Introduction to Medical Imaging Chapter 1*

Radiation and the Atom Chapter 2*

Brent K. Stewart, PhD, DABMP

Professor, Radiology
Director, Diagnostic Physics
a copy of this lecture may be found at:
http://courses.washington.edu/radxphys/r2.html
* refers to The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging, 3rd ed., Bushberg, et al. 2012

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

Chapters 1 & 2 Lecture Objectives

Intro to Medical Imaging what are we after technically?

Contrast
Spatial Resolution

Generally describe what processes are involved in the

diagnostic radiology imaging chain
Describe the basic characteristics of electromagnetic
(EM) radiation and how they are mathematically related
Describe how atomic electronic structure determines the
characteristics of emitted EM radiation
Particulate radiation and the atomic nucleus whats the
matter?
UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

What a Nobel Path you Tread

Roentgen (1901, physics): discovery of x-radiation

Rabi (1944, physics): nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR) methodology
Bloch and Purcell (1952, physics): NMR precision
measurements
Cormack and Hounsfield (1979, medicine): computed
assisted tomography (CT)
Ernst (1991, chemistry): high-resolution NMR
spectroscopy
Laterbur and Mansfield (2003, medicine): discoveries
concerning magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

Introduction to Medical Imaging

Medical imaging requires some form of radiation capable

of penetrating tissues
This radiation must interact with the bodys various
tissues in some differential manner to provide contrast
The diagnostic utility of a medical image relates to both
technical image quality and acquisition conditions
Image quality results from many trade-offs

Patient safety levels of radiation utilized (ALARA)

Spatial resolution
Temporal resolution
Noise properties

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

Transparency of Human Body to EM Radiation

MRI

c.f. Macovski, A. Medical Imaging Systems, p. 3.

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

X-rays the Basic Radiological Tool

Roentgens experimental apparatus (Crookes

tube) that led to the discovery of the new
radiation on 8 Nov. 1895 he demonstrated
that the radiation was not due to charged
particles, but due to an as yet unknown
source, hence x radiation or x-rays

Known as the radiograph of

Bera Roentgens hand taken
22 Dec. 1895

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

NMR T1 for Tumor and Normal Tissue

c.f. Damadian, R, et al. PNAS 1974; 71: 1471-3.

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

A Systematic Approach to Medical Imaging

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

X-ray Computed Tomography

X-ray Tube
X-ray Beam

CT Table

Detectors

Figure from M. Mahesh, Johns Hopkins

Other X-ray Modalities

c.f. http://jlgh.org/assetMgmt/
getImage.aspx?AssetID=46

Plane-projection radiography
Fluoroscopy
Mammography

UW & Brent K Stewart, Ph.D., DABMP

c.f. http://emedicine.medscape.com/
article/353833-media

10

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics of

Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., pp. 426, 429 & 461.

UW & Brent K Stewart, Ph.D., DABMP

11

Ultrasound

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 501.

c.f. http://www.cs.adelaide.edu.au/~evan/
project/prog1.htm

12

Nuclear Medicine/Positron Emission Tomography

c.f. http://www.griffwason.com/gw_images/
MRI_scanner/glw-pet_scanner1.jpg

c.f. http://www.medscape.com/content/2003/
00/45/79/457982/art-ar457982.fig10.jpg

13

Spatial Resolution What are the limits?

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 15.

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

14

Contrast What does it depend on?

Radiation must interact with the bodys various tissues in

some differential manner to provide contrast
X-ray/CT: differences in e- density (e-/cm3 = e-/gr)
Ultrasound: differences in acoustic impedance (Z = c)
MRI: endogenous and exogenous differences

endogenous: T1, T2, H, flow, perfusion, diffusion

exogenous: TR, TE, and TI

NM: concentration () of radionuclide or + emitter

Contrast agents exaggerate natural contrast levels

Iodinated (x-ray/CT)
Paramagnetic (MRI)
Microspheres (US)
UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

15

Radiation and the Physics of Medical Imaging

Without radiation, life itself would

be impossible Prof. Stewart
Radiation is all around us. From
natural sources like the Sun to
man made sources that provide
life saving medical benefits,
smoke detectors, etc...
- nuclearactive.com
Youre soaking in it Madge,
Palmolive spokeswoman
10 Gy/day keeps the Dr. away
"Its not the volts thatll get ya, its
the amps. Billy Crystal,
Running Scared
UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

