Relationship between fractures,

fault zones, stress, and reservoir

productivity in the Suban gas
field, Sumatra, Indonesia
Peter Hennings, Patricia Allwardt, Pijush Paul,
Chris Zahm, Ray Reid Jr., Hugh Alley,
Roland Kirschner, Bob Lee, and Elliott Hough

ABSTRACT
It is becoming widely recognized that a relationship exists
between stress, stress heterogeneity, and the permeability of
subsurface fractures and faults. We present an analysis of the
South Sumatra Suban gas field, developed mainly in fractured
carbonate and crystalline basement, where active deformation
has partitioned the reservoir into distinct structural and stress
domains. These domains have differing geomechanical and
structural attributes that control the permeability architecture
of the field.
The field is a composite of Paleogene extensional elements
that have been modified by Neogene contraction to produce
basement-rooted forced folds and neoformed thrusts. Reservoirscale faults were interpreted in detail along the western flank of
the field and reveal a classic oblique-compressional geometry.
Bulk reservoir performance is governed by the local stress
architecture that acts on existing faults and their fracture damage zones to alter their permeability and, hence, their access to
distributed gas. Reservoir potential is most enhanced in areas
that have large numbers of fractures with high ratios of shear to
normal stress. This occurs in areas of the field that are in a
strike-slip stress style. Comparatively, reservoir potential is
lower in areas of the field that are in a thrust-fault stress style
where fewer fractures with high shear-to-normal stress ratios
exist. Achieving the highest well productivity relies on tapping
into critically stressed faults and their associated fracture

Copyright 2012. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
Manuscript received May 3, 2009; provisional acceptance June 18, 2009; revised manuscript received
July 6, 2011; final acceptance August 16, 2011.
DOI:10.1306/08161109084

AAPG Bulletin, v. 96, no. 4 (April 2012), pp. 753772

753

AUTHORS
Peter Hennings  ConocoPhillips Subsurface Technology, PR2014, 600 N. Dairy
Ashford, Houston, Texas;
peter.hennings@conocophillips.com
Peter Hennings received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in geology from Texas A&M University
and his Ph.D. in geology from the University
of Texas. He has held various technical and
supervisory positions in Mobil Research Company, Phillips Petroleum Company, and ConocoPhillips. His research and application focus in
these positions includes structure and tectonics,
seismic interpretation, reservoir description,
geomechanics, and fracture characterization. He
is currently the manager of the Structure and
Geomechanics Group in ConocoPhillips Subsurface Technology. He is an AAPG distinguished
lecturer, a Geological Society of America honorary fellow, and is an adjunct professor at the
University of Wyoming and consulting professor
at Stanford University.
Patricia Allwardt  ConocoPhillips
Subsurface Technology, PR2014, 600 N.
Dairy Ashford, Houston, Texas;
patricia.f.allwardt@conocophillips.com
Patricia Allwardt received her B.S. degree in
earth and planetary sciences from Harvard
University and her Ph.D. in structural geology
and geomechanics from Stanford University.
During work on this paper, Tricia was a member
of the Subsurface Technology Organization at
ConocoPhillips focused primarily on integrating
structural analysis, fracture characterization,
and geomechanics into reservoir performance.
Tricia is currently working in ConocoPhillips
Gulf of Mexico Exploration Group.
Pijush Paul  ConocoPhillips Subsurface
Technology, PR2014, 600 N. Dairy Ashford, Houston, Texas; pijush.k.paul@conocophillips.com
Pijush Paul works in the structure and geomechanics team of ConocoPhillips Subsurface
Technology Group in Houston. He leads the
teams computational geomechanics program.
His other projects focus on providing geomechanical models of reservoirs for completion
and production optimization. He holds a Ph.D. in
geomechanics and an M.S. degree in petroleum
engineering from Stanford University, an MTech
degree in applied geophysics from the Indian
Institute of Technology, and a B.S. degree in

geology and physics from St. Xavier College,

India.
Chris Zahm  ConocoPhillips Subsurface
Technology, PR2014, 600 N. Dairy Ashford,
Houston, Texas; present address: University of
Texas, Bureau of Economic Geology, Austin,
Texas; chris.zahm@beg.utexas.edu
Chris Zahm received his B.S. degree in geology
from the University of Wisconsin, his M.S. degree
in geology from the University of Texas at
Austin, and his Ph.D. from the Colorado School
of Mines. He was employed by ConocoPhillips
Subsurface Technology where he worked on reservoir structural geology projects before joining
the Bureau of Economic Geology at the University of Texas at Austin. He is currently a research associate as part of the BEG-Reservoir
Characterization Research Laboratory (RCRL)
Industrial Associates program and adjunct professor in Jackson School of Geosciences.
Ray Reid Jr.  ConocoPhillips Subsurface
Technology, PR2014, 600 N. Dairy Ashford,
Houston, Texas; ray.r.reidjr@conocophillips.com
Ray Reid Jr., is a senior petrophysical analyst
in ConocoPhillips Subsurface Technology. Ray
joined Phillips Petroleum Company in 1979
where he supported geophysical acquisition and
exploration. In 2003, Ray joined ConocoPhillips.
Since 2003, Ray has led the petrophysical image
processing and interpretation function for
ConocoPhillips.

damage zones. Two wellbores have been drilled based on this

concept, and each shows a three- to seven-fold improvement
in flow potential.

INTRODUCTION
The relationship between stress, stress variability, active faults,
and the permeability of natural fracture systems in the subsurface is becoming widely recognized. Barton et al. (1995)
presented initial evidence for elevated fluid flow associated
with potentially active faults in boreholes in crystalline rock.
Zoback (2007) expands this discussion to consider faults at a
variety of scales in different geologic environments. Tamagawa
and Pollard (2008) discuss a fractured basement gas reservoir
where fracture-controlled well performance is significantly impacted by stress fields perturbed by faults. Also, active deformation, as manifested in faulting, can significantly alter the regional pattern of horizontal stress. Castillo and Zoback (1994)
discuss how recent seismic movement along faults changes the
local stress configuration at the scale of oil field structures in
southern California. Active deformation related to fault movement generates fractures and results in local stress-field perturbations, both of which affect permeability in the vicinity of faults.
The purpose of this article is to present an analysis of subsurface data from a fractured gas field that strongly reinforces these
themes and shows how integration of these concepts can be
used to assess reservoir potential and drill wells with higher
productivities.

