Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Final Report
Project Title: Modelling the performance of a sand filter that is
used to treat a polluted pond
Plagiarism Declaration
Page | 1
Abstract
Sand filters have proven effective in achieving high removal efficiencies for
sediments, biochemical oxygen demand and fecal coliform bacteria; however their
Page | 2
total metal removal is moderate and nutrient removal is often low. Very few studies
have prospectively examined how the performance of a sand filter can be modelled, in
order for it to be used to clean a polluted pond. The objective of this thesis is to
outline, firstly a literature review of current methods of modelling and enhancing the
performance of a sand filter, followed by an outline of the methodologies and
experimental processes that were used in our project to model the performance of a
sand filter, which is to be used to clean a polluted pond. The primary outcome of the
project is the design of an optimum model process that is to be used to treat a
polluted pond, based on the initial parameters (conductivity, pH, temperature and
turbidity) of the polluted pond water samples collected around the Deakin University
Waurn Ponds campus. The thesis includes an evaluation of different coagulants (Ferric
chloride, poly aluminium chloride, alum) and different coagulant doses using jar test
experiments, and also includes a selection of the best coagulant and its optimum
dose. The performance of two sand filters with different filter media
configuration/sizes (River sand, sizes 6 and 6.5) is compared, and comparisons
between conventional and direct filtration are made in order to determine which
process is the most effective. The design of a backwash system and the point at which
it is necessary is also addressed. As an alternative, a 0.2 micron ceramic membrane is
used to process the filter permeate in order to evaluate how much the water quality
can be improved. Evaluation of the water quality before and after treatment using
chlorine decay studies is performed and modelled using AQUASIM software. In
summary a recommendation of the most effective process, which includes the best
coagulant and selection of its optimum dose, the best filter size and its most effective
process (Direct or indirect filtration) and a suitable backwash volume, is made. Started
in March the project is expected to be completed in October.
Page | 3
Acknowledgement
My sincere gratitude goes to my supervisor; Associate Professor Jega Jegatheesan for
offering me the opportunity to undertake this project. I am grateful for his continued
guidance, encouragement and professional assistance throughout the duration of my
project. His input has added immeasurable value to the completion of my project.
I would also like to express my utmost gratitude for the technical assistance of staff in
the Civil Engineering laboratory, especially Mrs. Leanne Farago, who all contributed
immensely to my experimental work in their various capacities. I would also like to
thank all the staff of the Civil Engineering department whose input has made this
project a success.
Also, I owe so much to my family, whose financial support, moral support,
encouragement and belief in me, has helped see me this project through to
completion. Last but not least I would like to thank all my friends who have all, in
some shape or form contributed to the success of this project.
Page | 4
Contents
Plagiarism Declaration.............................................................................................II
Abstract......................................................................................................................III
Acknowledgement....................................................................................................IV
I-Nomenclature............................................................................................................VII
II-List of Figures..........................................................................................................VIII
III-List of Tables............................................................................................................IX
IV-Project Information....................................................................................................X
IV.I-Key Objectives...........................................................................................................................X
IV.II-Project Benefits........................................................................................................................XI
IV.II.I-Economic benefits..............................................................................................................XI
IV.II.II-Environmental benefits.....................................................................................................XII
IV.II.III-Health benefits................................................................................................................XII
IV.II.IV-Technological benefits.....................................................................................................XIII
IV.III-Project Deliverable................................................................................................................XIII
Chapter 1.Introduction..................................................................................................1
1.1
Introduction...........................................................................................................................1
3.1
Methodology........................................................................................................................17
Page | 6
I-Nomenclature
NOM..Natural
Organic matter
BOD ....Biochemical Oxygen
Demand
TN.
Total Nitrogen
TSS. Total
Suspended Solids
TOC....Total
Organic Carbon
TP...Total
Phosphorus
NTU...Nephelometric
Turbidity Unit
TCU.True
Color Unit
WQ.
Water Quality
Cl2............................................................................................................Free chlorine
FRA...
Fast
reducing agents
FRN .. Fast reducing Nitrogenous
Compounds
SRA...
