kamu ada apa-apa

literally translated. This particular particle is widely

untuk buat?)

abused in Manglish, mainly because of the

I got already got my car

difficulty for the Manglish speaker of

from the garage.

comprehending the various correct uses of the

Got or not? (Really?)

English verb 'to have'. Therefore, 'got' is substituted

Where got? (To deny

for every tense of the verb.

something, as in Malay

Unlike British/American English, the word 'what' is

"Mana ada?")
What! How could you

often used as an exclamation mark, not just to ask a

do that?

d/dy

question.
Derived from the word "already". Often used in

I didn't take it, what.

I eat 'd' 'loh'

leh
one

online chatroom by the youth in Malaysia.

Used to soften an order, thus making it less harsh
Used as an emphasis at the end of a sentence.

Give me that leh.

Why is he so

The word can is an auxiliary verb but in Manglish it

naughty one (ah)?

This chair very

is used in ways not quite auxiliary

rickety, but can do

used to form a question

I want to borrow this

what

can

DVD, can or not?,

Skewed words
There are some words from Malay which are used in Manglish but, strangely, with reversed
signification. One such word is pinjam, which means to borrow or to lend, depending on
context. The dual but opposite meanings give rise to ambivalence when translated into
English and used carelessly. The following two examples illustrate:
(1) I want to lend (intended meaning: borrow) your bike, can or not?
(2) Can you borrow (intended meaning: lend) me 10 ringgit?
Another Malay word used in Manglish but with skewed signification is belanja, which means
to spend or to give a treat (to). A foreigner would no doubt be taken aback to hear the
following invitation: Lunch at Anjong Budi. Come-lah. I spend you.
Tweaked words
And then there are the words and expressions that have been tweaked or invented for effect. I
offer the following three examples for your amusement:
(1) at-home, an invented compound verb used in welcoming a guest into ones house, as in:
Please at-home yourself;
(2) died-ed, a verb used as the double past tense of die, as in: What? You donno about
Michael Jackson-ah? He died-ed last year.
(3) gostan, a tweaked word derived from go astern, which can be used when guiding a friend
backing his car into a narrow cul-de-sac: Gostan some more until you hear a bang..
It is a distorted usage of English that is mainly spoken between the locals. Locals rarely speak
to a foreigners or traveller using Manglish. It may seem a little embarrassing and
inappropriate for a local to speak to a foreigner in Manglish as it is not proper usage of the
English language. Furthermore, a foreigner may not understand and frown upon Manglish
usage.

8. Acceptance of Words and Sentences

Malaysian English has a uniqueness of its own and the many deviations in the lexical aspects
make it a distinct variety of English. According to Wong, non-native speaker of English
should never be made to feel ashamed of their own variety of the language, no matter how
deviant it may be from native speaker English.The problem arises when one has to think
about which lexical items are accepted in the standard Malaysian English and which are not.
The ones which are cultural state which do not have proper and exact equivalents in the
English Language are the accepted ones. However, students are unaware of this and they tend
to use words, especially from Bahasa Melayu, whenever they have difficulties expressing
themselves in English.
English in Malaysia is marked by frequent borrowing of lexical items from Bahasa Melayu.
As mentioned earlier, most borrowings in the acrolect level are due to the absence of exact
equivalents in the native speaker varieties.
The use of Malay titles of address for persons of high rank or status in the NST is one way to
portray nationalism. For example, although the Malaysian heads of the state are often referred
to by the English titles king and queen, they are also mentioned in the NST by their Malay
titles, Yang di Pertuan Agong and Raja Permaisuri Agong.
Yang di-Pertuan Agong Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin opened the fourth session of the
12th Dewan Rakyat here today. Tuanku Mizan was accompanied by Raja Permaisuri
Agong Tuanku Nur Zahirah. (NST, 7 March, 2011)
The term rakyat (the people), portrays national identity, just as titles of address
It ignited a new passion and enthusiasm among many civil servants and challenged
others to realize their full potential and responsibility to the rakyat, Najib said. (NST,
28 March, 2011)

Another borrowing, is the term Bumiputera (sons of the soil), which refers to ethnic Malays
especially when discussing commercial, political, and educational plans and programmes.
Majlis