Hugh Alley  ConocoPhillips Indonesia Inc.,

Ltd., Jakarta, Indonesia
Hugh Alley received his B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in
geology from the University of Manitoba in 1975
and 1982, respectively. He has held various technical and supervisory positions in the Exploration
and Development departments of ConocoPhillips, Gulf Canada Resources, Maxus Energy, and
Amoco. Hugh is currently a principal geologist
supporting unconventional shale oil and shale
gas exploration in ConocoPhillips Canada.
Roland Kirschner  ConocoPhillips Indonesia Inc., Ltd., Jakarta, Indonesia
Roland Kirschner is an exploration geologist with
ConocoPhillips in Perth, Australia. He received
his M.S. degree in geology from Louisiana State
University. Since joining Phillips Petroleum in
1999, he has held various technical positions within
Phillips and, later, within ConocoPhillips both in

754

Suban Gas Field, Sumatra, Indonesia

GEOLOGIC BACKGROUND
Suban field is located along the southwestern edge of the
South Sumatra Basin in south-central Sumatra. The field produces wet gas from compressionally uplifted fractured crystalline and metamorphic basement and overlying clastic and
reefal carbonate rocks (stratigraphic units [SUs] 1, 2, and 3;
Figure 1).
The island of Sumatra owes its present-day complex tectonic architecture to northeast-directed oblique subduction of
the Indo-Australian plate along its southwestern margin. Significant crustal decoupling and strain partitioning occur along
this zone with the fore-arc region southwest of the Sumatran
fault moving in a northerly direction, along with the subducting
Indo-Australian plate (Figure 1) (Milsom, 2005). This oblique
lateral movement interacts with the Sunda craton along the

dextral transcurrent Sumatran fault and Barisan Mountains

transpressional belt that run the length of Sumatra. Estimates
of lateral displacement along the Sumatran fault range greatly,
but 150 km (93 mi) is a widely cited value (McCarthy and
Elders, 1997). Modern contractional deformation along the
Barisan Mountains spreads to the northeast, involving a wide
swath adjacent to the core of the range and includes our area
of study. Global positioning system observations along this zone
indicate complex tectonic movements, with northeast to northwest azimuths over a 150-km (93-mi) width as measured orthogonally to the Sumatran fault (Barber and Crow, 2005;
Milsom, 2005).
The South Sumatra Basin is one of five basins that developed northeast of the present-day Sumatra volcanic arc, Barisan
mountain chain, and Sumatran fault. The basins formed as rift
systems in the early Cenozoic in a terrain floored by Mesozoic
granitic, volcanic, and metasedimentary rocks. The dominant
extensional fault fabric in the South Sumatra Basin trends
northeast-southwest, with a subordinate trend to the northnorthwestsouth-southeast. The main phase of basin development occurred in the late Eocene to the early Oligocene (Barber
and Crow, 2005). This first phase of sedimentation occurred
as infilling of structural depressions by clastic debris eroded
from exposed basement blocks (SU2) (Figure 1) (De Smet and
Barber, 2005). Thermal subsidence followed rifting in the late
Oligocene to the early Miocene and allowed a marine incursion that introduced fine-grained marine sequences and reefal
buildups on high-standing blocks (SU3). Continued subsidence drowned the carbonate system and resulted in deposition of organic-rich deep-water shales and marls that later became the gas-prone hydrocarbon source rocks and top seals
of the system (SU4). Northeast-directed compression and tectonic inversion began in the mid-Miocene, and terrestrial sediments prograded from the southwest, resulting in deposition
of SU5. Stratigraphic unit 6 (SU6) spans the related transition
from marginal marine to erosional emergence and contains
coal beds and terrestrial clastic deposits. South Sumatra has a
complex history of volcanicity that spans the Cenozoic Era and
continues today (Crow, 2005; Gasparon, 2005). Stratigraphic
unit 6 contains numerous tuff and volcaniclastic beds.
The degree of recent strike-slip dissection in the region of
Suban field is unclear, but Pulunggono (1986) documents several
presumed lateral surface offsets with the southwestern part of the
basin. Figure 1 (AA) shows preserved extension to the northeast
and increased inversion and contraction to the southwest.
The complex architecture of Suban field was unraveled
using a prestack depth-migrated seismic volume acquired in

domestic and overseas locations. Besides a

fascination with fractured reservoirs systems, his
main interests focus on the analysis and modeling of the sedimentology and stratigraphy of
shallow-water to deep-marine clastic reservoir
systems.
Bob Lee  ConocoPhillips Indonesia Inc., Ltd.,
Jakarta, Indonesia
Bob Y. Q. Lee received his B.S. degree in chemical
engineering from the University of Saskatchewan in 1980. He has held reservoir engineering
positions with various companies including
ConocoPhillips Indonesia and is currently with
InterOil. His technical interest is to integrate
classical and analytical reservoir engineering
techniques with the modern-day workflow
of reservoir characterization and simulation.
Elliott Hough  ConocoPhillips Indonesia
Inc., Ltd., Jakarta, Indonesia
Elliott Hough received his B.S. degree in mechanical engineering from Colorado State University in 1980. He has held various technical and
supervisory reservoir engineering positions in
Phillips Petroleum Company and ConocoPhillips.
Elliott is currently a principal reservoir engineer,
supporting unconventional shale oil and shale
gas exploration in ConocoPhillips L48 Exploration.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank ConocoPhillips Technology, ConocoPhillips Indonesia Inc., Badan Pelaksana Kegiatan
Usaha Hulu Minyak dan Gas Bumi (BPMIGAS),
and partners Talisman Energy Inc. and PT
Pertamina (Persero) for permission to publish
the data and our findings. We thank Alan P.
Morris, Laird B. Thompson, and especially Mark
Zoback for their thorough reviews of the manuscript that greatly improved its organization and
technical message. Badley Geoscience TrapTester
was used for structural interpretation and fault
stress modeling, GeoMechanics International SFIB
and MohrFracs were used for wellbore stress
and fracture characterization, and Paradigm
GOCAD was used for structural modeling and
data integration. The information contained
herein is for information purposes only, and no
representation or warranty is provided as to
its content and accuracy.
The AAPG Editor thanks the following reviewers
for their work on this paper: Alan P. Morris,
Laird B. Thompson, and Mark D. Zoback.
Hennings et al.

