Lesson 7

Angular Modulation
A modulation technique wherein the amplitude of the carrier is kept constant, while
the angle or the argument of the carrier is varied in accordance with the intelligence
signal.
Kinds of Angular Modulation
-A form of angle modulation where the frequency of the carrier is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous value of the intelligence signal.
Parts
-Carrier Signal
-Modulating Signal
-FM Signal
Peak(+)-Maximum Deviation
Middle(zero)-Rest Frequncy )(no modulation)
Peak(-)-Maximum Deviation
Mathematically,
eFM = EcSin(theta)
(theta) = Wc(t) + mf sin (wm(t))
eFM = Ec Sin (Wc(t)+mf*sin(wm(t)))
eFM = instantaneous value of the FM Signal, (V)
wc = angular velocity of the carrier, (rad/s)
mf = modulation index
Ec = peak amplitude of the carrier, (V)
Frequency Deviation
-The Amount of change in the carrier frequency produced by the modulating signal
f=f(+ -)(frequency deviation)
frequency deviation is directly proportional to the peak intelligence amplitude

frequency deviation = K*(Em)

Where:
Frequency Deviation (Hz)
K= deviation sensitivity (Hz/V)
Em= peak intelligence signal amplitude (V)
-In FM the intelligence amplitude Em, determines the amount of carrier frequency
change and the intelligence frequency fm, determines the rate of change of
the carrier frequency.
Modulation Index
Ratio of the frequency deviation over modulation frequency
Mf=(sigma/fm)
Where:
Sigma= maximum frequency shift caused by the intelligence signal, (Hz)
fm = intelligence frequency (fm)
mf= modulation index
FM Percent Modulation
%mf=(sigma(actual)/sigma(max))x100%
Where:
Sigma(max)=maximum carrier deviation(Hz)
Sigma(actual)=actual carrier deviation(Hz)
%mf=FM percent modulation
Deviation Ratio
-Whenever the maximum allowable frequency deviation and the maximum
modulation frequency are used in computing the modulation index
- Expression of the worst case modulation index
DR=(sigma(max)/fm(max))
Where:

Sigma(max)=maximum carrier deviation (Hz)

Fm(max)=maximum allowable intelligence frequency (Hz)
DR= deviation ratio

FCC Rules
FM
Sigma(max)=75Khz
Fm(max)=15Khz
TV sound
Sigma(max)=25Khz
Fm(max)=15Khz
Public Safety Services
Sigma(max)=5Khz
Fm(max)=3Khz
Amateur Band Ratio
Sigma(max)=3Khz
Fm(max)=3Khz
eFM can be rewritten using the Bessel function
eFM=Ec*(summation(from n=negative infinity to n positive infinity))*mf*sin(wc(t)
+n*wm(t))
eFM=Ec*(J0*mf*sin(wc(t)) + J1*mf*(sin(wc+wm)-sin(wc-wm)*t))+
J2*mf*(sin(wc+2wm)-sin(wc-2wm)*t))+ J3*mf*(sin(wc+3wm)-sin(wc-3wm)*t))
+..+ J2*mf*(sin(wc+N*wm)-sin(wc-N*wm)*t))
Where:
J0(mf)=carrier component
J1(mf)=1rst set frequencies displaced from the carrier by fm.
J2(mf)=2nd set frequencies displaced from the carrier by 2fm.

JN(mf)=Nth set frequencies displaced from the carrier by Nfm.

The Amplitude of the side frequencies, Jn, is given by the equation.
Jn(mf)=( (mf/2)^n ) ( (1/n) [(mf/2)^2 / 1!(n+1)! ] + [(mf/2)^4 / =2!(n+2)! ] +
[(mf/2)^6 / =3!(n+3)! ] )
-It is seen that the FM signal consists of a carrier and theoretically infinite number of
pairs of sidebands, each preceded by J coefficients, but only those sidebands
with significant amplitudes are transmitted.
FM Spectrum
Bessel Function Table
Band Width of FM
-Practical Bandwidth using Bessel Function
BW = f(usb)- f(lsb) = (fc+N*fm) - (fc-N*fm)
Bw=2*fm*(number of sidebands)
Carsons Formula
BW=2*(fm+frequency deviation)=2(1+mf)*fm
-The number of sidebands selected should be the minimum number that will result
in the transmission of no less than 98% of the total power.
Significant sidebands considered are greater than 2% of the carrier.
Narrowband
BW=2*fm
For an FM signal where mf(<=)(pi/2)
Wideband
BW=2*frequency deviation
-For an FM signal where, mf>(pi/2)
Observations on FM
-unlike Am where there are only three frequencies (carrier, and the first two
sidebands), FM has a carrier and an infinite number of sidebands. The
sidebands are separated from the carrier by fm, 2fm,3fm,.. and thus have a
recurrence frequency of fm.