16

Radiation

The propagation of energy through:

Can be thought of as either:

Space
Matter
Corpuscular (particles, e.g., electron)
Electromagnetic (EM)
Acoustic

Acoustic radiation awaits the ultrasound sessions later

on in the course

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

17

Characterization of Waves

Amplitude: intensity of the wave

Wavelength (): distance between identical points on adjacent
cycles [m, nm] (1 nm = 10-9 m)
Period (): time required to complete one cycle () of a wave [sec]
Frequency (): number of periods per second = (1/) [Hz or sec-1]
Speed of radiation: c = [m/sec]

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p.18.

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

18

Electromagnetic (EM) Radiation

EM radiation consists of the transport of energy through

space as a combination of an electric (E) and magnetic
(M) field, both of which vary sinusoidally as a function of
space and time, e.g., E(t) = E0 sin(2ct/), where is the
wavelength of oscillation and c is the speed of light

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p.19.

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

19

The Electromagnetic (EM) Spectrum

Physical manifestations are classified in the EM spectrum based on

energy (E) and wavelength () and comprise the following general
categories:

Radiant heat, radio waves, microwaves

Light infrared, visible and ultraviolet
X-rays and gamma-rays (high energy EM emitted from the nucleus)

c.f. http://www.uic.com.au/ral.htm

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

20

EM Radiation Share the Following

Velocity in vacuum (c) = 3 x 10 m/sec

Highly directional travel, esp. for shorter
Interaction with matter via either absorption or scattering
Unaffected by external E or M fields
Characterized by , frequency (), and energy (E)
So-called wave-particle duality, the manifestation
depending on E and relative dimensions of the detector
to . All EM radiation has zero mass.
*X-rays are ionizing radiation, removing bound electrons
- can cause either immediate or latent biological damage

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

21

EM Wave and Particle Characteristics

Wave characteristics used to explain interference and

diffraction phenomena: c [m/sec] = [m] [1/sec]

As c is essentially constant, then 1/ (inversely proportional)

Wavelength often measured in nanometers (nm = 10-9 m)
Frequency measured in Hertz (Hz): Hz = 1/sec or sec-1

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p.18.

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

22

EM Wave and Particle Characteristics

Particle characteristics when interacting with matter,

high energy EM radiation act as energy quanta: photons
E [Joule] = h = hc/, where h = Plancks constant
(6.62x10-34 Joule-sec = 4.13x10-18 keV-sec)
If E expressed in keV and in nm: E [keV] = 1.24/ [nm]

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p.18.

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

23

Transparency of Human Body to EM Radiation

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p.18.

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

c.f. Macovski, A. Medical Imaging Systems, p. 3.

24

Raphex 2000 Question: EM Radiation

G46. Regarding electromagnetic radiation:

A. Wavelength is directly proportional to frequency.

B. Velocity is directly proportional to frequency.
C. Energy is directly proportional to frequency.
D. Energy is directly proportional to wavelength.
E. Energy is inversely proportional to frequency.

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

25

Raphex 2001 Question: EM Radiation

G51. Which of the following has the highest photon

energy?

A. Radio waves
B. Visible light
C. Ultrasound
D. X-rays
E. Ultraviolet

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

26

Raphex 2001 Question: EM Radiation

G52. Which of the following has the longest wavelength?

A. Radio waves
B. Visible light
C. Ultraviolet
D. X-rays
E. Gamma rays

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

27

Raphex 2002 Question: EM Radiation

G51. Visible light has a wavelength of about 6 x 10-7 m.

60Co gammas have a wavelength of 10-12 m and an
energy of 1.2 MeV. The approximate energy of visible
light is:

A. 720 MeV
B. 72 keV
C. 2 eV
D. 7.2 x 10-4 eV
E. 2 x 10-6 eV

E1 = hc/1 and E2 = hc/2, so E11 = hc = E22

E2 = E11/2 = (12 x 105 eV)(10-12 m)/(6 x 10-7 m) = 2 eV
UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

28

Cartoon of the Day

c.f. www.physics.utah.edu/~mohit/Physics_Cartoons.html. UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

29

Particulate Radiation

Corpuscular radiations
are comprised of moving
particles of matter the
energy of which is based
on the mass and velocity
of the particles
Kinetic energy (KE)
= m0v2 (for nonrelativistic velocities)
Simplified Einstein
mass-energy relationship:
E = m 0 c2

The most significant particulate

radiations of interest are:
Alpha particles
2+
Electrons
ePositron
+
Negatrons
Protons
p+
Neutrons
n0
Interactions with matter are
collisional in nature and are
governed by the conservation
of energy (E) and momentum
(p = mv).