755

Figure 1. Tectonic setting, regional structural configuration, and simplified stratigraphic units of Suban gas field. The location of regional
seismic cross section AA is shown in the inset map. The location of field-specific cross section BB is shown in Figure 2. TWT = two-way
traveltime.

2003 (BB, Figure 1) and data from 11 wellbores

(Figure 2). The uplift that forms the field has approximately 3 km (1.9 mi) of local structural relief and can be divided into three lateral domains
based on morphology and genesis. The northeast
structural domain contains a pronounced structural culmination produced by a system of arcuate
northeast-directed thrust faults that may have reactivated a preexisting normal fault system, although
synrift sediments are not encountered. In the northern area of the field, a direct expression exists in the
seismic data that constrains the trajectory of the
master fault of this system at depth (BB, Figure 1).
Overall, the eastern anticline is a northeast-vergent
fault-propagation fold. Wells 2, 3, and 5 were drilled
in this domain.
The field center contains additional thrust faults
coring northeast-vergent folds. Faults in this do756

Suban Gas Field, Sumatra, Indonesia

main have displacements on the scale of tens of

meters. Wells 6, 7, and 9 drilled into this domain.
The southwestern structural domain of the field
is characterized by a doubly plunging linear anticlinal uplift produced over a single southwest-dipping
thrust fault with a maximum of 700 m (2297 ft) of
throw (Figure 2). The maximum structural relief
on the anticline is approximately 800 m (2625 ft).
The western limb of the anticline is also the western flank of the overall field. Directly southwest
of Suban field is a deep and tight syncline (AA,
Figure 1). Southwest- and northeast-vergent thrust
faults emanate out of the syncline on both its limbs,
thus indicating a synclinal crowding genesis (e.g.,
Mitra, 2002) for the western anticline. We contend
in this paper that the main thrust fault that cores
the western anticline and forms the southwestern structural domain of the field has a significant

component of dextral strike slip in addition to the

dip slip.
The main thrust faults that form both the
eastern and western anticlinal folds of Suban field
alter the topographic surface; this, insights from regional tectonic indicators, and our wellbore stress
analysis and geomechanical modeling discussed below cause us to propose that the geologic processes
that formed the field are active today.
Suban field was discovered in 1998, and production began in 2003. Estimates of original gas in
place exceed 6 tcf, the gas column is approximately
1400 m (4593 ft), and the aquifer below the gas
column is normally pressured. An extensive well
test program from surface and bottom-hole measurements indicates that the field is in widespread
pressure communication across all reservoir layers
and most structural domains through an extensive
network of faults and natural fractures. The preCenozoic basement has no primary conventional
porosity, and 100% of its permeability comes from
fractures of all scales. Stratigraphic unit 2 has primary porosities of 8 to 14% and permeabilities of
0 to 8 md. Stratigraphic unit 3 has primary porosities of 4 to 8% and permeabilities of 0.5 to 5 md.

FRACTURES, STRESS, AND

RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE
The Suban field reservoir has been evaluated using
6.3 km (3.9 mi) of wellbore and petrophysical data
distributed across 11 wells and includes image logs,
production logs, and other data that are valuable
for fracture and stress characterization. One hundred sixty meters of full core sampled from stratigraphic intervals SU1 to SU3 was also obtained.
Ten wells in the field have subsurface data allowing
detailed fracture and stress characterization. The
data were studied using a consistent approach by
the same team to mitigate the subjectivity and ambiguity that is introduced when multiple data analysts work in a disconnected time frame. Well-log
and drilling data consist of electrical image (Formation MicroImager [FMI]), production (PLT),
photoelectric absorption (PE), mud loss (ML), and
total mud gas (TG). The data set used for reservoir

performance analysis is not discussed here, but it

consists of 26 single-well production tests, 4 interference tests, and frequent wellhead and bottomhole pressure tests made during production.
Fracture Characterization and
Hydraulic Productivity
Stratigraphic units in the gas column are ubiquitously fractured on all scales. Formation MicroImager data were analyzed visually for the presence of wellbore-crossing, planar, and continuous
features that are diagnostic of natural fractures.
The fracture width and appearance on the wellbore image logs were used to categorize fractures
into three petrophysical types:
1. Strong-resistivity contrast; large, multiple or
complex aperture; fault zone or fracture cluster
2. Moderate-resistivity contrast, well-defined aperture, significant fracture
3. Low-resistivity contrast with poorly defined aperture and minor fracture, presumably mineralized
Table 1 summarizes the results of the fracture
interpretation. A data integration step was conducted in an attempt to ascertain the fraction and
location of total natural fractures from the wellbore image interpretation that are important to
well deliverability and reservoir performance. This
analysis compared the occurrence of FMI fracture
types 1 to 3 with ML, PE, PLT, and TG variations.
In this context, significant and discrete ML events
signify the presence of permeable fractures. The PLT
log measures the rate of influx of gas into the wellbore
where localized high velocities are indicative of flow
from fractures. The PE, the photoelectric effect from
gamma-ray absorption, is a measure of the invasion
of barite-rich drilling mud into fractures with aperture. The TG curve measures the gas content of the
circulating drilling mud. Rapid changes in gas concentration are indicative of permeable fractures producing gas into the mud stream. We show results
from well D2 as an example of the characterization
method that was applied to all wells in the field
that have appropriate data (Figure 3). As discussed
in Nelson (2001), we contend that thorough and
Hennings et al.

757

758

Suban Gas Field, Sumatra, Indonesia

Figure 2. Structure map of the top of the Suban reservoir interval with warm colors representing structural highs (depth subsea, contours in meters). The surface represents the top of
the productive reservoir that consists of stratigraphic units 1 and 2 (SU1 and SU2) but also includes the Batu Raja reefal units of SU3a on the southwestern side of the field (the dashed
line shows the presumed eastern limit of the Batu Raja reefal unit). Map highlights major faults identified from seismic and well interpretation. Stereonets show equal area lower
hemisphere plots of poles to the fracture types indicated from the wellbore analysis. Primary and secondary wellbore stress directions are also indicated in the stereonets. Reservoir
pressure interference communication times are indicated for three well pairs.

Table 1. Tabulation of Well Performance and Fracture Characterization by Well*

Well

Hennings et al.

