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When an Italian crowd forced the mostly French cardinals to elect one of their
own, the Church plunged into the Great Schism (1378 -1417) in which rival
French and Italian popes forced the nations of Europe to pick sides
Advocates of conciliarism tried to use church councils to pick a pope and check
the power of the papacy but were unsuccessful
Reformers such as John Wyclif (Lollards, England) and John Huss (Bohemia)
attacked the institutionalism and material wealth of the church, while calling for
a simpler form of Christianity
Although Huss was burned at the stake in 1415 at the Council of Constance, his
and Wyclifs ideas set the foundation for the Protestant Reformation in the
sixteenth century
Since males often died before their spouses, widows often remarried due
to the difficulty of living independently which led to blended families
and numerous amounts of stepparents
Though the nuclear family acted as the norm, Renaissance Italy depended on African
slavery due to the labor shortage caused by the plague
o Slaves lived with families and performed domestic work
o By 1400, 10% of Italys population was composed of slaves, but the practice
generally declined in Europe with the recovery of the population in the 15 th
century
ruthless (fox), Machiavelli denied the traditional notion that the political realm
had to uphold the laws of God and instead said that politics had its own logic
(raison dtat) which is why the Prince is considered the first work of political
science, context in which Machiavelli was writing influenced certain topics in his
writings
o Petrarch: The father of humanism, Petrarch helped popularize the idea that the
Middle Ages were backwards (Dark Ages) and that Italy was entering a new age
of learning and individualism
o Baldassar Castiglione: Most known for his Book of the Courtier, which is a
manual on winning fame and influence among rich and powerful people,
describes the Renaissance man, and his characteristics, advocated education for
women but one focusing on an instrument, poetry, and literacy - abstract subjects
like science and math were left for men
Several trends in Renaissance art:
o Oil-based Prints: Using oil-based prints from the Low Countries, artists could
create startling effects of light and shadow by applying thin layer after layer
o Perspective: With the rediscovery of theories of optics and perspective geometry,
artists were able to produce a strikingly realistic view of a physical plane
o Naturalism - Painters and sculptors gave increased attention to musculature and
movement of the human body, seen in Michelangelos Sistine Chapel and da
Vincis anatomical dissections
o Subject Matter: While artists continued to focus on religious paintings, human
beings as well as natural landscapes and classical architecture took on an
increased significance in works
o Order and Symmetry: Renaissance artists placed great importance to orderly
composition as seen in the classical motifs of the column, dome, and arch
o Status of the Artist: Artists of the Middle Ages were largely unknown because
they were considered craftsmen, but the artists of the Renaissance were set apart
as creative geniuses
Key Renaissance artists:
o Donatello: Revived free-standing sculpture, his famous work is the David
which is a full-size statue cast in bronze
o Masaccio: Employed perspective geometry for the first time in his Holy Trinity
and in Expulsion of Adam and Eve from the Garden
o Fillipo Brunelleschi: Primary achievement is the dome he created on the
Cathedral of Florence (Il Duomo)
o Leonardo da Vinci: Famous paintings are the Mona Lisa, The Last Supper,
and Madonna of the Rocks, introduced systematic observation in his notebooks
o Michelangelo: Excelled in sculpture (Pieta), architecture (The Laurentian
Library), and painting (Last Judgment), largely influenced by Neo-Platonic
philosophy
o Raphael: Considered Michelangelos rival, he bridged the classical world with
his own world in his School of Athens
Education
o Renaissance humanism spurred education and founded schools for boys and
girls, though schools for the latter focused on maintaining appearances
o Latin and Greek were emphasized but students were taught in all the liberal arts
o Renaissance schools had structure and the regular promotion of pupils from one
level to the next (like today)
Printing Press
o The Chinese first invented printing, but they did not capitalize on their success
o Johann Gutenberg perfected the skill of movable type in the 1450s, publishing
his Gutenberg Bible
o Books continued to be expensive luxuries that were only available to the upper
class, but nevertheless, the church and state could no longer exercise a monopoly
on intellectual life
o Printing press assisted in the spread of Renaissance ideas, but its most important
effect was it secured the success of the Protestant Reformation
most tied to trading interests in central Europe out of the city-states and
disputes over its control of trading posts led to foreign invasion of Italy
and the ultimate end of the Italian Renaissance
Papal States: An elective monarchy that had trouble managing the noble
factions of its diverse territories, major leaders are Alexander VI who
represented the height of corruption in the Renaissance Papacy and used
his children (through marriages) to regain power on the peninsula, and
Julius II who was known as the Warrior Pope and also sponsored great
works of art in the Sistine Chapel (patron of Michelangelo), the period
from 1417 to the 1540s is known as the Renaissance Papacy in which
popes were involved in politics and luxury, art, and rebuilding Rome
which became the center of the high Renaissance, a large line of popes