-The J coefficients eventually decrease in value as n increases.

-The modulation index determines how many sidebands components have a
recurrence frequency of fm.
-The sidebands at equal distances from fc have equal amplitudes, so that the
sidebands distribution is symmetrical about the carrier frequency. The J
coefficients occasionally have negative values, signifying a 180 degrees
phase change for that particular pair of sidebands.
-As Mf increases, so does the value of a particular J coefficient. mf is inversely
proportional to the modulating frequency; we see that the relative amplitude
of distinct sidebands increases when the modulation frequency is lowered.
-In AM, increased depth of modulation increases the sideband power and therefore
the total transmitted power. In Fm , the total transmitted power always
remains constant, but with an increased depth of modulation, the required
bandwidth is increased. To be quite specific, what increases is the bandwidth
required to transmit a relatively undistorted signal. This is because an
increased depth of modulation means an increased deviation and therefore
an increased modulation index so that more distant sidebands acquired
significant amplitudes.
-The theoretical bandwidth required in FM is infinite. In practice, the bandwidth used
is one that has been calculated to allow all significant amplitudes of sideband
components under the most exacting conditions. This means ensuring that,
with a maximum deviation by the highest modulating frequency, no
significant sideband components are lopped off.
In FM, unlike in Am, the amplitude of the carrier component does not remain
constant. Its J coefficient is J0, which is a function of mf. Keeping the overall
amplitude of the Fm wave constant would very difficult if the amplitude of the
carrier were not reduced when the amplitude of the various sidebands is
increased.
It is possible for the carrier component of the FM wave to disappear completely. This
happens in certain values of the modulation index called eigen values. The
graph shows that these are approximately 2.4,5.5,8.6,11.8 and so on. These
disappearances of the carrier for specific values of mf form a handy basis for
measuring deviation.
Advantages of FM over AM
-Better Noise immunity
-Rejection of interfering signals because of capture effect

-Better Transmitter efficiency

Disadvantages of FM over AM
-Large Bandwidth
-More complex and expensive circuits
-Limited reception
FM Varactor Modulator
FM receiver Circuit
Pre Emphasis Circuit (High Pass Filter)
-A circuit that boosts the high audio frequencies in modulation at the transmitter,
used to improve the signal to noise ratio.
Audio in----(R1+capacitor)-----(resistor to ground)------------Audio Out
Tau= R1*C=75 micro seconds (10x-6)
F1 = ( 1 / 2*(pi)*R1*C ) = 2122Hz
f2 = (1 / 2*pi )*( r1+r2/r1*r2*C ) > 15Khz
De-Emphasis Circuit (Lowpass Filter)
-A circuit that attenuates the high audio frequencies (at the receiver) in the same
amount that if is boosted to compensate for the effect of the emphasis
circuit.
Pre Emphasized Audio------------------resistor-----capacitor to ground---------Audio out
Tau=R*C=75 micro seconds (10x-6)
7.2 phase Modulation
-A form of angle modulation where the phase of the carrier is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal.
Em---------Ec(parallel)--->(phase modulator)---Epm
Zero slope at peaks
Maximum Deviation at peaks
At zeroes no modulation,
Zero crossing at x axis -- maximum slope Rest frequency

(a) Carrier Signal

(b) Modulating Signal
(c) FM Signal
(d) Pm Signal
Mathematically,
ePM = Ec*sin(wc(t)+mP*sin(wm(t)))
where:
ePM= instantaneous value of the Pm signal, (V)
Ec = peak amplitude of the carrier, (V)
wc =carrier angular velocity, (rad/s)
mp = modulation index for PM; also, the maximum phase shift caused by the
intelligence signal
wm = intelligence signal angular velocity (rad/s)
Comparison between FM and PM
(m & Vm graph) - FM and PM, m & Vm are directly proportional
(m & fm graph) - PM is constant, FM inversely proportional
(delta(angle) & Vm graph ) PM shows a directly proportionality
(delta(f) & Vm graph )FM shows a direct proportionality

Lesson 8 Multiplexing
-Multiplexing is the process of combining signals from multiple sources for
transmission across a single link.
a.) No Multiplexing multiple links
b.) Multiplexing 1 path 4 channels
-Path refers to the physical link.
-Channel is a portion of the path that carries a transmission between a given pair of
devices.