Well performance (AOF, bcf/day)

Wellbore-reservoir contact length (m)
Total type 13 fractures
Productive fractures
Productive fractures w/o well 11
Productive fractures, critically stressed (m 0.6)
Type 1 + 2 fractures, critically stressed (m 0.5)
Type 1 + 2 fractures, critically stressed (m 0.6)
Type 1 + 2 fractures, critically stressed (m 0.7)
Type 1 + 2 fractures, not critically stressed (m < 0.6)
Ratio of type 1 + 2 to critically stressed fractures (m 0.6) (%)

D2

10

11

0.350
345
552
45
45
10
214
91
10
444
16.5

0.129
550
878
66
66
1
254
77
3
801
8.8

0.041
560
767
11
11
1
204
56
2
711
7.3

0.357
930
800
143
143
32
323
140
12
660
17.5

0.070
180
930
3
3
1
280
32
0
898
3.4

0.124
420
1055
27
27
3
350
117
0
938
11.1

0.119
240
556
8
8
0
156
37
0
519
6.7

0.088
400
903
51
51
6
279
63
0
840
7.0

0.004
50
63
1
1
1
16
2
0
62
3.2

2.500
197

1.000
778
1250
10

759

*Of special significance is the coefficient of determination (R2) relating the various fracture classes to the respective well performance.

1
607
379
153
871
30.3

R2*
0
0.26
0.01
0.56
0.03
0.67
0.93
0.90
0.06
0.93

760

Suban Gas Field, Sumatra, Indonesia

Figure 3. Example of the wellbore data compilation, fracture and stress characterization, and geomechanical analysis conducted for all wells in the study (well D2 shown). Included in
the compilation are petrophysical curves, lithology, drilling, and production indicators of fracture permeability, fracture interpretation, stress orientation and magnitude, and geomechanical analysis. MD = measured depth; TVD = total vertical depth; RHOB = density (in grams per cubic centimeter); DT = sonic traveltime (in microseconds per foot); GR = gamma
ray (API); PE = photoelectric effect (API); TG = total gas (API); PLT = production log (%); SH = maximum horizontal stress; Sh = minimum horizontal stress; Sv = vertical stress; Pp = pore
pressure; SU = stratigraphic unit.

consistent integration and visual compilation of all

data relating to fracture occurrence, permeability
signature, and geomechanical character are essential in characterizing the hydraulic nature of fracture systems. On the left of Figure 3, we show
typical log data and the lithology as determined
from drill cuttings and core. Indicators of potential
fracture hydraulic importance (ML, PE, PLT, and
TG) are shown on the right of the lithology. Fractures picked from the image data are shown as tracks
of cumulative occurrence as well as fracture intensity. These curves are shown with Terzaghi correction applied to compensate for one-dimensional
sampling bias (Terzaghi, 1965; Peacock et al., 2003).
Fracture intensities, reported as the number intersecting the wellbore per 5 m (16.4 ft), generally
increase downward. Stratigraphic unit 2 and SU3a
have fracture intensities in the range of 1 to 7 per
5 m and an average of 4 per 5 m. Fracture intensities in basement range from 1 to 15 per 5 m, with
an average of 8 per 5 m.
We assume that fractures identified from the
FMI log may significantly contribute to production
if they are associated with anomalies in one or more
of the ML, PE, PLT, and TG data sets. In contrast
to wellbore image data that can locate fractures
with centimeter accuracy, these indicators of hydraulic contribution operate at a resolution of 1 to
tens of meters and are, therefore, quite general. For
this reason, we choose to discuss fracture intensities at the scale of 5-m sampling windows as measured along the wellbore. An additional limitation
is that ML, PE, and TG data are all influenced by
drilling and mud-handling techniques that are difficult to interpret quantitatively. The result of our
data integration is a semiquantitative discrimination of hydraulically significant fractures (productive fractures) from the total population of fracture
types 1 to 2 (see cumulative fracture occurrence
and fracture intensity curves, Figure 3). The number of productive fractures ranges from a high of
143 in well 4 (17.9% of the total fractures in that
well) to a low of 3 in well 5 (0.3% of total fractures)
(Table 1). Although they most certainly contribute
to or dominate distributed gas storage in SU1, type
3 fractures are not considered in our geomechanical analysis because of our interpretation that they
Hennings et al.

761

are partially mineralized, are a manifestation of igneous or metamorphic fabric, or have no hydraulically contributing aperture. As discussed below,
the total number of fractures that we have identified
as being hydraulically productive in a given wellbore does not have as strong a correlation to well
performance. However, the number of critically
stressed fractures does have a strong correlation.
Stress Characterization
Moos and Zoback (1990), Zoback et al. (2003),
and Zoback (2007) describe methods for using
wellbore image data and additional information
to constrain the magnitudes and directions of the
horizontal principal stresses. The technique uses
observations of tensile and compressional failures
of the wellbore walls integrated with estimations
of rock strength, overburden stress, and mud fluid
pressure. Tensile failures are manifest as small fractures in the borehole wall that strike in the direction of the maximum horizontal stress (SH) and
occur where the circumferential hoop stress exceeds the tensile strength of the rock. Compressive
failures are manifested as enlargements of the borehole ( breakouts) caused by shear fractures and
spalling in the orientation of the minimum horizontal stress (Sh). In our study, we use FMI data to
identify tensile failures and breakouts in the reservoir interval. With the exception of wellbores
D2 and 11, which had only tensile fractures with
which to constrain the SH azimuth, all other wellbores had tensile fractures and breakouts. Vertical
stress gradients (Sv) were estimated from an integration of density logs from shallow levels through
the reservoir interval. Pore pressure (Pp) was interpreted from drillstem test data.
Rock strength in the reservoir was estimated
from sonic logs using the empirical relationship of
Hickman and Zoback (2003) that relates unconfined compressive strength (UCS) to compressional sonic velocity of intact rock. This resulted in
UCS ranging between 190 and 215 MPa (27,557
31,183 psi). The relationship of Hoek and Brown
(1980) was used to reduce the calculated UCS to
account for fractures. This step was constrained by a
UCS laboratory test on core from well 6 that failed
762