Slow
reducing agents
SRN .. Slow reducing Nitrogenous
Compounds
CC
Combined chlorine
Page | 7
II-List of Figures
Page | 8
III-List of Tables
Page | 9
IV-Project Information
The primary outcome of the project is the design of an optimum model process that
will enhance the performance of a sand filter that is to be used to treat a polluted
pond, based on the initial parameters (conductivity, pH, temperature and turbidity) of
the polluted pond water samples collected around the Deakin University Waurn Ponds
campus.
IV.I-Key Objectives
The overall aim of this project is to model the performance of a sand filter that is to be
used to clean a polluted pond, using research and experimental techniques. AQUASIM
software will be used to evaluate the water quality before and after treatment using
chlorine decay studies. The project will include the following;
Evaluation of different coagulants
Determination of required water treatment process based on the initial
parameters of the polluted water samples
Comparison of different filter media sizes and selection of the most effective
Design of a backwash system
Comparison of different treatment processes (pretreatment, direct and indirect
filtration) in order to evaluate which is the most effective and establish a
relationship between experimental and predicted data.
Use AQUASIM software to evaluate the water quality before and after treatment
using chlorine decay studies. Reduction in chlorine demand will help to
evaluate the performance of treatment in removing organic compounds and
others that consume chlorine. Chlorine decay results to be modelled using
AQUASIM software.
IV.II-Project Benefits
The use of any resource usually generates a waste. The immense impact of water
pollution on peoples daily life has increased the importance of conducting research
that will enable assessment of environmental damage in economic terms. Water
(Pond) pollution control and treatment is an important topic in Environmental
Engineering. Gaining an understanding of water (pond) pollution control and how the
performance of a sand filter can be modeled in order to clean polluted ponds would
have huge financial, environmental and health benefits. Principles addressed in this
Page | 10
significantly increase the rate of algal blooms. These blooms create massive fish dyeoffs as the oxygen levels in the water gets depleted [Jared Skye, 2014]. If the right
treatment methods are implemented such cases can be avoided, this project will help
explore more environmental, performance and cost effective ways of doing that by
modelling the performance of sand filter.
The following formula and figure demonstrate how pollution affects aquatic
ecosystems.
Increase in pollutants => Increase in temperature (68-89oF) => Increase in
algae blooms = Decrease in oxygen levels (>5mg/L, aquatic life under stress)
=> Death of marine life.
Page | 13
Project Outcomes
Experimental/AQUASIM
Software evaluation of
water quality
Page | 14
-Recommend
coagulant and
its optimum dose
-Recommend filter size and
treatment process(Direct or
indireect filtration)
-Backwash system design
Formal poster
presentation/Formal
written report(Thesis)
Chapter 1.Introduction
1.1Introduction
Slow sand filtration is the earliest technology to water treatment. It was initially
developed by John Gibb in Scotland in 1804 to obtain pure water. After linking
outbreak of diseases such as cholera and typhoid to waterborne contamination, slow
sand filters became a legal requirement for all potable water extracted from the River
Thames in 1852 [Huisman and Wood, 1974]. The introduction of chlorination and
chemical coagulation techniques in water treatment followed by the development of
rapid sand filters led to a decline in the use of slow sand filters [Bowles et al., 1983].
The city of Austin, Texas first pioneered the use of sand filters in the early 1980s
[Richard A Claytor, 1996] Filtration has since become one of the most important
elements in traditional water treatment systems.
A large number of ponds are unfenced and multipurpose; consequently making most
pond water moderately or seriously polluted and thus cannot be considered for use
without treatment. Ponds are preferred because of their proximity to the point of use,
lower turbidity and reliability. These sources may be developed using a sand filter.
Sand filters because of their simplicity, efficiency and economy are appropriate means
of water treatment [Nigel Graham and Robin Collins, 1996]. The sand filter technology
relies on a straining, settling and adsorption to purify water [Huisman and Wood,
1974].Since filters are not generally designed to remove dissolved compounds, which
can constitute roughly half of certain pollutants, and enhancement of the sand filter
can greatly enhance the removal of these compounds. When source water quality is
beyond the range recommended for Sand filters used alone, pretreatment can extend
the capability of this process. Higher turbidity, color, natural organic matter (NOM)
and synthetic organic chemicals can be removed when pretreatment or post
treatment processes are added [Gary S Logsdon, 2008].