ignored cries for reform thus letting ideas fester ultimately leading to the
Protestant Reformation
Venice: An oligarchy ruled by wealthy merchant families that was
nicknamed the Serene Republic due to its stability throughout the era,
famous leaders include the doge, the leader of the Venetian government
elected by the Great Council and Senate, bodies that consisted of wealthy
merchants, the Book of Gold was the complete registry of the leading
families in Venice and membership implied full citizenship rights, Venice
was the major trading power of the Italian city-states due to its contact
with the Byzantine and Ottoman Empires
Naples: A relatively backward feudal monarchy claimed and eventually
captured by Ferdinand of Aragon, though Naples was the largest city in
Europe in 1500, the kingdom participated little intellectually and
artistically in the Renaissance
To rebuild after the devastation of the fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries, the New
Monarchs engaged in similar centralizing policies:
o Taxation: securing access to consistent revenue
o Taming the aristocracy: monarchs tried to establish themselves above the nobility
and thus made alliances with the middle class in towns, essentially forming new
nobles, called nobles of the robe
o Codifying laws and creating courts: most nations were a patchwork of different
traditions, laws, and customs so in 1500, monarchs attempted to establish royal
courts with more uniform laws
o Controlling warfare: medieval armies were private affairs and thus unreliable, the
New Monarchs worked to make armies and war the sole resource of the state,
which made sense due to the ever more complex nature of war
o Early bureaucracy and officials: early states lacked the resources to enforce their
will and keep track of their affairs, thus the New Monarchs began to employ
agencies, committees, representative bodies, and councils to assist in the
implementation of royal authority
o Religious control: monarchs attempted to assert increased control over the clergy
and the functions of religion within their national boundaries
New Monarchs:
o England
Following the Hundred Years War, England plunged into the Wars of the
Roses, a civil conflict between two rival noble factions
In 1485 the Tudors set about rebuilding the power of the state
Henry VII and Henry VIII tamed the nobles, reducing the number of
dukes from 9 to 2, and created a new aristocracy
Star Chamber, a royal system of courts, was established
Ended livery and maintenance, the private armies of the nobles
Build Englands first navy
Henry VIII took control of the Catholic Church in England and
confiscated its lands
The Tudors established the basis of English political and commercial
power
However, Henry VIIIs obsession with obtaining a male heir
demonstrated the continuing fragility of royal rule and also created a
religious issue that would not be easily resolved
France
France had experienced warfare for over 100 years on its soil, while its
eastern neighbor Burgundy aimed to replace French leadership on the
continent
Louis XI the Spider added new territory to the royal domain through
strategic marriages and conquering Burgundy territories
Francis I was a Renaissance king that gained control of the French clergy
by agreement with the Pope (Concordat of Bologna)
Established taille (direct tax) and the gabelle (government salt
monopoly)
Claimed lands in Italy
Russia
The duchy of Muscovy barely resembled modern Russia
Ivan III the Great: drove out the Mongols, claimed Russia the third
Rome, by marrying the niece of the last Byzantine ruler, and created the
strelsty, a military service class
Ivan IV the Terrible was nicknamed so because of his hatred of the
boyars, the Russian nobility and also continued expansion
Russia emerged as a great power but was still plagued by issues of
cultural and technological backwardness
When Ivan IV killed his heir in a fit of rage, Russia was plunged into
civil chaos and foreign invasion for 30 years
Spain
Spain did not even exist until the marriage of Isabella of Castile and
Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469
Even then, Spain had to complete the Reconquista, kick out the Moos,
and establish a national identity among its diverse kingdoms
Isabellas and Ferdinands marriage did not produce a stable, unified
nation
They made alliances with towns to establish law and order, personally
visiting each area
Completed the Reconquista establishing strict religious orthodoxy with
the Spanish Inquisition
Sponsored voyages of exploration
Charles I (of Spain, same guy as Charles V of the HRE) inherited diverse
lands and became the most powerful monarch in Europe
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are imperfect they cannot achieve this merit -it is Gods gift, the Church
however taught that grace can come through the sacraments (only grace)
Luthers attack, in some ways, only repeated the ideas of Wyclif, Huss, and even Erasmus
What made Luther successful was the passion with which he conveyed his message and
more importantly, the printing press - which served as a tremendous propaganda
instrument
Many of Luthers publications (pamphlets, songs, sermons, woodcuts all mocking the
Pope) were not designed to appeal to a group of theologians, but rather, to the large
crowd (mass appeal, mass audience):
o On the Freedom of the Christian - Luther rejects free will, God can do it so
much better, Erasmus, uncharacteristically, responded defending free will
o On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church - Luther rejected all but 2 of the
sacraments which were in Scripture, baptism and the Lords Supper
o An Address to the Nobility of the German Nations - Luther patriotically