Suban Gas Field, Sumatra, Indonesia

at 109 MPa (15,809 psi) along preexisting type 3

fractures. Fieldwide, our estimates for UCS range
between 100 and 210 MPa (14,50430,458 psi),
with a median value of 160 MPa (23,206 psi).
Generalizing our rock strength analysis, we calculate
mean estimates of UCS of 140 MPa (20,305 psi) at
well 4 in the southwestern structural domain and
170 MPa (24,656 psi) at well 6 in the central domain.
Figure 3 illustrates the results of the D2 wellbore stress analysis that again serves as our example. In the case of D2, a consistent SH azimuth of
approximately 128 from 2247 to 2383 m (7372
7818 ft) exists. At approximately 2400 m (7870 ft),
an abrupt shift in azimuth to 164 for 24 m (79 ft)
exists that coincides with a structural or lithologic
boundary. As discussed in a subsequent section,
we believe that this zone is a small but seismically
mappable fault. Tensile fractures disappear approximately 30 m (98 ft) downhole from this boundary, but the SH azimuth remains at 164 until the
cluster of tensile fractures at approximately 2490 m
(8170 ft). We interpret that the 164 azimuth is
constant over this interval based on analysis for
well 11, which is 500 m (1640 ft) from D2 and has
the same SH azimuth at this depth. The complexity
observed at approximately 2490 m (8170 ft) and
below is interpreted to coincide with other small
faults. Based on the relative magnitudes of principal stresses, the region of well D2 is in a strikeslip stress state (SH > Sv > Sh) and the SH-Sh gradient ranges from 12 to 16 kPa/m (0.530.71 psi/
ft). A slightly reduced gradient of SH is interpreted
in the depth interval of approximately 2400 to
2490 m (78708170 ft) because of the smaller
magnitude of horizontal stress difference that is
required to create observed tensile fractures with
an azimuth of approximately 164 compared with
approximately 128. In summary, well D2 is subject to two distinct stress states, represented by a
variation in both the SH azimuth and the horizontal stress difference. Because of the structural
complexity observed in the field, we choose to report our stress results as gradients, allowing the
reader to calculate the absolute stress magnitude
at any desired depth in the reservoir interval.
The wellbore-based stress analysis at Suban
reveals significant variability in the orientation and

architecture of current stress throughout the field

(Figure 2). We believe that this variability is partitioned by the structural domains and varies with
depth as associated with reservoir-scale features.
Stress analysis data from all wells in the southwestern structural domain (wells D2, 4, 8, 11) indicate a primary strike-slip stress state and SH azimuth that roughly parallel the trend of the structural
grain of the domain. This represents an approximately 90 rotation from the regional northeast
north-northeast SH trend identified in the northeastern structural domain of the field and regionally
throughout the South Sumatra Basin (Heidbach
et al., 2007). Wells D2 and 4 each have secondary
northerly trending SH azimuths that are related to
minor faulting.
With the exception of the bottom interval of
well 7, all other wells in the field (2, 3, 5, 6, 7, and
9) are in a thrust-fault stress state. Although the
dominant SH azimuth in the thrust-fault domain is
north-northeast, wells 5 and 9 have a northwestern
SH azimuth that is similar to the SH azimuth of the
southwestern structural domain. Several wells exhibit a variable SH azimuth with depth. The bottom 12 m (39 ft) of well 7 and a 50-m (164-ft)thick interval in well 2 also have a northwestern SH
azimuth, and well 3 has the most complex local
stress heterogeneity, with the SH azimuth rotating
from northeast to northwest at least six times over
the reservoir interval.
Fractures and Stress
Using our wellbore stress model, we assess the
proximity of each type 1 to 2 fractures to the critical stress state by calculating the ratio of shear
stress to normal stress resolved on each fracture
surfacethe slip tendency of Morris et al. (1996).
Based on the laboratory friction experiments of
Byerlee (1978) and the analyses of Townend and
Zoback (2000) and Zoback and Townend (2001),
who studied stress states of fractures in crystalline
rocks in settings of active deformation, we consider
the coefficient of sliding friction (m) of fractures of
0.6 to represent the potential onset of stress-induced
slip that may produce dilation and, therefore, enhance permeability. Fractures with m 0.6 are

considered critically stressed. For example, well

D2 has 45 productive fractures and 91 critically
stressed fractures (Table 1). Ten of the productive fractures are also critically stressed (Figure 3,
right track).
We graphically plot the results of our productive
and critically stressed fracture analysis in stereonet
form in Figure 2 to illustrate how our characterized
fractures group spatially. For the analysis of stress
acting on individual fractures, we used the appropriate depth-specific stress state from the wellbore
geomechanical solutions. The resulting variability
in the orientation of critically stressed fractures can
be seen when comparing wells, such as 11, which
has a uniform stress architecture with depth, and
wells D2, 2, 3, 4, and 7, which have variation in
stress orientation and magnitude.
Stress state is the most significant control on
the spatial patterns. Wells in the northeastern and
central domains of the field (thrust-fault stress states)
have critically stressed fractures with dips approximately 20 to 40 (fracture poles near the stereonet
center) and variable strikes. Well 6, as an example,
has 117 critically stressed fractures, including 3 that
are hydraulically productive, with a dominant northwestern strike. Wells in the southwestern domain
(strike-slip stress states) have critically stressed fractures with dips approximately 65 to 90 and a strong
propensity for north-northeastern to northwestern
strikes. This knowledge was used when planning
wells 10 and 11, such that their deviated paths transected as many of the suspected productive fractures as possible. For example, well 11 has 2 welldefined clusters of critically stressed fractures with
northerly strikes and steep dips, 10 productive fractures, and 11 minor fault zones.
Relationship to Reservoir Performance
Panels A and B of Figure 4 show a tabulation of our
wellbore fracture characterization compared with
absolute open flow (AOF) estimates from each
well. The AOF is the maximum production rate
(performance) a well can theoretically deliver while
flowing against zero pressure. We find some surprising relationships in comparing the various fracture characterizations with well performance using
Hennings et al.