Water is the most essential material for human survival, after air [Ahuja, 1986]. The
uses we make of water in lakes, rivers, ponds and streams is greatly influenced by the
water quality found in them. Water quality is the summation of all physical, chemical,
biological and aesthetic characteristics of water that influence its beneficial use
[Claude E. Boyd, 1998].The introduction of pollutants from human activities, is the
primary cause of water pollution. Water pollutants are categorized as, point source
and nonpoint sources. Point sources discharge pollutants at single specific locations
Page | 1
through pipelines or sewers into the surface water (factories, sewage treatment
plants). Nonpoint sources are sources that cannot be traced to a single site of
discharge (agricultural runoff), [Shubinski and Tierney, 1973]. The total waste load in
a water body is represented by the sum of all point and nonpoint sources. The large
number of water pollutants is broadly classified under the categories of: Organic
pollutants, Inorganic pollutants, sediments, radioactive materials and thermal
pollutants [Ruth F Weiner, 2003].
Water pollution is any chemical, physical or biological change in the dynamic
equilibrium in an aquatic ecosystem that disturbs the normal functioning and
properties of pure water. Water pollution is caused by domestic sewage (84%) and
industrial sewage (16%), though the latter has less load on water bodies, it contains
matter which is more hazardous [Anil K., 2009]. The symptoms of water pollution of
any water body include bad taste of drinking water, offensive smells from water
bodies, unchecked growth of aquatic weeds (Eutrophication). Water pollution has been
extensively documented as a contributor to health problems in marine ecosystems, as
well as human health and well-being.
Page | 2
Table 3: Considerations concerning the risk levels in surface water sources (Joseph
Cotruvo, 1998)
2.3 Sand Filtration Technology
Filtration is one of the most important elements in traditional water treatment
systems. Sand filters are intended primarily for water quality enhancement. The
effectiveness of filtration systems is determined by their ability to remove
microorganisms, turbidity and color (Color is imparted to water supplies by organic
material and can be removed by coagulation) [US EPA, 1999]. Sand filters have
proven effective in removing several common pollutants from polluted water. Sand
filters generally control storm water quality (storm water runoff is a major contributor
of pollutants in water bodies), providing very limited flow rate control. Sand filters take
up very little space and can be used on highly developed sites and sites with steep
slopes. Sand filters are able to achieve high removal efficiencies for sediment,
biochemical oxygen demand, and fecal coliform bacteria. Total metal removal
however, is moderate and nutrient removal is often low [EPA, 1999].
The separation of solids from a suspension in a liquid of a porous medium or which retains the solids and
allows the liquid to pass through is termed filtration. Sand filters operate in a similar manner to
bioretention systems, with the exception that water passes through a filter media
(typically sand) that has no vegetation growing on the surface. Sand filters do not
incorporate vegetation because the filter media does not retain sufficient moisture to
support plant growth [WSUD, 2003].Prior to entering a sand filter, flows must be
Page | 4
Where;
Page | 5
Page | 6
Page | 7
system
Filter bed shrinkage: filter bed shrinkage or compaction can result from
ineffective backwashing. Filter media in a dirty filter are surrounded by a soft
layer which cause it to compact. This causes filter bed cracking and separation
of the filter media from the walls of the filter, resulting in excessive turbidity in
the effluent
Media Loss: Media loss is normal in any filter, but if a large amount of media is
being lost, the method of the washing should be inspected and corrected.
2.4 Sand Filtration Processes
2.4.1 Direct Filtration
Direct filtration involves the addition of coagulant, rapid mix, flocculation and
filtration. The major difference relative to conventional treatment is the absence of a
separation process, such as sedimentation or flotation, between coagulant addition
and filtration [EPA, 2014].Direct filtration is designed to filter water with an average
turbidity of less than 25 NTU. Direct filtration has the advantage of having lower
chemical costs due to the lower coagulant dosages used, lower capital costs as the
sedimentation (and sometimes flocculation) tank is not needed and lower operation
and maintenance costs as sedimentation(and sometimes flocculation) tank need not
to be powered or maintained. Direct filtration also has disadvantages which include;
not being able to handle water supplies that are high in turbidity and/or colour and
less detention time for controlling seasonal taste and odour problems.