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

30

c.f. http://www.ktf-split.hr/periodni/en/index.html

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

31

Electronic Structure Electron Orbits

Pauli exclusion principle

No two electrons in an atom may

have identical quantum numbers

max. 2n2 electrons per shell

Quantum Numbers

n: principal q.n. which e shell

: azimuthal angular momentum
q.n. ( = 0, 1, ... , n-1)
m: magnetic q.n. orientation of
the e magnetic moment in a
magnetic field (m = -, -+1, ..., 0,
... -1, )
ms: spin q.n. direction of the e
spin (ms = + or -)

For a more detailed discussion, see - http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/chemical/eleorb.html

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p.21.

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

32

Electronic Structure Electron Orbits (2)

s, p, d, f, g, h,
c.f. Hendee, et al. Medical
Imaging Physics, 2nd ed., p.4.

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

c.f. Hendee, et al. Medical

Imaging Physics, 4th ed., p.13.

33

c.f. http://www.ktf-split.hr/periodni/en/index.html

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

34

Electron Configuration Table

c.f. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_table

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP c.f. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_configuration

35

Electronic Structure Electron Binding Energy

Eb Z2

Highly suggested, very nice detailed description - http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hyde.html

c.f. http://astro.u-strasbg.fr/~koppen/discharge/

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p.22.

36

Tungsten Bremsstrahlung Characteristic X-rays

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 101.

37

Radiation from Electron Transitions

Characteristic X-rays
Auger Electrons and Fluorescent Yield (K):
(characteristic x-rays/total)

Preference for Auger e- at low Z

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p.23.

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

c.f. Sorenson, et al. Physics in

Nuclear Medicine, 1st ed., p.8.

38

The Atomic Nucleus

Covered in later Nuclear Medicine sessions

Composition of the Nucleus

Protons and Neutron

Number of protons = Z (same Z: isotopes)
Number of neutrons = N (same N: isotones)
Mass number = A = Z + N (same A: isobars)
Chemical symbol = X
Notation: AZXN, but AX uniquely defines an isotope (also written
as X-A) as X implies Z and N = A - Z

For example 131I or I-131, rather than 13153X78

Isomers: nuclides with same N and Z) but different energies,

e.g., 99Tc and its metastable state 99mTc

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

39

Raphex 2000 Question: Atomic Structure

G10-G14. Give the charge carried by each of the following:

A. +4
B. +2
C. +1
D. 0
E. -1

G10. Alpha particle

G11. Neutron
G12. Electron
G13. Positron
G14. Photon

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

40

Raphex 2002 Question: Atomic Structure

G17. Tungsten has a K-shell binding energy of 69.5 keV.

Which of the following is true?

A. The L-shell has a higher binding energy.

B. Carbon has a higher K-shell binding energy.
C. Two successive 35 keV photons could remove an electron
from the K-shell.
D. A 69 keV photon could not remove the K-shell electron, but
could remove an L-shell electron.

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

41

Raphex 2001 Question: Atomic Structure

G18. How many of the following elements have 8

electrons in their outer shell?

Element: Sulfur
Z:
16
A. None
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3
E. 4

Chlorine
17

Argon
18

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

Potassium
19

42

Raphex 2001 Question: Atomic Structure

G18.
B
The nth shell can contain a maximum
of 2n2 electrons, but no shell can contain more than 8 if it
is the outer shell. The shell filling is as follows:
Z
K shell L shell M shell N shell
Sulfur
16
2
8
6
0
Chlorine 17
2
8
7
0
Argon
18
2
8
8
0
Potassium 19
2
8
8
1

For interactive answer, see - http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/chemical/eleorb.html

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

43

c.f. http://www.ktf-split.hr/periodni/en/index.html

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

44

Raphex 2002 Question: Atomic Structure

G15. 22688Ra contains 88 __________ .

A. Electrons
B. Neutrons
C. Nucleons
D. Protons and neutrons

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

45