763

Figure 4. (A) Well performance measure, estimated absolute open flow (in billion cubic feet per day). (B) Plots of flow performance of
select well groupings versus a selection of fracture characterization data from Table 1. R 2 = coefficient of determination.

linear regression (Table 1, right column; R2 = coefficient of determination). As indicated by values

of R2, no clear relationship exists between wellborereservoir contact length and well performance. A
positive but weak relationship exists between the
total number of fractures (types 13) and well performance (R2 = 0.26). If well 11 is excluded from
the regression, then we obtain a moderate relationship between the identified productive fractures
and the performance of the remainder of the wells
(R2 = 0.56). This is an admissible consideration
because the identification of productive fractures
in well 11 was hindered by the absence of PLT data
and the use of managed pressure drilling that mitigated mud losses. The best correlation between
well productivity and our fracture characterization
data is obtained by considering the total number of
critically stressed fractures transected by the wellbores. We assess this correlation using a range of
m values to account for uncertainty in our knowledge of the frictional coefficient of the fractures in
the reservoir. From this simple linear-fit analysis,
well performance is clearly most closely controlled
by the number of critically stressed fractures transected by the wellbore (R2 = 0.93) when m 0.6.
Our results also reinforce our assumption that a
m 0.6, as compared with m 0.5 and m 0.7,
764

Suban Gas Field, Sumatra, Indonesia

captures the most important fraction of contributing fractures. It naturally follows that the ratio of
all type 1 to 2 fractures to critically stressed fractures also correlates strongly.
In Figure 5, we summarize the stress state and
magnitudes derived from each well following Moos
and Zoback (1990). We use stress gradient to
generalize the results for application in a depthindependent context. We find two general wellbore stress groupings in Suban field. Wells D2, 8,
11, and the lower part of 7 are squarely in a strikeslip stress state. Stress gradients are relatively low
in this (A) group with stress differences ranging
between 12 and 16 kPa/m (0.530.71 psi/ft). Wells
4 and 9 plot in the upper area of the group on the
transition between strike-slip and thrust-faulting
stress regimes. Stress gradients in group B are higher
than in A with differences of approximately 20 kPa/m
(0.88 psi/ft). Wells 2, 3, 5, 6, and the upper parts of
7 are in a distinct thrust-fault stress style (group B),
with the highest gradients in the field and stress
differences of approximately 21 kPa/m (0.93 psi/ft).
With the exception of well 8, which is in a
down-flank position, wells with the highest performance occur in stress group A along the crest of
the anticline in the southwestern domain of the
field where the hydraulic character benefits from

stitute the hydraulic backbone of the southwestern

domain.

RESERVOIR-SCALE FAULTS AS THE

HYDRAULIC BACKBONE
Fault Interpretation

Figure 5. Maximum horizontal stress (SH) versus minimum

horizontal stress (Sh) gradient plot summarizing the wellbore
stress state for wells in the Suban field. The shaded polygon represents possible stress states (total stress) and related faulting
style, and the ellipses show the results of our wellbore stress
analysis. The wells can be generalized to occur in two regions (A
and B) that are controlled by structural domains. The outside
boundary of the polygon is constrained by m = 0.8. The m = 0.6
boundary is also indicated. Sv = vertical stress; m = coefficient of
sliding friction.

having high numbers of critically stressed fractures.

Although no fracture or stress data were collected
in well 10, its location and strong performance
place it in this group. The analysis described thus
far constitutes our fracture performance model for
Suban field, which is based exclusively on wellbore
data. Exploiting the bulk behavior of the field to
maximize well performance requires a deeper understanding of the geologic controls on fracture formation. For this goal, we have closely examined the
nature and hydraulic implications of the reservoirscale faults in the southwestern structural domain
of the field. We conclude that these faults and the
fracture damage zones that surround them con-

The prestack depth-migrated three-dimensional

seismic volume was interpreted in great detail over
the southwestern structural domain of the field to
ascertain the extent and character of reservoirscale faults for integration with our fracture-based
reservoir performance model (Figure 6). The criteria for fault interpretation were consistent with
fault offset observable over at least three consecutive inlines or crosslines and a geologically reasonable fault surface geometry and throw variation. The
interpretation yielded 27 seismically mappable faults,
all with reverse separation, with map lengths ranging between 50 m (164 ft) and 1.2 km (0.8 mi),
and strikes that are subparallel to the master fault
of the southwestern domain (Figure 7). The faults
are concentrated in a 1 8km (0.6 5mi) area
along the crest of the anticline that forms the
southwestern domain. The faults can be divided into
two sets based on strike: a north-northwest set of
10 faults and a northwest set of 17 faults. The faults
dip between 55 and 80 and are predominantly
parallel to the master fault, although several have
antithetic dips. Maximum fault dip slip ranges between 8 and 180 m (26591 ft) with a linear regression of dip slip to map length of 0.08 and a
coefficient of determination of 0.9. For most of the
faults, the upper tip cuts through SU1 to SU3 and
into SU4. We are uncertain about the downward
extent and trajectory of most of the faults because
of poor seismic reflectivity at depth in SU1; therefore, we have taken a conservative approach and
interpreted only fault surfaces for which we have
direct seismic evidence (Figure 6).
Our fracture model reinforces our interpretation of the reservoir-scale faults. Well D2, for example, had significant drilling mud loss events at
2122, 2303, and 2451 m (6962, 7556, and 8041 ft)
measured depth, each generally coinciding with
Hennings et al.

765

Figure 6. Example of the seismic expression of the reservoir-scale faults that

were constrained by detailed threedimensional seismic structural interpretation and correlated to all wells in the
southwestern structural domain. Seismic
profile is in depth and corresponds to
the well 11 profile in Figure 7. SU = stratigraphic unit.

reservoir-scale faults, and clusters of hydraulically

significant fractures (Figure 7). Well 11 mirrors this
behavior and equally reinforces the interpretation.
The trajectory of well 8 is parallel to one of the
reservoir-scale faults, approaching it at depth. In
this well, we observe an overall increase in fracture
intensity as the well approaches the fault.
Combining our reservoir-scale fault interpretation with our wellbore fracture model provides
us with a multitiered concept for the southwestern
domain that consists of productive fractures of tectonic origin distributed throughout the reservoir
volume and clusters of especially productive fractures in halos around reservoir-scale faults. This
interpretation is supported by well to well pressure
interference analysis. Figure 2 shows interference
data for three well pairs in the field. The time required for a pressure pulse to travel between wells 4
766