INFLUENT
COAGULANT
CHEMICALS
COAGULATIO
N
FLOCCULATI
ON
FILTER
EFFLUENT
FILTER-AID (OPTIONAL)
CHEMICALS
COAGULANT CHEMICALS
CHEMICALS (OPTIONAL)
COAGULA
INFLUENT
NT
SEDIMENTATI
ONN
FILTER-AID
FILTER
EFFLUENT
Page | 10
pH Range
Dosage mg/L
Ferric sulphate
5.5-11
8.5-51
(FeSO47H2O)
Ferric Sulphate (Fe2(SO4)3
Ferric Chloride (FeCl3)
Sodium Aluminate
5.5-11
5.5-11
5.5-8
8.5-51
8.5-51
3.4-34
(Na2Al2O4)
Aluminium Sulphate(Alum)- 5.5-8
5-85
Al2 (SO4)3, 18H2
Table 6: Common coagulants and dosage for best floc formation
Flocculation: In this process the precipitates combine into larger particles
Flocs. The large amorphous aluminium and iron (III) hydroxides adsorb and
enmesh particles in suspension. By slower mixing, turbulence causes the
flocculated water to from larger floc particles and increase in mass. These flocs
are then easier to remove via the subsequent processes of sedimentation and
filtration. Large paddles as mixing devices enhance the formation of the floc.
Detention time of flocculation ranges from 10-30 minutes [McGarry and Eddie
2011]. In the treatment of water and wastewater the degree of mixing is
Page | 11
G= P/
Where;
G= Velocity gradient, p=power input,
=Dynamic viscosity.
Note: Enough mixing must be provided to bring the floc into contact and to
keep the floc from settling in the flocculation basin. Too much mixing will shear
the floc particles so that the floc is small and finely dispersed. Therefore, the
velocity gradient must be controlled within a relatively narrow range.
Sedimentation: flocculated water is applied to large volume tanks where the
flow speed slows down (the flow is almost devoid of turbulence) and the dense
floc settles to the bottom. The settled floc is then removed after it resides at
this point to remove all settleable particles from coagulation and is then treated
as waste product., i.e detention time is inversely proportional to the incoming
flow rate- as the flow rate increases, the detention time decreases [McGarry
and Eddie 2011]
Detention time=tank volume/incoming water flow rate
Cl 2 ( g )+ H 20 HOCl+ H +Cl
Page | 13
In this study, the experimental chlorine decay data are used to estimate values of
chlorine demand. The total amount of total chlorine demand which is the sum of
chlorine demand for fast and slow reacting agents can be used as an indication of the
disinfection by product [DBP] precursors concentration in the water.
Combined chlorine= Combined chlorine is total chloramines. They are generated when
free chlorine reacts with contaminants in water.
Free chlorine= Amount of chlorine available to kill microorganisms in water.
The graphs below show the AQUASIM software output of 6mg/L and 10mg/L inputs as
shown in the tables below.
Time(mi 0 0.0
0.3
0.41 0.5 1
n)
1.29
1.29
094
0.9
0.89
6 mg/L
(Free
Page | 14
1
6 1.2
3
0.8
1.5 2
17
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.0
chlorine)
6 mg/L
(Total
chlorine)
6 1.3
1.25
1.17
1.1
1.0
1.02
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.08
0.16
0.2
0.3
0.41
0.5
1.5
17
1
6.4
3
6
6
6
5
6
3
6
6
5.8
5.7
5.2
4.8
4.2
3.6
0.6
6.7
6.7
6.6
6.4
6.3
6.3
6.3
5.8
5.
Page | 15
5.4
4.9
4.6
4.6
4.4
Chapter 3.Methodology
Page | 16
This chapter describes the materials and methods used in this project. A strategies chart has
been constructed and is shown below.
Page | 17
3.1
Methodology
This project includes both theoretical study and practical experiments. The theoretical
study mainly discusses the theories behind water pollution, its effects and information
on different types of pollutants and how they affect water quality. An extensive
literature review of methods that can used to model the performance of a sand
filtration system that is to be used to clean a polluted pond are addressed. This part of
the project is covered by using academic and scientific resources such as, academic
journals and papers from academic databases, as well as scientific data sheets.