Categories of Multiplexing
Frequency- division multiplexing (FDM)
Wave-Division multiplexing (WDM)
Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
-Synchronous TDM
-Asynchronous TDM
8.1 Frequency Division Multiplexing
- An analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of the link is greater
than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted
MUX<---DEMUX
Basic Concepts
-The signals generated by each sending device modulate a different carrier
frequency.
-The modulated signals are combined to a single composite signal that be
transported by the link.
-Carrier frequencies are separated by enough bandwidth to accommodate the
modulated signal. The bandwidth ranges are the channels where the various signal
travels.
-Channels are separated by strips of unused bandwidth to prevent signals from
overlapping.
FDM Process
-Each telephone generates a signal of similar frequency range.
-The multiplexer modulates these similar signals to different carrier frequencies.
-Resulting modulated signals are combined into a single composite signal that is
sent out over the media link, (plus the extra bandwidth for the guard bands.)
Demultiplexing
-Uses a set of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its constituent
components signals.
-Signals are passed to a demodulator that separates them from their carriers and
passes them to the waiting receivers.

FDM Multiplexing and Demultiplexing in Frequency Domain

8.2 FDM Analog Hierarchy, (Level Number of Voice Band (VB) Channels)
Basic Group 12 , Basic Supergroup 60 (5 groups), Basic Mastergroup 600 (10
Supergroups), Jumbogroup 3600(3 Mastergroups), Super Jumbogroup 10800 (3
jumbogroups)
12 voice channels 4Khz each-- FDM - group (48Khz 12 voice channels)-- FDMsuper group (240Khz 60 voice channels)-FDM-- Mastergroup (2.2Mhz 600
voice channels)---FDM--Jumbogroup (16.984Mhz 3600 voice channels)
FDM Analog Hierarchy
Wave-division Multiplexing
-Conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and DEmultiplexing
involves light signals transmitted through fiber optic channels.
Time- division Multiplexing (TDM)
-the technique of combining signals coming from low speed channels to share time
on a high-speed path.
8.3 Introduction to Pulse Modulation
-Pulse Modulation is the process of converting the analog signal into digital pulses.
Pulse Modulation Techniques
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
-Pulse width is made proportional to the amplitude of the analog signal.
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
-the position of a constant width pulse within a prescribed time slot is varied
according to the amplitude of the signal.
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
-the amplitude of a constant width, constant position pulse is varied according to
the amplitude of the analog signal.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
-The analog signal is sampled and converted to a fixed length, serial binary number
for transmission.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION

1.) On an FM signal, maximum deviation occurs at what point on the

modulating signal? ANS: both positive and negative peak amplitude
2.) In PM, a frequency shift occurs while ____ of the modulating signal changes?
ANS: Amplitude
a.

3.) The maximum frequency deviation of a PM signal occurs at _______ ANS: zero
crossing points
4.) In PM, carrier frequency deviation is not proportional to the ______ANS:Carrier
amplitude and the frequency
5.) To compensate for increases in the carrier frequency deviation with an increase
in the modulating signal frequency, what circuit is used between the modulating
signal and the phase modulator?
ANS:High pass filter
6.) The FM produced by PM is called the ANS:indirect FM
7.) If the amplitude of the modulating signal applied to a phase modulator is
constant, the output signal will be ANS: the carrier frequency
8.) A 100Mhz carrier is deviated 50Khz by a 4Khz signal. The modulation index is
ANS:12.5
9.) The Maximum deviation of an FM carrier is 2 KHz by maximum modulating signal
of 400Gz the deviation ratio is ANS: 5
10.) a 70Khz carrier has a frequency deviation of 4Khz with a 1000Hz signal. How
many significant sideband pairs are produced? ANS: 7n
8.4 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1.) It refers to the portion of a link that carries a transmission between a given pair
of lines. ANS:Channel
2.) How many voice channels are there in a master group? ANS:600
3.) It is the basic building block of the FDM hierarchy. ANS: Message Channel
4.) It usually accomplishes frequency modulation in frequency division multiplexing
systems. ANS: VCO
5.) The process of receiving a single signal that produces multiple channels
simultaneously. ANS: Demultiplexing
6.) Which state is correct? ANS: Multiplexing uses multiple channels to transmit a
single signal.