Suban Gas Field, Sumatra, Indonesia

and D2, spaced 4 km (2.5 mi) apart, in the southwestern domain is 12 hr. This is in contrast to the
measured 20.8 days for communication between
wells 4 and 6 that lie 3 km (1.9 mi) apart along a
northeast-southwestern azimuth. Connectivity between wells 2 and 5 in the eastern domain (13 days)
is also greatly reduced compared with the southwestern domain. Clearly, the northwest-southeast
fracture connectivity along the crest of the southwestern domain is greatly accentuated compared
with elsewhere in the field.
Clearly, from the geometry of the fault-related
folding in the hanging wall of the southwestern
structural domain, significant dip slip has occurred
(Figure 6). The reservoir-scale faults are most densely
developed adjacent and southeast of a bend in the
master fault where it strikes more to the northwest
compared with its principal north-northwestern

Figure 7. Three-dimensional structural model of the southwestern domain, viewed obliquely from the south. The model highlights the
seismic interpretation of reservoir-scale faults along the crest of the anticline that represent the permeability backbone of the domain.
Cross sections are sliced to show the trajectory and structural context of wells in the southwestern domain. Highlighted along the
wellbores are locations of significant drilling fluid loss signifying faulted or heavily fractured zones. Fracture intensity is also shown as log
tracks along the wellbores.

strike (Figure 7). This pattern and style of faulting are compatible with expectations of deformation that are concentrated against a restraining
bend in a dextral strike slip or transpressional system (Gamond, 1987; Sylvester, 1988; McClay and
Massimo, 2001). This interpretation is strengthened by the regional existence of dextral movement
along northwest-striking faults in the South Sumatra Basin (Pulunggono, 1986) and the northwesttrending present-day wellbore measurements of SH
for the southwestern structural domain of the field.
Combining these observations leads us to propose
an oblique-slip origin for the southwestern domain
with slip on the master fault, anticlinal folding, and
reservoir-scale faulting forming together. A less

likely scenario would be dip slip along the master

fault, accompanied by most of the folding and
reservoir-scale faulting, followed by strike-slip movement and subsequent accentuation of deformation.
Fault Stress Model
A final modeling step in our analysis addresses how
the current stress state in the southwestern structural domain might affect the reservoir-scale faults.
The approach taken is similar to our fracture stress
analysis, whereby the normal and shear stress acting on each triangular element of a fault is determined. We assume m = 0.6 and stress orientations
and gradients generalized from wells 4, 8, 11, and
Hennings et al.

767

Figure 8. Fault stress analysis. (A) Oblique view and down of the master fault of the southwestern domain. The reservoir-scale faults are
colored by their slip likelihood. Green colors represent parts of the fault surfaces that have pore pressure in excess of what is required to
cause slip. Blue areas require additional pore pressure to cause slip. SH = maximum horizontal stress; Sh = minimum horizontal stress; Sv =
vertical stress; Pp = pore pressure; SHaz = azimuth of maximum horizontal stress; m = coefficient of sliding friction. (B) Cumulative
distribution of slip likelihood results for the reservoir-scale faults in the southwestern domain, indicating that fault strike is a primary
control on slip likelihood, with the northwest-striking fault family being more prone to slip.

D2 (see Figure 5, stress state A). To visualize and

discuss the results, we show the additional (+) or
excess () pore pressure required to reach the critical stress state at which failure occurs for each fault
element. This parameter is referred to as slip likelihood (Figure 8A). This allows us to use a single
scalar measure with which to compare the slip
likelihood of our population of reservoir-scale
faults. At a depth of 2.5 km (1.6 mi), the reservoir
pore pressure is approximately 30 MPa (4350 psi).
The analysis shows that the pore pressure required
to activate slip ranges between a pore pressure of
22 and 40 MPa (31905800 psi) or slip likelihood
of 8 to 10 MPa (1160 to 1450 psi) (Figure 8B).
The predicted slip behavior is mainly dependent on
the strike and dip of each individual fault segment,
but because the faults are generally planar, they
tend to act uniformly across their surface area.
768

Suban Gas Field, Sumatra, Indonesia

Northwest-striking faults generally have higher slip

likelihoods (lower required Pp), meaning that the
existing pore pressure is close to or more than sufficient for making their slip geologically likely. The
north-northweststriking faults generally require 2
to 10 MPa (2901450 psi) additional pore pressure
to become potentially active. By surface area, approximately 40% of all the faults are potentially
active. This value increases to 90% if an additional
5 MPa (725 psi) of pore pressure was somehow
added to the system or if other geomechanical parameters were changed slightly. Well D2 drilled
through 2 faults each with slip likelihoods between
3 and 4 MPa (435580 psi). Within surface location and drilling constraints, wells 10 and 11 specifically targeted, and subsequently penetrated, parts
of the reservoir faults with higher slip likelihoods.
As discussed below, these wells have performance

estimates that are three to seven times higher than

any other wells previously drilled in the Suban field.

DISCUSSION
Stress Variability
In the absence of ample wellbore pressure leak-off
and laboratory rock strength data, integrating observations from wellbore images to develop a model
of stress magnitude is an iterative process. Uncertainty in the calculated stress magnitude relates
mainly to the assumption of m. For wellbores in our
study that have both tensile fractures and breakouts, we find that using a m < 0.6 is inappropriate
because it provides a solution window for stress
magnitude that is too narrow to explain the wellbore
deformation features observed. Our approach is to
assume a m value of 0.8 as the upper limit of frictional strength for the Suban fractured reservoir
rock that allows us to compare wells across the field
(Figure 5).
Published accounts of stress rotations within individual fields generally show variations in SH azimuth of 20 to 30 as compared with regional trends
(Barton and Zoback, 1994). Tamagawa and Pollard
(2008) document one well in their fractured granite
gas field that has a 90 rotation in SH and conclude
that the most significant stress rotation occurs in
the tip regions of active faults. In the Suban field,
we find that stress perturbations occur at two scales.
Local rotations in SH azimuth and alterations in
stress gradient occur commonly in our data set and
can be related to proximity of reservoir-scale faults.
The more fundamental observation is that SH azimuth, stress style, and stress gradient magnitude
are strongly partitioned into structural domains,
which in turn are controlled by the larger faults
that form the overall structure of the field.
We do not propose a definitive mechanism to
explain the variations in stress between the structural domains, but we offer discussion on four scenarios. The first scenario is that the overall uplift
that formed the field is undergoing complex deformation produced by a superposition of regionally
driven thrust and strike-slip elements that natu-

rally partition the field into distinct stress domains.