Amanah

Rakyat

(Mara),

government

agency

set

up

to

develop Bumiputera entrepreneurs, is venturing into the property business as it seeks

to rely less on the government for funding. (NST, 9 March, 2011)
Dadah (drugs, medicine) is another Bahasa Melayu borrowing found regularly in the press.
It is almost always restricted in meaning, in a sense that, it refers to only illicit drugs and
narcotics.
Curious parents and their children also converged at the police exhibition, which
featured anti-dadah, anti-crime and road safety campaigns. A police mobile unit was
also present. (NST, 8 March, 2011)
Gotong-royong means a form of communal cooperation which refers to institutions with
characteristics unique to the Malay speakers
Petaling Jaya City Council (MBPJ) plans to have a gotong-royong at different
locations once a month in SS2. (NST, 13 January, 2011)
A kampong in Malaysian English expresses a different concept from a European village
and it is more than can be expressed by the more neutral term small settlement. It relates to
a closely structured community with a definite community life and feeling of belonging.
Razi has been shaking hands with kampong folk and traders in his kawasan since
Wednesday. (NST, 10 April, 2011)
Another form of nativization is also apparent in Malaysia. Since the Malays form the largest
ethnic group in Malaysia, their religion of Islam has become an increasingly influential force
in the Malaysian context of culture. This can be seen in the NST by the use of Islamic terms
borrowed into Bahasa Melayu from Arabic, such as halal (lawful, pertaining to food),
Towards efforts to enhance Malaysias position as the global halal hub, the Halal
Malaysia

Week

2011

will

emphasize

the

programme. (NST, Business Times, 26 January, 2011)

Incoming

Buying

Mission

Saree/sari, dhoti, dhal and curry are some of the other examples of lexical borrowings
from the Tamil language and ang pow, cheongsam, tai chi, feng shui and pagodas are from
the Chinese dialect. The examples are illustrated in the sentences below:
Undergraduate Dinitha Ambiga beat 11 other contestants to win the Miss Saree Queen
2010 (Perak) beauty pageant, held here on Saturday night. (NST, 18 October, 2010)
Pure silk dhoti in shades of pink, yellow and orange priced between RM600 and
RM1, 500 were also in big demand. Silk for statues in temples as well as the priests
were also popular. (NST, 18 May, 2011)
Thosai is a common South Indian meal which comes in many varieties, flavours and
with various curries, chutneys and dhal. (NST, 29 July, 2006)
There are several venues to enjoy a tasty curry fish head meal in Penang. One worthy
place to check out is Chee Wah. (NST, 22 Nov, 2010)
Little red packets containing money known as ang pow are traditionally given by
married adults to children during Chinese New Year, or given as gifts during Chinese
weddings. (Borneo Post, 16 January, 2011)
A 19-year-old Hokkien girl from Kuching,

Wee

Pek

Choo

won

the

Miss Cheongsam Charity 2011 at the Riverside Majestic Hotel on Wednesday

evening, beating 18 other finalists to the title. (Sarawak Tribune, 18 February, 2011)
At 87, she is the oldest person practising tai chi in Seremban Lake Gardens. (Star, 14
May, 2011)
When Lillian Too speaks on feng shui, people listen. And they are willing to pay for
it, sometimes as much as US$10,000 (RM33, 480). (Star, 16 January, 2010)
The multi-storied pagoda symbolizes the five universal elements of earth, water, fire,
air and ether.(NST, 17 February, 2011)

9. Conclusion

Malaysians use the different sub-varieties of Malaysian English for different purposes and in
different contexts. Manglish or the non-standard variety works well in informal contexts
among Malaysians while standard Malaysian English is used in more formal contexts.
Manglish would be understood among Malaysians while standard Malaysian English
would have international intelligibility and a bigger audience. Manglish would be understood
by those who speak the languages Malaysians incorporate in Manglish. Malaysian English
has been recognised and accepted as a variety of the English language for more than two
decades. Certain word choice and borrowings from local languages will certainly take time to
be accepted. These expressions will have intra-national intelligibility and may or may not
ever have international intelligibility. Some of these words and expressions may not be used
in formal and international contexts. Anyway, it will only contribute to the growth of the
language.

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