7.) It is the most significant circuit in a demultiplexer. ANS: Bandpass Filter.

8.) An analog multiplexing technique where the optical fiber data rate is higher than
the data rate of the metallic transmission cable. It is also used to combine optical
signals. ANS: TDM
9.) CDMA stands for: ANS: Carrier Division Multiple Access
10.) Which of the following is not a common FDM application? ANS: Secure
Communications

Vision
Mapua shall be among the best universities in the world.

Mission
The Institute shall provide a learning environment in order for its students to acquire
the attributes that will make them globally competitive.

The Institute shall engage in economically viable research, development and

innovation.

The Institute shall provide state-of-the-art solutions to problems of industries and

communities.

Core Values
Mapa Institute of Technology aims at the empowerment of the youth by providing
education grounded on academic excellence and strength of character. Students are
expected to develop the passion for mental knowledge and meritorious
performance as well as the recognition of moral values as essential to growth of
character. the integration of humanities and the social sciences into the technical
curriculum has paved the way to the achievement of this goal.

Mapa upholds the reinforcement of time honored values learned in school and at
home directed towards the development in the student of a strong moral fiber that

will contribute to his/her personal well-being as well as that of oher members of

society.

MAPA emphasizes the importance of the following core values:

DISCIPLINE
EXCELLENCE
COMMITMENT
INTEGRITY
RELEVANCE
By ensuring that these core values are learned in the classroom and outside, MAPA
shall have done its share in producing men and women who live fulfilled and
meaningful lives.

(QB)---QUESTION BANK---2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

13.

The amount of frequency deviation from the carrier center frequency in an FM transmitter is proportional to what characteristic of
the modulating signal?
a. Amplitude
Both FM and PM are types of kind of modulation?
a. Angle
If the amplitude of the modulating signal decreases, the carrier deviation
a. increases
On an FM signal, maximum deviation occurs at what point on the modulating signal?
a. both positive and negative peak amplitude
A 100 MHz carrier is deviated 50 kHz by a 4 kHz signal. The modulation index is
a. 12.5
The maximum deviation of an FM carrier is 2 kHz by a maximum modulating signal of 400 Hz. The deviation ratio is
a. 5
A 70 kHz carrier has a frequency deviation of 4 kHz with a 1000 Hz signal. How many significant sideband pairs are produced?
a. 7
What is the bandwidth of the FM signal described in question 7 above?
a. 14 kHz
What is the relative amplitude of the third pair of sidebands of an FM signal with m = 6
a. 0.11
A 200 kHz carrier is modulated by a 2.5 kHz signal. The fourth pair of sidebands are spaced from the carrier by
a. 10 kHz
An FM transmitter has a maximum deviation of 12 kHz and a maximum modulating frequency of 12 kHz. The bandwidth by
Carsons rule is
a. 48 kHz
If the actual deviation of an FM TV sound is 18 kHz, the percent modulation is

a. 72%
14. Which of the following is not a major benefit of FM over AM?
a. Lower complexity and cost
15. The primary disadvantage of FM is its
a. excessive use of spectrum space
16. Noise is primarily
a. high frequency spikes
17. The phenomenon of a strong FM signal dominating a weaker signal on a common frequency is referred to as the
a. capture effect
18. Noise interferes mainly with modulating signals that are
a. high frequencies
19. Pre-emphasis circuits boost what modulating frequencies before modulation?
a. high frequencies
20. A pre-emphasis circuit is a
a. High-pass filter
21. The set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single link.
a. Multiplexing
22. It uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signals into its constituent component signals.
a. Demultiplexer
23. It is a level in an analog hierarchy where it has a bandwidth of 240 kHz and support up to 60 voice channels.
a. Super group
24. It refers to the portion of a link that carries a transmission between a given pair of lines.
a. Channel
25. How many voice channels are there in a master group?
a. 600
26. The process of receiving single signal that produces multiple channels simultaneously.
a. Demultiplexing
27. What type of modulation is used in telephone FDM systems to minimize bandwidth requirements?
a. SSBSC
28. Multiplexing is the process of
a. Sending multiple signals simultaneously over a single channel
29. In FDM, multiples signals
a. share a common bandwidth
30. Each signal in an FDM system
a. modulates a subcarrier
31. Which of the following is not a typical FDM application
a. secure communications
32. The circuit that performs demultiplexing in an FDM system is
a. Bandpass filter
33. In a multiplexed system, how many lines can share the bandwidth of one link?
a. a number of lines that has total bandwidth lesser than that of the link
34. The main goal of multiplexing is _____.
a. efficiency, in which signals are combined into one
35. When calculating the maximum number of users, a limiting factor in FDM is:
a. the bandwidth of each signal
36. 6 channels each with a 150-kHz bandwidth are to be multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a
need for a guard band of 20 kHz between the channels to prevent interference?
a. 1000kHz
37. How many groups are multiplexed to create a master group?
a. 50