The practical part of the assignment will be done in the Civil Engineering laboratory at
Deakin University Waurn Ponds Campus. It will basically be implementing the theories
and designs discussed in the theoretical part. Several experiments were carried out in
order to establish the optimum method that can be used to model the performance of
a polluted pond, this included determining the best coagulant and establishing its
optimum dose, recommending sand filter size and a recommendation of backwash
volume. Chlorine decay studies were also performed and water quality was modelled
using AQUASIM software.
Page | 18
Figure 7: Deakin University Waurn Ponds Campus map with ponds labelled.
3.3 Coagulation Tests (Refer to section 2.6.1- Pretreatment; for technical aspect of Jar
testing)
Jar testing was used to perform the coagulation experiments and evaluate the
different coagulants (Alum, Ferric chloride and poly aluminium chloride) and coagulant
doses, to see which is more effective in terms of cost and performance. The Jar Testing
method and apparatus is outlined below [Adapted from Water Training Centre notes].
Jar testing is a bench scale experiment used by drinking water treatment plants. The
test simulates a water treatment plants coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation
units using a range of chemical doses. It is performed to determine the optimum dose
of coagulant to be added during the water treatment process to obtain flocs with good
settling characteristics [Leanne Farago, 2014]
3.3.1 Apparatus
Page | 19
Filtration apparatus
3.3.2 Method
Ensure raw water sample is well mixed and then measure turbidity, pH, conductivity and
Transfer 2 liters of raw water sample to each beaker using a graduated cylinder
Lower the stirrers into the beakers, start stirring at 200 rpm
With a syringe, add the relevant dose of coagulant to each beaker. The coagulant should be added as
close as possible to the hub of the stirrer and added with a 2-3 second dosing time
Continue stirring at max rpm for 1 minute
Reduce the speed to 30rpm and continue stirring for 20 minutes, then turn off the paddles and lift out
of water
Allow 20 minutes settling time, during this time observe the rate of settling in each container.
After settling for 20 minutes measure the turbidity, pH and conductivity of each sample.
Figure 7: Jar testing (Deakin University 2014)
3.4 Sand filter (Refer to section 2.3- Enhancement of sand filter for more technical
aspect)
Sand filtration experiments were performed on two sand filters with different sand
filter media sizes (river sand sizes 6 and 6.5). Two filtration processes were performed,
which included conventional and direct filtration (refer to section 2.4 for sand filtration
processes) in order to establish which one was the most effective. Initial parameters
of raw water (turbidity, pH, conductivity) were measured. Turbidity was also then
consecutively measured at 5 minute intervals, pH wand conductivity was measured at
30 minute intervals and head loss was measured at 5 minute intervals. Flow rate was
also measured at 30 minute intervals. The filtration method and apparatus is outlined
below.
3.4.1 Apparatus
3.4.3 Operation:
Fill feed tank with desired sample
Start pump and allow columns to fill
Make sure there are no air bubbles within manometers, if there are push water back through
manometers using squeeze water bottle to add water to manometers
Make sure columns are not overflowing at the top
Open valve at base of column and adjust to desired flow rate. Use a measuring cylinder and
stopwatch to calculate flow rate
Mark starting height of water in manometers and mark at set intervals throughout the experiment.
These markings will be used to calculate the head loss of the filter columns. Record height changes
throughout the experiment.
Finally measure parameters of filter permeate.
3.4.3 Backwashing:
Backwash columns to remove contaminants
Disconnect all manometers before backwashing
Connect garden hose to outlet at base of columns
Ensure overflow pipe is running to drain
Slowly run water through hose and allow to flow until sand is swirling within column. Do not apply
too much water pressure as this will cause sand to overflow from column. Continue washing until
water in the top of the column is clear.
Take note of backwash volume.
3.5 Chlorine decay experiments - (Refer to section 2.7- for more technical aspect of
chlorine decay)
AQUASIM software will be the primary means we will use to evaluate water quality
before and after treatment using chlorine decay studies. Before being able to measure
the chlorine decay of a sample you first need to know the demand. The chlorine
demand and decay experimental method and apparatus is outlined below.