appealed to the German princes to get political support
o German translation of the bible - Bible reading was traditionally reserved for
members of the clergy, now the common people could read the Bible which was
placed by Luther as the central act of Christian worship
Luther was a theological revolutionary but a political conservative whose message
inspired a number of reformers may whom misinterpreted his saying priesthood of all
believers
o German firebrands (radicals) took Luthers message literally as a call for social
revolution and supported the Peasants Revolt of 1524-1525
o Luther was enraged, denouncing the firebrands and peasants in his Against the
Murdering and Robbing Horde of Peasants in which he called for the death of
all that opposed legitimate authority and perceived the true Christian message,
which was spiritual, as political
o Luther also attacked the peasants due to his need of German noble support which
was the only thing standing between him and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles
V, whom Luther in 1521 stood defiantly against in the Diet of Worms
o As a result, wherever Lutheranism gained control, the church was placed under
the control of the state
Through a series of timely marriages and untimely deaths, in 1519, Charles V stood as
the most powerful ruler in Europe
Charles V recognized the need for reform in the church and pressured the pope to call a
general council (unsuccessful till 1545)
Regardless, Charles V believed it was his duty to preserve the unity of his vast Empire,
although he had many enemies:
o Ottoman Turks
o France (Valois)
o Algerian pirates
o The Papacy- Pope and Charles V disagreed in policies especially when Charles
Vs troops sacked Rome in 1527, bringing the Renaissance to an end
o German Lutherans - Schmalkaldic League formed by peasants to fight against
Charles V s troops, after his initial victory, Charles V could not follow up on his
success
To settle the dispute in Germany, Charles agreed in 1555 to the Peace of
Augsburg which employed cuius regio, eius religio (whose rule, his
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Henry VIII tolerated little opposition to Catholicism and earned the title
Defender of the Faith when he penned a response to Luthers attack on the
sacraments
However, matters of state intervened: Henry VIII had no male heir and blamed
this on his marriage to Catherine of Aragon
Normally Henry VIIIs appeals for a divorce would have been granted by Pope
Clement VII, but he was under the control of Charles V, who happened to be the
nephew of Catherine
After years and numerous appeals, Henry VIII was desperate since he had
already declared his love for and impregnated Anne Boleyn
In 1533, Henry VIII acted with the support of Parliament:
Parliament declared Henry VIII the head of the Catholic Church in
England with the Act of Supremacy
The Act of Succession made Henry VIIIs and Anne Boleyns children
legitimate (future Elizabeth I)
With the help of his prime minster Thomas Crowell, Henry VIII also
moved to confiscate the lands of the church
However, Henry VIII had not interests in religious reform, getting
Parliament to confirm distinctive Catholic practices such as clerical
celibacy in the Six Articles
Many reformers, such as Thomas Cranmer, wished to take the reform
further but would have to wait until Henry VIII died and his sickly son,
Edward VI succeeded him in 1547
Under Edward VI, the reform moved in a Zwinglian direction, with a
new Book of Common Prayer and Act of Uniformity providing a simpler
interpretation of worship
Edwards early death in 1553 turned England back onto the Catholic side
under Mary I, the daughter of Catherine of Aragon and Phillip II, king of
Spain
Marys persecution of Protestants and pro-Spanish policy gave her the
nickname bloody Mary and did little in the long run to reestablish
Catholicism in England
Elizabeth I, who came into power in 1558, had the most success in
forming a compromise, called the Elizabethan Settlement
Elizabeth I was a politique, and placed political unity above conformity
with religious dogma
She did not marry (matriarch of England), did not attack religious
minorities - except Catholics - and engineered a new Book of Common
Prayer, that was vague enough in its language that it would satisfy all
The compromises were set in stone with he Thirty-Nine Articles
Elizabeth could also play the role of lion when she executed her cousin
for plotting against her as well as successfully defending England form
the Spanish Armada in 1588
By the end of her reign, called the Golden Age, Elizabeth I had
established England as the leading Protestant power of Europe
Family and gender - family was placed at center of social life, celibacy was abolished and
many former clergy like Luther took spouses, Luther, Calvin and other reformers
advocated that womens natural sphere was the domestic
Education - Bible-reading was emphasized, and thus literacy was ensured for boys and
girls
Social classes - other than firebrands, few reformers called for social change, Protestant
work ethic spurred development of capitalism strengthened middle class
Religious practices - church calendar was modified, sought to eliminate externals (only
Bible-reading), curb prostitution
Baroque Art - In an effort to revive Catholic spirituality, the Church patronized an artistic
movement that emphasized grandeur, illusion, and dramatic religiosity, Palestrina in
music, Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini rebuilt Rome as showplace of Catholic piety
By the completion of the Council of Trents work in 1563, no religious compromise was
possible as a militant Calvinism and revamped and rearmed Catholic Church were about
to butt heads soon
~FINIS~