The amount of frequency deviation from the carrier center frequency in an FM transmitter is
proportional to what characteristic of the modulating signal?
b. Amplitude
For an AM superheterodyne receiver that uses high side injection and has a local oscillator
frequency of 1655KHz, determine the center IF carrier for an RF wave that is made up of
carrier, upper, and lower side frequency 1200Khz, 1205KHz, and 1195KHz, respectively.
a. 455 kHz
The process of receiving single signal that produces multiple channels simultaneously.
a. Demultiplexing
Both FM and PM are types of kind of modulation?
a. Angle
A 100 MHz carrier is deviated 50 kHz by a 4 kHz signal. The modulation index is
a. 12.5
Most of the gain and selectivity in a superheterodyne receiver is obtained in the ______.
a. IF Section
The maximum deviation of an FM carrier is 2 kHz by a maximum modulating signal of 400 Hz.
The deviation ratio is
a. 5
If the amplitude of the modulating signal decreases, the carrier deviation
a.. increases
How many voice channels are there in a master group?
a. . 600
What is the major advantage of superheterodyne receiver over tuned radio frequency
receiver?
a. Good selectivity
The main goal of multiplexing is _____.
a. efficiency, in which signals are combined into one
In a multiplexed system, how many lines can share the bandwidth of one link?
a. a number of lines that has total bandwidth lesser than that of the link
Which of the following is not a typical FDM application
a. secure communications

14

On an FM signal, maximum deviation occurs at what point on the modulating signal?

a. both positive and negative peak amplitude

15

A 200 kHz carrier is modulated by a 2.5 kHz signal. The fourth pair of sidebands are spaced from
the carrier by
a. 10 kHz

16

Which of the following is not an advantage of superheterodyne receiver over TRF?

a. None of the above

17

If the actual deviation of an FM TV sound is 18 kHz, the percent modulation is

a.. 72%

18

Which of the following is not a major benefit of FM over AM?

a. Lower complexity and cost

19

In FDM, multiple signals

a. share a common bandwidth

20

One of the main functions of the RF amplifier in a superheterodyne receiver is to

a. Improve the rejection of the image frequency

21

The primary disadvantage of FM is its

a. excessive use of spectrum

22

Determine the IF bandwidth necessary to achieve a bandwidth improvement of 16 dB

for a radio receiver with an RF bandwidth of 320 kHz.
a. 8 kHz

23

How many groups are multiplexed to create a master group?

a.
50

24

When calculating the maximum number of users, a limiting factor in FDM is:
a. the bandwidth of each signal

25

Multiplexing is the process of

a. Sending multiple signals simultaneously over a single channel

26

This is where frequency conversion occurs from IF to AF signal.

a. Detector

27

Each signal in an FDM system

a. modulates a subcarrier

28

It is a level in an analog hierarchy where it has a bandwidth of 240 kHz and support up
to 60 voice channels.
a. Super group

29

The phenomenon of a strong FM signal dominating a weaker signal on a common

frequency is referred to as the
a.. capture effect

30

A high-side injection SHR is tuned to a frequency of 5 MHz when the local oscillator
frequency is 6.65 MHz. What is the IF?
a. 1.65 MHz

31

The circuit that performs demultiplexing in an FDM system is

a. Bandpass filter

32

6 channels each with a 150-kHz bandwidth are to be multiplexed together. What is the
minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a guard band of 20 kHz between the
channels to prevent interference?
a. 1000kHz

33

A superheterodyne receiver with an IF of 450 kHz is tuned to a signal at 1200 kHz. The
image frequency is
a. 2100 kHz

34

What is the Local oscillator frequency needed in the previous problem to produce an IF
of 450KHz
a. 1650 kHz

35

The set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals
across a single link.
a. Multiplexing