3.5.1 Chlorine demand studies:
Take 10 x 100 ml glass bottles, rinse well with demineralized water and wrap in aluminium foil so
that no light can enter the bottle (light will cause the chlorine demand to change faster)
Fill each bottle with 100ml of sample
Add from the 100mg/l Cl2 stock the following volumes of solution;
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 (ml)
Page | 21
Wait 5 minutes between each addition (this time will become important when
You will need 3 x 10ml samples - zero, free and total chlorine.
Dont mix up the cells you use for these as it can result in false high
results due to contamination.
Page | 22
This can get a bit tricky given the 3 minute wait for the total chlorine.
Make sure you note the time the pillow is added. This will give you an
accurate representation of time.
After 30 minutes sample at 15 minute intervals until 2 hours since chlorine addition has
taken place.
After 2 hours has elapsed, sample at hourly intervals.
Sample only until chlorine results reach 0.2mg/l
3.7 AQUASIM Software (Refer to section 2.6- for more technical aspect of chlorine
decay and AQUASIM software)
AQUASIM software will be used to evaluate the water quality before and after
treatment using chlorine decay studies. Reduction in chlorine demand will help to
evaluate the performance of treatment in removing organic compounds and others
that consume chlorine.
Page | 23
Page | 24
Chapter 5.Recommendations
Page | 25
Chapter 6.Conclusions
Page | 26
Rfrencs
1. Weiner, Ruth F, 2003. Environmental engineering. 4th ed. Amsterdam; Boston:
Butterworth-Heinemann.
2. Kumar, Arnab, 2009. Environmental engineering. 1st Ed. New Delhi: New Age
International (P) Ltd., Publishers.
3. Ravenscoft, Peter, 2009. Arsenic Pollution: A Global Synthesis. 1st ed. United Kingdom:
John Wiley & Sons Ltd
4. Liu, David H.F, 2000. Groundwater and Surface Water Pollution. 1st ed. USA: Lewis
Publishers.
5. Shilton, Andy, 2005. Pond Treatment technology. 1st ed. United Kingdom: IWA
Publishing.
6. Logsdon, Gary S, 2008. Pond Treatment technology. 1st ed. United States of America:
American water works association.p.220
7. Erickson, Andrew J, 2013. Optimizing Storm water Treatment Practices: A Handbook of
Assessment and maintenance. 1st ed. United States of America: Springer science and
business media.
8. Graham, Nigel, 1996. Advances in Slow Sand and Alternative Biological Filtration. 1st ed.
United states of America: Wiley Publishers.
9. Graham, Nigel, 1996. Advances in Slow Sand and Alternative Biological Filtration. 1st ed.
United states of America: Wiley Publishers.
10.Cotruvo, Joseph A, 1999. Providing Safe Drinking Water in Small Systems: Technology,
Operations, and economies. 1st ed. Washington D.C: Lewis Publishers.
11.Gimbel, Rolf, 2006. Recent Progress in Slow Sand and Alternative Biofiltration Processes.
1st ed. United Kingdom: IWA Publishing.
12.AECOM + McGarry and Eadie. April 2011. Water Sensitive Urban Design for the Coastal
Dry Tropics (Townsville): Design Objectives for Stormwater Management. Prepared for
Twonsville City Council.
13.Erickson, Andrew J, 2013. Optimizing Stormwater Treatment Practices: A Handbook of
Assessment and Maintenance. 1st ed. New York: Springer Publishers.
14.US EPA.2002. Technologies for upgrading existing or designing new water drinking
water. United States Environmental Protection Agency.
15.Effects of Water Pollution. 2014. Effects of Water Pollution. [ONLINE] Available
at: http://greenliving.lovetoknow.com/Effects_of_Water_Pollution. [Accessed 13 April
2014]
.
Page | 27
32.E. Chang, P.C. Chiang, S.H. Chao, Y.L. Lin, Relationship between chlorine consumption
and chlorination by-products formation for model compounds,Chemosphere 64 (2006)
11961203.
Page | 29