The second is that local folding of the southwestern
structural domain above its master fault is causing a
reorganization of the principal stress axes whereby
outer arc stretching counteracts the regional SH,
thereby reducing it to the least compressive principal stress. This scenario is strengthened in the
observation that wells 2 and 3 in moderately folded
areas of the (thrusting) central and eastern domains
also show some tendency toward this behavior
in parts of their wellbores. The third scenario is
coseismic stress relaxation. Here, the master fault
of the southwestern structural domain has recently
experienced slip and associated reductions in stress
gradient and reorientation in azimuth in a fashion
similar to that described by Healy et al. (2004) in
their analysis of the 1980 El Asnam earthquake
rupture. Consistent with this scenario is our observation that stress gradients are lower in the southwestern structural domain than in the central and
northeastern domains; however, a greater degree of
fracturing and overall deformation in this domain
could produce the same effect. The fourth scenario
follows Tamagawa and Pollard (2008) in proposing that stress orientations change in the vicinity of
active faults, especially their tip zones, although
they do not also document wholesale reorganization of the stress architecture as we have observed
at Suban field. These four scenarios explaining stress
heterogeneity are not unique, and it is probable
that some combinations of these or other factors
act in concert.
Application to Reservoir Productivity
and Drilling
The concept of potentially active faults and damage zones rich with critically stressed fractures forms
the basis for our exploitation strategy for future
development drilling at Suban field. This concept
was tested in the southwestern domain by wells 10
and 11. Wellbore fracture characterization and productivity data was collected in well 11. Figure 4B
shows a regression of reservoir productivity for all
wells in the field before drilling wells 10 and 11, which
suggests a positive relationship between the number
of critically stressed fractures and well performance
Hennings et al.

769

Figure 9. Generalized fault and fracture (effective) stress summary for southwestern and central/northeastern structural domains
illustrated with three-dimensional Mohr-Coulomb plots for frictional faulting and lower hemisphere stereonets, both contoured for slip
likelihood. The diagrams are shown for a depth of 2500 m (8200 ft). Poles to the three fault surfaces intersected by wellbore 11 are also
plotted in A. SH = maximum horizontal stress; Sh = minimum horizontal stress; Sv = vertical stress; m = coefficient of sliding friction.

(R2 = 0.56). Considering only the wells in the

southwestern domain, all in a strike-slip stress state,
suggests a stronger positive relationship locally (R2 =
0.63). The engineering and geologic characterization of strong fracture-dominated permeability and
preferential northwest-southeast connectivity along
critically stressed faults inspired locating the new
wells in a cluster around well D2 to minimize the
surface footprint. The well trajectories were planned
to deviate to the northeast in the reservoir to maximize the intersection of reservoir-scale faults and
their associated fracture damage zones. The wells
were drilled with slightly larger diameters compared with previous wells and used a downhole
valve to manage mud pressure, thereby minimizing
mud losses and potential degradation of flow po770

Suban Gas Field, Sumatra, Indonesia

tential. Drilling data for well 10 indicates that it

encountered three heavily fractured fault zones
(Figure 7). The drill string instantaneously dropped approximately 1 m (3.28 ft) while traversing
the second of these fault zones, demonstrating that
it has significant aperture at this location. Drilling
was terminated after crossing the third fault zone,
which was specifically targeted for its stress character, when mud losses and gas influx exceeded
operating limits. Well 11 also encountered three
zones interpreted as faults. Tests of the 10 and 11
wells indicate that the parts of the reservoir penetrated have extremely favorable bulk properties
that we attribute to the permeability architecture
of the intersected faults and their associated
fractures. Tapping into the system in this manner

allowed for well productivities that exceed previous results by a factor of 3 in the case of well 11
and a factor of 7 for well 10 (Figure 4A). Including
the results from well 11 greatly improves the fieldwide relationship between the number of critically
stressed fractures and well performance (R2 = 0.93,
Figure 4B). Considering only the wells in the southwestern domain of the field, in a strike-slip stress
state, improves the local relationship to R2 = 0.96.
We infer that fracture permeability on the crest
of the southwestern structural domain is greatly
enhanced because of the favorable interaction of
active deformation within a stress field that causes
sufficient numbers of faults and fractures to be critically stressed, thereby increasing their permeability
and interconnectivity. Figure 9 shows a summary
of the two main stress conditions observed in the
field, color contoured according to the slip likelihood of all possible fracture orientations. Also
shown on the diagram are poles to the reservoirscale faults locally intersected by wellbores 10 and
11. We believe that the improved potential of the
reservoir volume penetrated by these wells is caused
by crossing critically stressed faults that are in turn
connected to a network of critically stressed fractures, as illustrated in Figure 2 (well 11). These
faults and fractures sit in an actively stressed rock
volume with a wider range of possible fracture
orientations that are critically stressed as compared
with the central and northeastern structural domains. Stress conditions in the central and northeastern domains of the field result in fewer numbers
of fractures being critically stressed in comparison
with the southwestern domain. Future exploitation of these domains will require careful analysis
to analyze and exploit the most permeable local
reservoir elements.

CONCLUSIONS
The principal structures that define the Suban field
are deforming today by movement along deeply
rooted thrust and transpressional faults. This tectonic loading interacts with large-scale structural
features to produce domains of laterally distinct
stress architecture and magnitudes. Rotations in

SH of 90 from the regional SH trend are observed

along the southwestern, southern, and northern
flanks of the field. Significant variations in SH azimuth and stress gradients are also observed vertically within individual wellbores that we relate to
stress perturbations associated with small faults.
Reservoir-scale faults in the southwestern structural
domain formed along the crest of the anticline as it
was deforming in right-oblique transpression. Significant parts of these faults are critically stressed.
The reservoir is pervasively fractured. The
total number of fractures that we have identified as
being hydraulically productive in a given wellbore
does not have as strong a correlation to well performance compared to the total number of critically
stressed fractures which is our strongest performance indicator. Areas of the field in a strike-slip
stress state have higher intensities of critically stressed
fractures that enhance bulk reservoir performance
through what is assumed to be increased fracture
connectivity and hydraulic aperture. Tapping into
these enhanced zones by drilling is best accomplished by targeting critically stressed faults and
their fracture halos.

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